PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING

4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

MODULE NUMBER 1

MODULE TITLE PHILOSOPHY AND LOGIC

AUTHOR WILLIAM PAUL BALEDA

OPENING PRAYER A STUDENT’S PRAYER BY ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

Come, Holy Spirit, Divine Creator, true source of light and fountain of
wisdom! Pour forth your brilliance upon my dense intellect, dissipate the
darkness which covers me, that of sin and of ignorance. Grant me a
penetrating mind to understand, a retentive memory, method and ease in
learning, the lucidity to comprehend, and abundant grace in expressing
myself. Guide the beginning of my work, direct its progress, and bring it to
successful completion. This I ask through Jesus Christ, true God and true
man, living and reigning with You and the Father, forever and ever. Amen.

MODULE INTRODUCTION AND FOCUS QUESTION/S

From the American Association of Philosophy

Philosophy is quite unlike any other field. It is unique both in its methods and in the nature and
breadth of its subject matter. Philosophy pursues questions in every dimension of human life,
and its techniques apply to problems in any field of study or endeavor. No brief definition
expresses the richness and variety of philosophy. It may be described in many ways. It is a
reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest for understanding, a study of principles of
conduct. It seeks to establish standards of evidence, to provide rational methods of resolving
conflicts, and to create techniques for evaluating ideas and arguments. Philosophy develops the
capacity to see the world from the perspective of other individuals and other cultures; it
enhances one's ability to perceive the relationships among the various fields of study; and it
deepens one's sense of the meaning and variety of human experience.

This short description of philosophy could be greatly expanded, but let us instead illustrate some
of the points. As the systematic study of ideas and issues, philosophy may examine concepts
and views drawn from science, art, religion, politics, or any other realm. Philosophical appraisal
of ideas and issues takes many forms, but philosophical studies often focus on the meaning of
an idea and on its basis, coherence, and relations to other ideas. Consider, for instance,
democracy. What is it? What justifies it as a system of government? Can a democracy allow the
people to vote away their own rights? And how is it related to political liberty? Consider human
knowledge. What is its nature and extent? Must we always have evidence in order to know?
What can we know about the thoughts and feelings of others, or about the future? What kind of
knowledge, if any, is fundamental? Similar kinds of questions arise concerning art, morality,
religion, science, and each of the major areas of human activity. Philosophy explores all of them.
It views them both microscopically and from the wide perspective of the larger concerns of
human existence.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

Class Mode General Instructions

Online Class Please enroll in classroom.google.com (GE8)
Perform the designated activity
Use the learning materials uploaded in performing
the activity
Submit the output as directed
The entire module is self-paced
Off-Site Class The learning material/s will be sent to your home
thru a courier
Follow the instructions as provided in the material
Take note of the schedule and place of submission
as provided
The entire module is self-paced

MODULE LESSONS AND THEIR CORRESPONDING COVERAGE

LESSON SUBTOPIC LEARNING OUTCOME TIME

“I should be able to…” ALLOTTED
1.1 Philosophy Define philosophy as science and 1.0 Hour
method.
Explain the branches of
philosophy.
Present and articulate the method,
object, Goal, and Misconceptions
about philosophy
1.2 Logic Define logic 1.0 Hour
Demonstrate logic as a tool in
reasoning.
1.3 Soundness and Apply the basic principles of 2.0 Hours
Validity soundness and validity
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

STUDY

Hook

Activity 1:
Access the materials found below. Please choose one category (videos, articles, or creative
work) for your Process Questions.

(Videos)
1. What is Philosophy? Crash Course Philosophy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1A_CAkYt3GY
2. What is Logic? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPfw422Wcso
3. Branches of Philosophy: Logic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVgVz175Rdw

Process Questions:

1. What are your impressions of these videos/films/books and/or articles?

- The video of Crash course helps me to understand what Philosophy is. Understanding the
world we live and surrounds us, and sometimes our own existence.

2. What is the main point of the videos/films/books and/or articles?

- Philosophy is all around us, we question about what we see, observe or maybe out of our
curiosity. We people seek for truth but there are times that we can’t find certain answers to it.

3. What personal principles you have that can be related to the main points of these
videos/films/books and/or articles?
- Happiness comes from within
- Keep discovering and live my purpose
- I’m open to changing my mind when there is a new perspectives.
- I question my own decision If it is right or wrong. But I sometimes like to give it a try.
- Observing and questioning what surrounds me or what is happening in my life. But at the
end of those times, I end up appreciating and being grateful for what I have.

You are not expected to share your thoughts yet. Just ponder on the message of these
materials.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

Activity 2:

Hi there! As you go through this module, I hope you will learn not only about the subject but also
about yourself. On top of that I honestly hope you will enjoy learning and participating in the
exercises. Feel free to send your questions if you are having a hard time understanding the
lessons. Now, let’s start!

