Gearing Basic（5）

5．Tooth Reactions
 5.1 Tangential Force
 5.2 Modeling Spur-Tooth Reactions
 5.3 Modeling Helical-Tooth Reactions

Nominal Tangential Force

The N.T.F should be defined on
the O.P.C, but is defined on the operating pitch circle
reference circle in ISO 6336.
Fwt cosαt
Fwt
Ft
=
cosαwt kinematic equivalency
dw2
ω2
gear pair
ω1

dw1

friction drive
with two disks
operating pitch circle

Fig. kinematic equivalency

2T P 60ωi d ω Fwt : ⎡⎣ N ⎤⎦ T : ⎡⎣ N ⋅m ⎤⎦ n : ⎡⎢ min−1 ⎤⎥

⎣ ⎦
Fwt = i
d wi
Ti =
ωi
ni =
2π
vw = wi i
2
(i = 1,2)
vw : ⎡⎣ m/s⎤⎦ P : ⎡⎣ W ⎤⎦ ω : ⎡⎣ rad/s⎤⎦ d w : ⎡⎣ m ⎤⎦
Modeling Action of Forces（2D）

Fig. Modeling the action of forces(*)

(*) J.L. Meriam, et. al., Engineering Mechanics DYNAMICS, 7th ed., 2013, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Modeling Spur-Tooth Reactions

dw1
nominal tangential force
db1
αwt specifying load capacity
of gear pair

nominal tangential force

Fwt
modeled force
Fbt exerted on teeth
no engineering Fr
meanings
normal force to tooth profile =
dw2 tangential force on base circle
αwt

db2 used as
bearing force
Fig. Tooth reactions (spur gear pair)
 Modeling Helical-Tooth Reactions

on transverse plane
plane of action
Fbt Fr
no engineering
meanings αwt
Fwt
Fr
βb thrust
radial load Fbt
Fa
on plane of action
Fbn
nominal tan- base cylinder

gear axis
Fwt αwt
gential force
modeled force exerted on teeth Fbt
βb
= normal tangential force on B.C.

co
βb

nt
ac
operating
used as

t li
pitch cylinder Fbn Fa
bearing force

ne
Fig. Tooth reactions (helical gear pair)

Force Relations

on transverse plane Fwt ⎫⎪ Ft ⎫⎪

Fbt = ⎪⎪ Fbt = ⎪⎪
Fbt Fr cosαwt ⎪⎪ cosαt ⎪⎪
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪
Fwt ⎪⎪ Ft ⎪⎪
αwt Fbn = ⎬ Fbn = ⎬
Fwt cos βb cosαwt ⎪⎪ cos βb cosαt ⎪⎪
⎪ ⎪⎪
tan βb ⎪⎪⎪ tan βb ⎪⎪
Fa = Fwt ⎪ Fa = Ft ⎪⎪
on plane of action cosαwt ⎪⎪⎭ cosαt ⎪⎭
gear axis

Fbt for spur gear ( βb = 0 )

βb
co

βb
nt
ac

Fwt Ft ⎫⎪⎪
t li

Fbn Fa Fbt = Fbn = = ⎪

ne

cosαwt cosαt ⎪⎬
⎪⎪
Fa = 0 ⎪⎪
Fwt Ft ⎪⎭
=
cosαwt cosαt
 Summary

This chapter has introduced the following:

1. tangential force with transmitted
torque, rotation speed, and tangential
velocity
2. spur and helical tooth-reaction
models

Gearing Basic（6）

6．Gear Failures
 6.1 Tooth Breakage
 6.2 Pitting
 6.3 Miscellaneous
 Photoelastic Image

contact stress

tooth root stress

Fig. Photoelastic study of two mating teeth(*)

(*) Lester E. Alban, Systematic Analysis of Gear Failures, 1985, American Society for Metals

