Chapter 3

Cell Structures
and Their
Functions

Dividing Cells

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter, the student will be
able to:

1. Identify and describe the general parts of

the cell and its functions.
2. Illustrate a cell and its parts.
 Cell Organization
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of
life
• Each cell is a highly organized unit (Table 3.1)
– Plasma membrane: forms the outer boundary of the
cell
– Cellular organelles: each performs specific functions
– Nucleus: contains the cell’s genetic material and directs
cell activities
– Cytoplasm: the material between the plasma
membrane and nucleus
Fig. 3.1
 Cell Functions
1. Metabolize and release energy
• chemical reactions that occur within cells
• release of energy in the form of heat helps maintain
body temperature
2. Synthesize molecules
• cells differ from each other because they synthesize
different kinds of molecules
3. Provide a means of communication
• achieved by chemical and electrical signaling
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
• mitosis
• meiosis
 Plasma Membrane
• Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity
– encloses cell
– supports the cell contents
– a selective barrier that regulates what goes into
and out of the cell
– plays a role in communication between cells
• Separates intracellular substances from
extracellular substances
– intracellular: inside cells
– extracellular (intercellular): between cells
 Fluid Mosaic Model
• Lipid bilayer
– double layer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed
proteins
• Bilayer consists mainly of phospholipids and
cholesterol (20%)
– Phospholipids have hydrophobic (nonpolar tails)
and hydrophilic (polar heads) bipoles
– Cholesterol gives the membrane added strength
and flexibility
Fig. 3.2
 Functions of Membrane Proteins
• Protein molecules “float” among the phospholipid
molecules
• Functions
– marker molecules
– attachment proteins
– (cadherins – proteins that attach cells to other cells and
integrins- attach cells to other molecules)
– transport proteins
– receptor proteins
– enzymes
Figure 3.4.2
 Movement Through the Plasma Membrane

• Ions and molecules move across plasma

membranes by
– diffusion
– osmosis
– mediated transport
– vesicular transport
 Diffusion
• The movement of a solute from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
within a solvent
– at equilibrium, there is a uniform distribution of molecules
• Terminology
– Solution: any mixture of liquids, gases, or solids in which
the substances are uniformly distributed with no clear
boundary between the substances
– A solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution
– Concentration gradient: the concentration difference
between two points divided by the distance between
those two points
 Diffusion
1. Lipid-soluble molecules
diffuse directly through the
plasma membrane
2. Most non-lipid-soluble
molecules and ions do not
diffuse through the plasma
membrane
3. Some specific non-lipid-
soluble molecules and ions
pass through membrane
channels or other transport
proteins
Diffusion
 Osmosis
• The diffusion of a solvent (water) across a selectively
permeable membrane via diffusion.
– through a specific channel protein (aquaporin)
– or through the lipid bilayer
• Terminology
– Osmotic pressure: the force required to prevent the movement
of water across a selectively permeable membrane
– Isosmotic solutions: have the same concentration of solute
particles as a reference solution
– Hyperosmotic solutions: have a greater concentration of solute
particles than a reference solution
– Hyposmotic solutions: have a lesser concentration of solute
particles than a reference solution
 Fig. 3.5
O
S
M
O
S
I
S
 Osmotic Concentration of Solutions
Tonicity-is a measure of the solutions ability to change the
volume of cells by altering their water content

a) A hypotonic solution with b) An isotonic solution c) A hypertonic solution,

a low solute
concentration results in
swelling of the RBC
placed into the solution.
Water enters the cell by
osmosis, and the RBC
lyses (bursts).
with a concentration with a high solute
of solutes equal to concentration, causes
that inside the cells shrinkage (crenation)
results in a normal of the RBC as water
shaped RBC. Water moves by osmosis
moves into and out of out of the cell and into
the cell at the same the hypertonic
rate, but there is no solution.
net water movement.
 Osmotic Concentration of Solutions
a) A hypotonic solution with b) An sotonic solution c) A hypertonic solution,
a low solute with a concentration
concentration results in of solutes equal to
swelling of the RBC that inside the cells
placed into the solution. results in a normal
Water enters the cell by shaped RBC. Water
osmosis, and the RBC moves into and out of
lyses (bursts). the cell at the same
rate, but there is no
net water movement.
with a high solute
concentration, causes
shrinkage (crenation)
of the RBC as water
moves by osmosis
out of the cell and into
the hypertonic
solution.
 Osmotic Concentration of Solutions
a) A hypotonic solution with b) An isotonic solution c) A hypertonic solution,
a low solute with a concentration
concentration results in of solutes equal to
swelling of the RBC that inside the cells
placed into the solution. results in a normal
Water enters the cell by shaped RBC. Water
osmosis, and the RBC moves into and out of
lyses (bursts). the cell at the same
rate, but there is no
net water movement.
with a high solute
concentration, causes
shrinkage (crenation)
of the RBC as water
moves by osmosis
out of the cell and into
the hypertonic
solution.
 Osmotic Concentration of Solutions
a) A hypotoinic solution b) An isotonic solution c) A hypertonic solution,
with a low solute with a concentration
concentration results in of solutes equal to
swelling of the RBC that inside the cells
placed into the solution. results in a normal
Water enters the cell by shaped RBC. Water
osmosis, and the RBC moves into and out of
lyses (bursts). the cell at the same
rate, but there is no
net water movement.
with a high solute
concentration, causes
shrinkage (crenation)
of the RBC as water
moves by osmosis
out of the cell and into
the hypertonic
solution.
 Mediated Transport
• Process by which transport proteins mediate, or
assist in, the movement of ions and molecules
across the plasma membrane