Below is a short exercise to gauge how familiar you are with the subject. There are no wrong
answers as long as it came from your own mind. Feel free to write what you think is correct.

Cogito Ergo Sum

(I think therefore I am.)
-Rene Descartes

1. What do you think the phrase above means?

- As what I had remember it means “I am thinking, therefore I am existing”

2. Do you think your understanding of the phrase above is correct? Why?

- Yes, because this is the realization of Rene Descartes when he had a thought of uncertainty
and doubt.

3. Can you try to explain how thinking is done (step by step).

Step 1: Identifying the issue.
Step 2: Collect and organize information that you have regarding the issue.
Step 3: Check and know If it your source of information is reliable.
Step 4: Decide if which is relevant related to your issue.
Step 5: Evaluate your decision.
Step 6: Decide if what will be your conclusion to your decision.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

RESEARCH

DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY
- The term philosophy was coined by Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher who noted that
there are three types of man: a lover of pleasure, a lover of success and a lover of
wisdom.
- Greek Philia (love or friend) and Sophia (wisdom), literally love of wisdom

- Scientia rerum per causas primas sub lumine rationis naturalis.

The science of all things by their first causes as known in light of natural
reason.

a. Philosophy as Science

- Latin verb Scire (to know)

- Science is knowledge of causes of things. The “why” of things and not merely the
“what”.
- Certitude is the natural result of knowing not only the facts but also their causes.

b. Philosophy as the Science of All things

- Philosophy deals with all intellectual endeavors; with concrete, real, contingent
things.

c. Philosophy as Known in light of natural reason

- Philosophy seeks the first causes of things as far as they can be rationally
established by the human mind unaided by Divine Revelation
- A philosopher uses his power of logic, reason, perception and interpretation in order
to make a more qualified judgment about making the leap of faith in a given direction.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

METAPHYSICS-is the study of reality (beings and Being). What is the ultimate
reality?
EPISTEMOLOGY- is the study of validity of human knowledge. What is
knowledge?
ETHICS- is the study of the morality of human act. What is right and wrong?
LOGIC- is the study of correct reasoning. What makes an argument valid or
invalid?
COSMOLOGY- is the science of the universe. What are space and time?
THEODICY- is a philosophical study of God. Does God exist?

METHOD OF PHILOSOPHY
- Philosophy accomplishes knowledge of the world by means of human reason.

OBJECT AND GOAL OF PHILOSOPHY

- Philosophy searches for the TRUTH, the transcendental truth. It is a universal
science. It searches for a truth that applies to all people at all times.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT PHILOSOPHY

1. Philosophy makes no progress.

“Stop philosophizing. I don’t want to waste my time!”

Argument: People think that when one engages in Philosophy, one simply wastes his
time. Philosophers argue: What is truth? What is moral and immoral? Yet these
questions are still being debated today, then there has been no philosophical progress at
all.

Response: Philosophers’ debate is not a waste of time and that it makes progress.
Philosophers clarify the issues and highlight useful techniques for pursing the topics.
Philosophy provides better appreciation of subtlety and complexity of the issues with
which philosophers are struggling.

2. Philosophers disagree with one another.

Argument: In every period, philosophers have challenged their predecessors’

arguments. They disagreed about many of the answers given to their questions. They
have also often been unable to agree among themselves about the nature of philosophy.

Response: Philosophers tend to be interested in issues about which there is little

consensus. Philosophers direct their attention to areas in which there is disagreement.

3. Philosophical commitment is subjective.

Philosophy is just a matter of personal opinion, where one idea is as good as any other.

Argument: Philosophy is subjective.

Response: All theories, whether religious, political, scientific, or philosophical are

essentially determined by the evidence.

4. Philosophy deals only with abstraction, not with anything of practical value.
Philosophy is remote from reality.

Argument: The subject of philosophy is intricately difficult and boringly abstract.

PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

Response: Philosophy cannot increase our salary, it can enlarge and deepen our
understanding of life, making us choose what is more important in life, nurturing our
personal subjectivity.

LOGIC: A TOOL OF PHILOSOPHY

- LOGIC is defined as the science of correct reasoning. As a science, it is a body of

information concerning the different relations that arise in our mind when it
knows things. Man is naturally ordered to correct thinking (natural logic) but he
has a special need of scientific logic which is a systematic and an ordered way of
reasoning in order to examine his thought processes in difficult or controversial
cases.
- Logic merely facilitates the organizing of our ideas, expressing them with more
accuracy and drawing from them some legitimate conclusions.