ISO 10825:1995(*)
Gears ー Wear and Damage to Gear Teeth ー Terminology
1 Indications of surface disturbances 4 Surface fatigue phenomena
 1.1 Sliding wear  4.1 Pitting
 1.1.1 Normal wear (Running-in wear)  4.1.1 Initial pitting
  1.1.1.1 Moderate wear  4.1.2 Progressive pitting
  1.1.1.2 Polishing  4.1.3 Micropitting
 1.1.2 Abrasive wear  4.2 Flake pitting
 1.1.3 Excessive wear  4.3 Spalling
 1.1.4 Moderate scratching (Scoring)  4.4 Case crushing
 1.1.5 Severe scratching 5 Fissures and cracks
 1.1.6 Interference wear  5.1 Hardening cracks (Quench cracks)
 1.2 Corrosion  5.2 Grinding cracks
 1.2.1 Chemical corrosion  5.3 Fatigue cracks
 1.2.2 Fretting corrosion 6 Tooth breakage
 1.2.3 Scaling  6.1 Overload breakage
 1.3 Overheating  6.1.1 Brittle fracture
 1.4 Erosion  6.1.2 Ductile fracture
 1.4.1 Cavitation erosion  6.1.3 Semi-brittle fracture
 1.4.2 Hydraulic erosion  6.2 Tooth shear
 1.5 Electric erosion  6.3 Breakage after plastic deformation
2 Scuffing       (Smeared fracture)
3 Permanet deformations  6.4 Fatigue breakage
 3.1 Indentation  6.4.1 Bending fatigue
 3.2 Plastic deformation  6.4.2 Tooth end breakage
 3.2.1 Plastic deformation by rolling
 3.2.2 Plastic deformation by tooth hammer
 3.3 Rippling
 3.4 Ridging
 3.5 Burrs (*) ISO 10825:1995
 ISO 10825（WD(*)）
Gears ー Wear and Damage to Gear Teeth ー Terminology
4 Tribological damages (non-fatigue)   5.2.4 Case crushing (Subcase fatigue)  7.12 Burr
 4.1 General   5.2.5 White layer flaking  7.13 Interference deformation
 4.2 Polishing   5.2.6 Tooth Flank Fracture (TFF) 8 Manufacturing problems
  4.2.1 Mild polishing      (subsurface initiated bending fatigue)  8.1 Hardening cracks
  4.2.2 Moderate polishing   5.2.7 Tooth interior fatigue fracture, TIFF  8.2 Grinding cracks
  4.2.3 Severe polishing  5.3 Bending fatigue  8.3 Grinding burn
 4.3 Scratches   5.3.1 Tooth root fatigue fracture     (temper due to grinding)
 4.4 Abrasive wear   5.3.2 Rim web and hub cracks  8.4 Grinding notch
  4.4.1 General 6 Non-fatigue Fracture     [not a failure mode]
  4.4.2 Mild abrasion  6.1 General  8.5 Scaling
  4.4.3 Moderate abrasion   6.1.1 Fracture types  8.6 Case/core separation
  4.4.4 Severe abrasion   6.1.2 Brittle fracture 9 Other surface damage
 4.5 Scuffing   6.1.3 Ductile fracture  9.1 Corrosion
  4.5.1 General   6.1.4 Mixed mode fracture  9.2 Cavitation
  4.5.2 Mild scuffing  6.2 Tooth root rupture  9.3 Erosion
  4.5.3 Moderate scuffing  6.3 Tooth end rupture  9.4 Electric discharge
  4.5.4 Severe scuffing  6.4 Tooth shear fracture  9.5 Overheating
 4.6 Adhesive wear 7 Plastic deformation
  4.6.1 Mild adhesion  7.1 General
  4.6.2 Moderate adhesion  7.2 Indentation
 4.7 Fretting corrosion  7.3 Brinelling
 4.8 Interference wear  7.4 Cold flow
5 Fatigue damage  7.5 Hot flow
 5.1 Fatigue cracks  7.6 Root fillet yielding
5.2 Contact fatigue  7.7 Fracture after plastic deformation
  5.2.1 General  7.8 Rolling
  5.2.2 Micropitting  7.9 Tooth hammer
  5.2.3 Macropitting  7.10 Rippling (*) ISO / TC60 / SC1 / WG4 N43, ISO 10825 draft - 2018 May