• Characteristics
1. Specificity: selectiveness
2. Competition: similar molecules or ions compete for a
transport protein
3. Saturation: rate of transport cannot increase because
all transport proteins are in use
 Mediated Transport
• Types of transport proteins
1. Channel proteins: form membrane channels (ion channels)
2. Carrier proteins: bind to ions or molecules and transport them
– Uniport (facilitated diffusion) moves an ion or molecule down its
concentration gradient
– Symport moves two or more ions or molecules in the same direction
– Antiport moves two or more ions or molecules in opposite directions
3. ATP-powered pumps: move ions or molecules against their
concentration gradient using the energy from ATP
– Secondary active transport uses the energy of one substance moving
down its concentration gradient to move another substance across
the plasma membrane
Facilitated Fig. 3.7

Diffusion
 PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
– energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP changes the
shape of a transporter protein, which pumps
substances across a plasma membrane against its
concentration gradient
Ex. Sodium-Potassium pump or Na+/K+ ATPase
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Energy stored in a Na or K concentration gradient is used
to drive other substances across the membrane against
their concentration gradient (symporters and
antiporters )
 Sodium-Potassium Pump
1. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) bind to the Na+-K+ pump, which is an ATP-
powered pump.
2. The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy. That
energy is used to power a shape change in the Na+-K+
pump. Phosphate remains bound to the Na+-K+-ATP
binding site.
3. The Na+-K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are
transported across the membrane.
4. The Na+ diffuses away from the Na+-K+ pump.
5. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+-K+ pump.
6. The phosphate is released from the Na+-K+ pump
binding site.
7. The Na+-K+ pump resumes its original shape,
transporting K+ across the membrane, and the K+
diffuses away from the pump. The Na+-K+ pump can
again bind to Na+ and ATP.
 Secondary Active Transport
• Symport of Na+ and Glucose
1. A Na+-K+ pump (ATP-powered pump) maintains a concentration of Na+ that is
higher outside the cell than inside.
2. Sodium ions move back into the cell through a carrier protein (symporter)
that also moves glucose. The concentration gradient for Na+ provides energy
required to move glucose against its concentration gradient.

Fig. 3.9
 Vesicular Transport
• Transport of large particles and macromolecules
across plasma membranes
– Endocytosis: the movement of materials into cells by
the formation of a vesicle (small spherical sac )
– Phagocytosis: the movement of solid material into
cells
• Pinocytosis: the uptake of small droplets of liquids and the
materials in them
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis: involves plasma
membrane receptors attaching to molecules that are then
taken into the cell
– Exocytosis: the secretion of materials from cells
by vesicle formation
Phagocytosis

Fig. 3.10
 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
1. Receptors in the plasma
membrane bind to
molecules to be taken
into the cell
2. The receptors and the
bond molecules are
taken into the cell as a
vesicle begins to form
3. The vesicle fuses and
separates from the
plasma membrane
Fig. 3.11
 Exocytosis
1. A secretory vesicle
moves toward the
plasma membrane
2. The membrane of the
secretory vesicle fuses
with the plasma
membrane
3. The secretory vesicle’s
contents are released
into the extracellular
fluid
Fig. 3.12
 Cytoplasm
• The material between the plasma membrane and the
nucleus
– Half cytosol
• Consists of a fluid part (the site of chemical reactions), the cytoskeleton,
and cytoplasmic inclusions
– The cytoskeleton supports the cell and enables cell movements
» Microtubules – provide support, aid in cell division, and are components
of organelles
» Actin filaments – support the plasma membrane and define the shape of
the cell
» Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical support to the cell
– Half organelles
• Cytoplasmic Inclusions are aggregates of chemicals either produced by the
cell or taken in by the cell (lipids, glycogen, hemoglobin, melanin)
Cytoskeleton
Fig. 3.13
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Specialized subcellular structures with specific
functions
• Membranous
– Mitochondria, peroxisomes, lysosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus
• Nonmembranous
– Centrioles and ribosomes
 Nucleus
 The nuclear envelope consists of two separate
membranes with nuclear pores
› Encloses jellylike nucleoplasm, which contains essential
solutes
 DNA and associated proteins are found inside the
nucleus
› DNA is the hereditary material of the cell and controls the
activities of the cell
› Contains the genetic library with blueprints for nearly all
cellular proteins
› Dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized
› Between cell divisions DNA is organized as chromatin
› During cell division chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes consisting of two chromatids connected by a
centromere
Nucleus
Fig. 3.14
 Fig. 3.15