FORMAL AND MATERIAL LOGIC

- Formal Logic – also called Symbolic Logic, concerns itself primarily with the
correctness rather than the truth of a logical process, the form of the logical process,
without focusing on the material content of the argument. To reason correctly is not
necessarily the same as to reason truthfully. Symbolic Logic emphasize precise
symbolic representation of logical, the study of the abstract relationships between
these concepts, and the systematization of these relationships. (You will understand
this better next chapter, Soundness and Validity)

- Material Logic – concerned with the truth of the material content. It considers the
correspondence of the thought-contents with reality, a correspondence between the
logical and real order. Informal Logic or Critical thinking focus on the application of
logical concepts to the analysis of everyday reasoning and problem-solving.
DIVISION OF LOGIC
- Logic is divided according to the three basic operations of human thought: simple
apprehension, judgment and reasoning.

- Simple Apprehension is the act by which the intellect grasps the essence of
something (apprehension because it lays hold of the thing mentally: simple because
the intellect merely takes the thing in without any affirmation or denial about it.)

- Judgment is a mental operation that pronounces the identity or non-identity between

two ideas.

- Reasoning is a mental act that proceeds from the previously known truth to a new
truth.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

ANALYSIS

Now that you have read what logic means, let us try some exercises.

Check like if you agree or unlike if you disagree. Then, post your
comments.

ACTIVITY 3

✓ Like

_______Unlike
Comment: I agree, I talk to myself most of the
times and it helps me to organize and clear
what is inside my head.

✓ Like

_______Unlike

Comment: When you are ignorant, you

simply not know something. But if you have
false knowledge, you know something but is
not true. This might mislead you and affects
your decision in life.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

• Legazpi Thomasians are ✓ Like

excellent.
• You are a Legazpi
Thomasian. _______Unlike
• Therefore, you are Comment: Syllogism is well use.
excellent.

✓ Like

_______Unlike
Comment: A toxic double standard mentality
of some Filipino.

✓ Like

_______Unlike

Comment: Very literal with the date, well at

least he knows when is Valentine’s day.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

SOUNDNESS AND VALIDITY

ACTIVITY 4

I hope you are having a good grasp of our subject. Now you are going
to understand two important aspects of logic that are key to achieving
the main purpose of this course, that is logical thinking. Let’s start
with some exercises.

ACTIVITY C
Below are examples of syllogisms. Analyze and try to answer the guide questions.

Syllogism A
Syllogism B
 All senators in this country must be a  All senators in this country must be a
Filipino Citizen. Filipino citizen.
 Lito Lapid is a senator.  Lito Lapid is a Filipino Citizen.
 Hence, Lito Lapid is a Filipino  Hence, Lito Lapid is a senator.
Citizen.

1. Which of the two syllogisms do you prefer 2. Can you explain the difference between
to be more truthful? Why? the two syllogisms?
- Syllogism A, because of its conclusion. - Syllogism B might misunderstood by , not
all Filipino citizen are senators.

Syllogism C

 Musicians are guitarists

 Violinists are guitarists
 Hence, violinists are musicians

Can you identify whether there is something wrong in the syllogism? Why?
- the two premisses are false while the conclusion is true. Not all musicians are guitarist, and
violinist and guitarist are different. The conclusion lead to a fact.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

Valid and Sound Arguments

The Nature of an Argument

- An argument is an inferential thinking composed of conclusion and premise(s) from

which the conclusion is inferred.

- The conclusion is inferred from the two premises. Thus every argument is composed of
a conclusion and one or more premises from which the conclusion is deduced.
- Arguments can be of two kinds: inductive and deductive

Deductive – Necessary inference

- Can be considered as valid or invalid.
- Validity is a property of deductive arguments, which are sets of statements.
- Is generally past or present-oriented and its premises are assumed to be true. It draws
from general information then extracts a specific conclusion which proves the past or
present truth.

Example: All drug-dependents are mentally deranged people, and Louie is drug
dependent. Therefore, Louie is mentally deranged.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

Inductive – Probable inference

- Described as “strong or acceptable” but never as valid or sound.
- Is generally future-oriented. It first gathers specific information, then draws a general
conclusion which predicts what the future can be.

Example: Five thousand drug addicts tested are criminals. Therefore, I predict that in the
future if you find a drug addict he is sure to be a criminal. This conclusion can be proven
false if we find one contrary example.

VALID AND INVALID ARGUMENTS

- Validity in Logic is a technical term that applies only to the reasoning of arguments, not
to the premises or conclusion. Hence, propositions are referred to as true or false.
Arguments are referred to as valid or invalid.

- A deductive argument is valid when the conclusion is true because of the true premises.
In a valid argument, it is logically impossible that the premises of an argument are true
and the conclusion false.

- Validity has a hypothetical nature, the conclusion is true only when the premises
are.