JSME Ency. Gear Failures(*)

目 次

歯 車 損 傷 図 鑑  4.1 アブレシブ摩耗 (Abrasive wear) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 90

 4.2 凝着摩耗 (Adhesive wear) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 98
 4.3 摩滅 (Wear out) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 110
目 次 ５．スカッフィング (Scuffing) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 113
 5.1 高温スカッフィング (Hot scuffing) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 113
０．序論 ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 1
 5.2 低温スカッフィング (Cold scuffing) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 125
 0.1 歯車の損傷について ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 1
６．永久変形 (Permanent deformations) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 129
 0.2 図鑑の使い方 ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 2
 6.1 圧痕 (Indentation) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 129
 0.3 図鑑作成の経緯 ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 2
 6.2 塑性変形 (Plastic deformation) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 131
１．運転前欠陥 (Failure due to gear production and material) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 5
  6.2.1 ローリングによる塑性変形 (Plastic deformation by rolling) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 131
 1.1 仕上げ歯面の加工不良 (Malfinishing of tooth flank) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 5
  6.2.2 歯打ちによる塑性変形 (Plastic deformation by tooth hammering) ・・・・・・・・・・ 133
 1.2 研削焼け (Grinding burn) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 6
  6.2.3 歯の倒れ (Plastic leaning deformation of tooth) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 134
 1.3 研削割れ (Grinding cracks) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 7
  6.2.4 ピットの発生による歯面の圧壊 (Flank crush due to pitting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 135
 1.4 熱処理欠陥 (Defects by heat treatment) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 11
 6.3 リップリング (Rippling) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 136
  1.4.1 焼割れ (Hardening cracks, Quenching cracks) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 11
 6.4 リッジング (Ridging) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 140
  1.4.2 残留応力異常 (Abnormal residual stress) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 12
 6.5 バリ (Burrs) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 142
  1.4.3 窒化化合物層の剥離 (Peeling off of nitrided layer) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 14
 6.6 溶融 (Fusion,Melting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 144
 1.5 材料欠陥 (Material defect) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 16
 6.7 異物のかみ込み損傷 (Foreign objective damage) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 148
 1.6 加工によるバリ (Machining burr) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 16
 6.8 乗り上げ (Tooth on tooth jamming) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 153
２．正常摩耗 (Normal wear, Running-in wear) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 17
７．表面疲労 (Surface fatigue phenomena) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 155
 2.1 軽度の摩耗 (Moderate wear) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 17
 7.1 ピッチング (Pitting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 156
 2.2 ポリッシング (Polishing) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 22
  7.1.1 進行性ピッチング (Progressive pitting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 167
３．損傷の兆候 (Indication of failure) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 25
  7.1.2 ローラ試験機によるピッチングの観察 (Observation of pitting on disk machine) ・・・・ 172
 3.1 歯面損傷 (Tooth flank failure) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 25
 7.2 マイクロピッチング (Micropitting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 177
  3.1.01 スクラッチング (Scratching) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 25
 7.3 フレーキング (Flaking, Flake pitting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 188
  3.1.02 干渉摩耗 (Interference wear) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 31
 7.4 スポーリング (Spalling) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 192