Chromosome
Structure
 Nucleoli and Ribosomes
• Nucleoli: dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus
– Consist of RNA and proteins
– Produces ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
– Site of ribosomal subunit assembly
• Ribosomes: sites of protein synthesis
– Free ribosomes are not attached to any organelles
• synthesize proteins used inside the cell
– Attached ribosomes are part of a network of membranes called
the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• produce proteins that are secreted from the cell
 Production of Ribosomes

Fig.
3.16
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Series of membranes forming flattened sacs and tubules
that extend from the outer nuclear membrane into the
cytoplasm
• Two varieties: rough ER and smooth ER
– Rough ER (RER)
• Studded with ribosomes -Major site of protein synthesis
• Fxn: synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids
– Smooth ER (SER)
• Does not have ribosomes attached
• Major site of lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
– Catalyzes the following reactions in various organs of the body
» Liver: lipid and cholesterol metabolism, breakdown of glycogen and along with the
kidneys, detoxifiy drugs
» Testes: synthesis of steroid-based hormones
» Intestinal cells: absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats
» Skeletal and cardiac muscle: storage and release of calcium
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Fig. 3.17
 Golgi Apparatus
• Series of closely packed membranous sacs that
collect, package, and distribute proteins and lipids
produced by the ER
– Secretory vesicles: small, membrane-bound sacs that
transport material from the golgi apparatus to the exterior
of the cell

Fig. 3.18
 Function of the Golgi Apparatus
1. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on
the surface of the RER and are transferred into
the cisterna as they are produced
2. The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that
forms from the membrane of the ER
3. This transport vesicle moves from the ER to
the Golgi apparatus, fuses with its membrane,
and releases the proteins into its cisterna
4. The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some
cases, modifies the proteins into glycoproteins
or lipoproteins
5. The proteins are packaged into vesicles that
form from the membrane of the Golgi
apparatus
6. Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain
enzymes that are used within the cell
7. Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma
membrane, where the proteins are secreted
from the cell by exocytosis
8. Some vesicles contain proteins that become
part of the plasma membrane
Fig. 3.19
 Lysosomes
• Spherical membranous bags containing digestive
enzymes
– Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
– Degrade nonfunctional organelles
– Breakdown glycogen and release thyroid hormone
– Breakdown non-useful tissue
– Breakdown bone to release Ca2+
– Secretory lysosomes are found in white blood cells,
immune cells, and melanocytes
 Action of Lysosomes
1. A vesicle forms around
material outside the cell
2. The vesicle is pinched off
from the plasma membrane
and becomes a separate
vesicle inside the cell
3. A lysosome is pinched off
the Golgi apparatus
4. The lysosome fuses with
the vesicle Fig. 3.20

5. The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material

in vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material
 Peroxisomes
• Membranous sacs containing oxidases and
catalases
– Breakdown fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
peroxide
– Detoxify harmful or toxic substances
– Neutralize dangerous free radicals
• Free radicals: highly reactive chemicals with unpaired
electrons (i.e., O2–)
 Mitochondria
• The major sites of the
production of ATP (the major
energy source for cells) via
aerobic cellular respiration
• Have a smooth outer
membrane and an inner
membrane that is infolded to
produce cristae
• Contain their own DNA, can
produce some of their own
proteins, and can replicate
independently of the cell