Various combinations of Arguments

- The conclusion is true but this fact does not follow from the claim of the premises.

a. True premises, True conclusion

1. Invalid: Violinist are musicians.

Unsound Mozart is a musician.
Mozart is a violinist
b. False premises, True conclusion

2. Valid: Dogs are artists.

Unsound Painters are dogs.
Painters are artists.

- If the two premises are true, then conclusion logically follows. That makes the argument
valid.

3. Invalid: Musicians are guitarists

Unsound Violinists are guitarists
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

Violinists are musicians

- From false premises, you can derive a true conclusion by accident and not by logical
connection.

c. False Premises, False conclusion

4. Valid: Dogs are birds.

Unsound Cats are dogs.
Cats are birds.

- Although the two premises of this argument are false, this is a valid argument
hypothetically.

5. Invalid: Dogs are birds.

Unsound Cats are birds.
Cats are dogs.

- If we use invalid reasoning, we are not guaranteed a true conclusion; likewise, having
true premises does not guarantee a true conclusion in invalid reasoning.

- Valid arguments preserve truth; they don’t guarantee truth unless the premises
are true.
PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LOGIC

1. True premises do not guarantee validity. (1 and 2)

2. A true conclusion does not guarantee validity. (2 and 5)

3. True premises and a true conclusion together do not guarantee validity. (2)

4. Valid inference does not guarantee a true conclusion. (6)

5. False premises do not guarantee invalidity. (4 and 6)

6. A false conclusion does not guarantee invalidity.(6)

7. False premises and a false conclusion together do not guarantee invalidity. (6)

8. Invalid reasoning does not guarantee a false conclusion. (2 and 7)

PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

-Validity has to do with the logical connection between premises and conclusion, not with the
actual truth or falsity of the premises. It is not necessarily a sound argument for if at least one of
the premises is false, one does not have the guarantee that the conclusion is true.
- A sound argument is one that is both valid and has true premises; all others are unsound.

Proposition True
False
Sound
Valid
Unsound
Deductive Argument
Invalid

Sound argument = Valid argument + all true premises

PHILO 101: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
4BSN1 - NOCEDO, JOZAMAE C.

How is our lessons so far? I hope you find this topic easy. To master
this topic, below is an exercise.
Construct two examples of each of the following:
ACTIVITY 5

1. Valid argument with all false premises and a true conclusion.

A. The moon is made of green cheese.
All things made of green cheese orbit the Earth.
Thus, the moon orbits the Earth.

B. Doctors are nurses.

Nurses are surgeons.
Therefore, surgeons are doctors

2. Valid argument with all false premises and a false conclusion.

A. Dogs are cats
Cats are snakes
Therefore, snakes are dogs

B. Rodrigo Duterte is a robot.

If Rodrigo Duterte is a robot then he isn’t the president.
Thus, Duterte isn’t president.

3. Valid argument with all true premises and a true conclusion.

A. All mammals have lungs.
All whales are mammals.
Therefore, all whales have lungs.

B. Nurses are health workers.

Nightingale is a nurse.
Therefore, Nightingale is a health workers.

4. Invalid argument with all true premises and true conclusion

A. Doctors are health workers.
Nightingale is a health worker.
Therefore, Nightingale is a doctor.

B. All wines are beverages.

Chardonnay is a beverage.
Therefore, chardonnay is a wine
 PHILO 101 – INTRODUCTION
TO CRITICAL THINKING

ACTIVITY 6
To take this lesson further, identify the following arguments whether each
are valid or invalid and try to explain why.

1. Some girls are single.

Some girls are sad.
Therefore, some girls are single and sad.

______Valid ✓ Invalid.

Reason: The premises are possibly true. But in the conclusion, those girls who are single
might not be the same as those girls who are sad.

2. If he leaves you, he doesn’t love you anymore.

He doesn’t love you anymore.
So, he will leave you.

✓ Valid Invalid.

Reason: The logic connection between the premises and conclusion connects.

3. Some handsome men have girlfriends.

Peter is handsome.
Therefore, Peter has a girlfriend.

____Valid ✓ Invalid.

Reason: In the conclusion, doesn’t mean Peter is handsome means he have a girlfriend.
 PHILO 101 – INTRODUCTION
TO CRITICAL THINKING

CLOSING PRAYER DOMINICAN BLESSING PRAYER

May God the Father Bless Us.

May God the Son Heal Us.
May God the Holy Spirit Enlighten Us,
And Give Us

Eyes To See With,

Ears To Hear With,
Hands To The Work of God With,
Feet To Walk With,
A Mouth To Preach The Word Of Salvation With,
And The Angel Of Peace To Watch Over Us And Lead Us
At Last,

By Our Lord’s Gift, To The Kingdom.

Amen.