   3.1.02.1 トロコイド干渉摩耗 (Trochoidal interference wear) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 31
 7.5 ケースクラッシング (Case crushing) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 208
   3.1.02.2 背面干渉摩耗 (Non-backlash interference wear) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 35
８．折損 (Tooth breakage) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 211
  3.1.03 初期ピッチング (Initial pitting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 35
 8.1 過負荷折損 (Overload breakage) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 213
  3.1.04 マイクロピッチングの初期状態 (Initial micropitting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 38
  8.1.1 脆性破壊 (Brittle fracture) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 213
  3.1.05 接触端部ピット (Edge-contact pitting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 47
  8.1.2 延性破壊 (Ductile fracture) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 218
  3.1.06 マイクロチッピング (Microchipping) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 50
  8.1.3 半脆性破壊 (Semi-brittle fracture) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 220
  3.1.07 化学腐食 (Chemical corrosion) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 52
 8.2 剪断折損 (Tooth shear) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 221
  3.1.08 フレッチングコロージョン (Fretting corrosion) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 58
 8.3 塑性流動破断 (Breakage after plastic deformation, Smeared fracture) ・・・・・・・・・・・ 225
  3.1.09 スケーリング (Scaling) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 61
 8.4 疲労折損 (Fatigue breakage) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 226
  3.1.10 焼け (Burning) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 62
  8.4.1 歯元曲げ疲労 (Bending fatigue) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 226
  3.1.11 キャビテーションエロージョン (Cavitation erosion) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 64
  8.4.2 表面疲労起点折損 (Breakage from surface fatigue) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 238
  3.1.12 流体エロージョン (Hydraulic erosion) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 66
  8.4.3 材料欠陥起点折損 (Breakage from material defects) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 240
  3.1.13 電食 (Electric erosion) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 67
  8.4.4 歯底・リム折損 (Rim breakage, Breakage from the center of tooth bottom space) ・・・ 243
  3.1.14 熱割れ (Thermal cracks, Heat cracks) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 73
  8.4.5 キャップオフ損傷 (Cap-off failure) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 246
 3.2 亀裂 (Fissures and cracks) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 74
  8.4.6 チッピング起点折損 (Breakage from chipping) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 252
  3.2.1 歯元疲労亀裂 (Fatigue cracks at tooth fillet) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 74
  8.4.7 端部折損 (Tooth end breakage) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 255
  3.2.2 ピッチ点付近疲労亀裂 (Fatigue cracks in pitch line zone) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 77
  8.4.8 じん性不足部折損 (Shock breakage) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 256
  3.2.3 ピッチング起点疲労亀裂 (Fatigue cracks from pitting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 79
  8.4.9 過大な残留応力に起因する折損 (Breakage caused by abnormal residual stress) ・・・・ 259
  3.2.4 スポーリング起点疲労亀裂 (Fatigue cracks from spalling) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 80
９．歯車本体・軸の損傷 (Failure of gear body and shaft) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 263
  3.2.5 フレッチング起点亀裂 (Fatigue cracks from fretting) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 81
 9.1 リムやウェブの亀裂 (Rim and web cracks) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 263
  3.2.6 材料欠陥起点疲労亀裂 (Fatigue cracks from material defects) ・・・・・・・・・・・・ 84
 9.2 軸の折損 (Shaft breakage) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 266
 3.3 欠け (Chipping) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 85
１０．索引 ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 269
４．摩耗 (Wear) ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 89
(i) (ii)