Fig. 3.21
 Centrioles and Spindle Fibers
 Centrioles: cylindrical
organelles located in the
centrosome
› Pinwheel array of nine triplets of
microtubules
› Centrosome: a specialized zone of
the cytoplasm
 the site of microtubule formation
› Microtubules called spindle fibers
extend out in all directions from
the centrosome
 Spindle fibers are involved in the
separation of chromosomes during cell
division
› Form the bases of cilia and flagella
Fig. 3.22
 Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli
• Cilia move substances over the surface of cells
• Flagella are much longer than cilia and propel
sperm cells
• Microvilli increase the surface area of cell and
aid in absorption and secretion
 Cell Division
• Cell division that occurs by mitosis produces
new cells for growth and tissue repair
• Cell division that occurs by meiosis produces
gametes (sex cells).
– Sperm cells in males
– Oocytes (egg cells) in females
 Cell Division
• Chromosomes
– Somatic cells have a diploid number of
chromosomes
– Gametes have a haploid number
– In humans, the diploid number is 46 (23 pairs) and
the haploid number is 23
• Twenty-two pairs of autosomal chromosomes
• One pair of sex chromosomes
– Females XX
– Males XY
• DNA replicates during interphase, the time
between cell division
 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
1. Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA is found as thin
threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA replication occurs during
interphase. Organelles, other than the nucleus, duplicate during
interphase
2. In prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. The
centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell, and the nucleolus
and the nuclear envelope disappear. Microtubules form near the
centrioles and project in all directions. Spindle fibers, project toward
an invisible line called the equator and overlap with fibers from
opposite centrioles.
3. In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the cell in
association with the spindle fibers. Some spindle fibers are attached
to kinetochores in the centromere of each chromosome
4. In anaphase, the chromatids separate, and each chromatid is then
referred to as a chromosome. Thus, the chromosome number is
double, and there are two identical sets of chromosomes. The
chromosomes, assisted by the spindle fibers, move toward the
centrioles at each end of the cell. Separation of the chromatids
signals the beginning of anaphase, and, by the time anaphase has
ended, the chromosomes have reached the poles
5. In telophase, migration of each set of chromosomes is complete. The
chromosomes unravel to become less distinct chromatin threads.
The nuclear envelope forms from the endoplasmic reticulum. The
nucleoli form, and cytokinesis continues to form two cells
6. Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The chromosomes
have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell division has produced two
daughter cells, each with DNA that is identical to the DNA of the
parent cell
Fig. 3.28
 Interphase

1. Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA is found as

thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA replication
occurs during interphase. Organelles, other than the nucleus,
duplicate during interphase

Fig. 3.28
 Prophase

2. In prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes.

The centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell, and the
nucleolus and the nuclear envelope disappear. Microtubules
form near the centrioles and project in all directions. Spindle
fibers, project toward an invisible line called the equator and
overlap with fibers from opposite centrioles.
Fig. 3.28
 Metaphase

3. In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the

cell in association with the spindle fibers. Some spindle
fibers are attached to kinetochores in the centromere of each
chromosome

Fig. 3.28
 Anaphase

4. In anaphase, the chromatids separate, and each chromatid is

then referred to as a chromosome. Thus, the chromosome
number is double, and there are two identical sets of
chromosomes. The chromosomes, assisted by the spindle
fibers, move toward the centrioles at each end of the cell.
Separation of the chromatids signals the beginning of
anaphase, and, by the time anaphase has ended, the
chromosomes have reached the poles

Fig. 3.28
 Telophase and Cytokinesis

5. In telophase, migration of each set of chromosomes is

complete. The chromosomes unravel to become less distinct
chromatin threads. The nuclear envelope forms from the
endoplasmic reticulum. The nucleoli form, and cytokinesis
continues to form two cells

Fig. 3.28
 Mitosis

6. Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The

chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell
division has produced two daughter cells, each with DNA
that is identical to the DNA of the parent cell

Fig. 3.28
 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
1. Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA is found as thin
threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA replication occurs during
interphase. Organelles, other than the nucleus, duplicate during
interphase
2. In prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. The
centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell, and the nucleolus
and the nuclear envelope disappear. Microtubules form near the
centrioles and project in all directions. Spindle fibers, project toward
an invisible line called the equator and overlap with fibers from
opposite centrioles.
3. In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the cell in
association with the spindle fibers. Some spindle fibers are attached
to kinetochores in the centromere of each chromosome
4. In anaphase, the chromatids separate, and each chromatid is then
referred to as a chromosome. Thus, the chromosome number is
double, and there are two identical sets of chromosomes. The
chromosomes, assisted by the spindle fibers, move toward the
centrioles at each end of the cell. Separation of the chromatids
signals the beginning of anaphase, and, by the time anaphase has
ended, the chromosomes have reached the poles
5. In telophase, migration of each set of chromosomes is complete. The
chromosomes unravel to become less distinct chromatin threads.
The nuclear envelope forms from the endoplasmic reticulum. The
nucleoli form, and cytokinesis continues to form two cells
6. Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The chromosomes
have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell division has produced two
daughter cells, each with DNA that is identical to the DNA of the
parent cell
Fig. 3.28
 References
• VanPutte, C., Regan, J., Russo, A., Seeley, R.,
Stephens, T., & Tate, P. (2014). Seeley’s
Anatomy and Physiology (10th ed.). McGraw-
Hill Companies Inc.