(*) 日本機械学会，歯車損傷図鑑，2006，丸善．
 Bending fatigue(*)

Almost all area of fracture

surface seems to be fatigue
one so that the stress could
slightly exceed the fatigue
limit.

Beachmark can be observed.

Fracture initiated at ○.

(*) 日本機械学会，歯車損傷図鑑，2006，丸善．

Pitting(*)

Pits generally develop in the deddendum flank.

The number of pits could increase but the area
of a pit never increases.

Fracture initiated at ○.

pitch point

(*) 日本機械学会，歯車損傷図鑑，2006，丸善．
 Miscellaneous

Intended edge contact caused micropitting.

Insufficient lubricants
induced scuffing.

Fig. Hot scuffing（*）

Fig. Micropitting（**）

(*) 日本機械学会，歯車損傷図鑑，2006，丸善．
(**) 日本機械学会，RC251 最終報告書，2013．

Summary

This chapter has introduced the following

failure modes of gearing:
1. bending fatigue breakage
2. pitting
3. scuffing and micro pitting
You should remember such the case that
the origin may be of one mode, the
progression of a second mode, and the
final fracture of a third mode.
 Gearing Basic（7）

7．Tooth Root Stress Calculations

 7.1 Tooth root critical section
 7.2 Worst load condition
 7.3 Tooth form factor
 7.4 Tooth root stress

Cantilever Model

Where is the critical section?

Where is the worst loading point?

tooth root stress

Fig. Photoelastic image(*)

The beam contour for constant

strength is a parabola.
↓
the critical section: (a)ー(a)
(Wilfred Lewis, 1892)

（**）

(*) Lester E. Alban, Systematic Analysis of Gear Failures, 1985, American Society for Metals
(**) Darle W. Dudley, Handbook of Practical Gear Design, 1984, McGraw-Hill Book Company
 Critical Section

Fig. Photoelastic image（*）

Fig. 30 -Tangent(*)
(Hermann Hofer, 1947)

(*) G. Niemann, H. Winter, Maschinen-elemente Band II, Zweite Auflage, 1989, Springer-Verlag
（**） (**) Darle W. Dudley, Handbook of Practical Gear Design, 1984, McGraw-Hill Book Company

Worst Loading Point

The tip load condition is not the most critical.

spur gear model

（*）

(*) Darle W. Dudley, Handbook of Practical Gear Design, 1984, McGraw-Hill Book Company
 Virtual Spur Gear

The virtual gear is a spur gear which has a number of teeth

generated on the surface of a cylinder having a radius
equal to the radius of curvature at a point at the tip of the
minor axis of an ellipse obtained by taking a section of the
gear in the normal plane.

normal plane d
plane of action dn =
β
cos 2 β
transverse plane z mn 1
Fbn =
cos β cos 2 β
z mn
= = z n mn
ellipse reference cylinder cos3 β

virtual number of
ρ = d / 2 cos2β teeth
z
in ISO 6336-3 zn =
z cos3 β
zn = 2
cos βb cos β

Bending Stress σb
Fbn Note: In ISO 6336-3, YF is defined
as follows:
M αFen 6h Fe
cosαFen
σb = YF =
mm
Z ⎛ s ⎞⎟
2
⎜⎜ Fn ⎟ cosα
⎜⎜⎝ m ⎟⎟⎠ n
n
hFe

⎫⎪
M = ( Fbn cosαFen ) ⋅ hFe ⎪⎪ 30º 30º
⎪ ρF ISO 6336-3 provides methods
1 b ⎬ of calculating sFn, hFe, and YF
Z= ⋅s 2 ⎪⎪
6 cos βb Fn ⎪⎪ for virtual spur gears. These
⎪⎭
sFn calculations include iterations.

ρF is used for stress correction

factor mentioned later. 6 hFe ⎪⎫⎪
cosαFen ⎪⎪
Fwt mm ⎪⎪
YF: Tooth Form Factor σb = YF−wt YF−wt =
⎛ s ⎞⎟
2 ⎪⎪
⎪⎪
bmn ⎜⎜ Fn ⎟ cosα
⎜⎜⎝ m ⎟⎟⎠ wt ⎪⎪
Unit load, (Fwt/t) / (b mn/t),
n ⎪
⎬
will be introduced later. 6 hFe ⎪⎪
cosαFen ⎪⎪
Ft mm ⎪⎪
We should use the (nominal) = Y YF−t =
⎛ s ⎞⎟
2 ⎪⎪
tangential force Fwt or Ft to bmn F−t ⎜⎜ Fn ⎟ cosα ⎪⎪
represent σb. ⎜⎜⎝ m ⎟⎟⎠
n
t ⎪⎪
⎪⎪⎭
 Tooth Root Stress σF

F( w)t
σF = YF YS Yβ
bmn
YS: stress correction factor, which is used to convert the bending stress
to local tooth root stress considering the effect of the fillet radius.
Yβ: helix angle factor, which is used to convert the tooth root stress of a
virtual spur gear to that of the corresponding helical gear.

Safety against tooth breakage

σ FP
> S F lim
σF
σFP: permissible tooth root stress
σ FP = σ FE YNT = σ F lim YST YNT ; YNT: life factor）
 （           
SFlim: minimum safety factor
Fig. Example of σFE（*） (*) ISO 6336-5:2003

Summary

This chapter has introduced the following:

1. critical section & worst load condition
2. cantilever model
3. bending stress & tooth form factor
4. tooth root stress
 Gearing Basic（8）

8．Tooth Contact Stress Calculations

 8.1 Hertzian contact (cylinders)
 8.2 Tooth-flank-contact model
 8.3 Tooth contact stress
 8.4 Zone factor

Hertzian Contact

Specific load w is
F = w·l
uniformly distributed
Maximum contact pressure pmax
along length l.

w E′
Contact stress has an pmax =
R1 elliptical distribution across
πR
the contact width 2a.
Semi-contact width a

2a wR
a=2
π E′
The area of contact is a narrow where
rectangle of width 2a and length l. 1 1−ν12 1−ν 22 ⎪⎫⎪
R2 = + ⎪⎪
E′ E1 E2 ⎪⎪
⎬
1 1 1 ⎪⎪
= + ⎪⎪
R R1 R2 ⎪⎪
F = w·l ⎭

Fig. Contact of two cylinders E’: contact modulus

of length l 1/R: relative curvature
 Tooth-Flank-Contact Model

βb
R1 b Maximum contact pressure pmax
plane of w E′
action pmax =
πR
w = Fbn
R2
/ (b / cos βb)
Fwt (cos βb cosαwt ) Fwt 1 ⎪⎫⎪
w= = ⎪⎪
αwt base circle b cos βb b cosαwt ⎪⎪
rw1 = dw1 / 2 ⎪⎪
1 ⎛⎜ 1 1 ⎞⎟ cos βb 2cos βb ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎪⎪
=⎜ + ⎟⎟ = ⎜1+ ⎟ ⎬
R1 t = rw1 sin αwt R ⎜⎜⎝ d w1 2 d w2 2 ⎟⎠ sinαwt d w1 sinαwt ⎜⎝ u ⎟⎟⎠ ⎪⎪
R2 t = rw2 sin αwt ⎪⎪
2
1 1−ν1 1−ν 2
2 ⎪⎪
= + u: gear ratio ( ≥ 1 ⎪⎪ )
base circle E′ E1 E2 ⎪⎪
⎭

rw2 = dw2 / 2

αwt
Fwt ⎛⎜ u +1⎞⎟ 2cos βb 1 1
pmax = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
b⋅ d w1 ⎝ u ⎟⎠ cosαwt sinαwt π 1−ν1 1−ν 2
+
E1 E2
Fig. Specific load & radius of curvature

Nominal Tooth Contact Stress σH0

K-Factor (□ is for external gears)

F( w)t ⎛ u +1⎞⎟ will be introduced later.
σH 0 = ⎜⎜ ⎟Z Z Z Z
bd( w)1 ⎜⎝ u ⎟⎟⎠ H E ε β
is stress at pitch point, where ZH is zone factor and ZE is elasticity factor,
which are given by

⎪⎧⎪ 2cos βb
⎪⎪ (for Fwt & dw1)
⎪⎪ cosαwt sinαwt 1 1
and ZE =
Z H = ⎪⎨ π 1−ν1 1−ν 2
⎪⎪ 2cos βb cosαwt +
⎪⎪
⎪⎪
(for Ft & d1) E1 E2
cos 2 αt sinαwt
⎪⎩

Fwt cos 2 αwt Ft

=
d w1 cos 2 αt d1

Zε: contact ratio factor, which accounts for the influence of the contact ratio.
Zβ: helix angle factor, which accounts for the influence of the helix angle.
 Maximum Tooth Contact Stress

(gear)
(gear)

g)
ha rin
ds
(loa

(pinion) (pinion)
(*) (*)

The maximum tooth contact stresses could

occur at the inner point B or D of single σH = Z B / D σH 0
pair tooth contact of the pinion or wheel.

(*) G.Niemann, H. Winter, Maschinenelemente Band II, 2. Auflage, 1989, Springer-Verlag.

Safety against Pitting

Safety against tooth breakage

σ HP
> S H lim
σH
σHP: permissible tooth contact stress
σ HP = σ H lim Z NT ; ZNT : life factor）
 （      
SHlim: minimum safety factor

In ISO 6336, ZB or ZD shall be

used separately for evaluation
of pinion or wheel.

Fig. Example of σHlim（*）

(*) ISO 6336-5:2003
 Summary

This chapter has introduced the following:

1. Hertzian contact of two cylinders
2. tooth-flank-contact model
3. tooth contact stress & zone factor
4. maximum tooth contact stress

Appendix（Unit load & K-factor）

F( w)t F( w)t ⎛ u ±1⎞⎟

unit load: U = K-factor: K = ⎜⎜ ⎟
bmn bd( w)1 ⎜⎝ u ⎟⎟⎠
(*)

(*) Darle W. Dudley, Handbook of Practical Gear Design, 1984, McGraw-Hill Book Company
 Gearing Basic（9）

9．Gear Vibration
 9.1 Gear vibration model
 9.2 Equation of motion
 9.3 Tooth stiffness
 9.4 Tooth form modification

Gear Vibration Model

W = T1 / rb1

⎪⎫⎪ ⎫⎪
T = J θ!! T = F rb ⎪⎪ J
x ⎬ ⎬ M=
F = M x!! ⎪⎪ x!! = r θ!! ⎪⎪ rb2
M1
⎪⎭ b
⎪⎭
Driven gear F(t) rb1
Ex. Mass moment of inertia of cylinder
T2 c
O2
F(t) k(t) O1 with a centered hole

J = ρ ∫ r 2 dS = ρ ∫ r 2 r dθ dr
T1 S S
e(t)
Drive gear b π
M2 = ρ ∫ r dr ∫ dθ 3
a −π

= 2πρ (b − a 2 )(b2 + a 2 ) = m(b2 + a 2 )

rb2 2

W = T2 / rb2

Fig. Gear vibration model

reduced gear
Equation of Motion pair mass Me F (t ) = c δ! (t ) + k (t ){δ (t ) − e(t )}

⎫
M1x!!1 = F (t ) −T1 rb1 ⎪⎪ M1 M 2
⎪ ( x!! − x!!1) = W − F (t )
⎬
M 2 x!!2 = T2 rb2 − F (t ) ⎪⎪ M1 + M 2 2
⎪⎭
x2 − x1 = δ (t )
 Equation of Motion

M e δ!!(t ) + c δ! (t ) + k (t ){δ (t ) − e(t )} = W (t )

k (t ) k (t )

(*)

spur gear tooth helical gear tooth

The k(t) depends (only) The k(t) affects only on
on tooth geometry. meshing frequency?

(*) G.Niemann, H. Winter, Maschinenelemente Band II, 2. Auflage, 1989, Springer-Verlag.

Vibration Reduction

The part of a tooth profile where the k(t) is

large; i.e., two tooth-pairs mesh, should be
given some relief in order to decrease the driven
change in k(t).

drive
acceleration in the rotational direction
contact ratio

tooth root stress

Fig. the change in k(t)(*)

(**)

(*) G.Niemann, H. Winter, Maschinenelemente Band II, 2. Auflage, 1989, Springer-Verlag. 

(**) 機械システム設計便覧編集委員会，JIS に基づく機械システム設計便覧，1986，日本規格協会
 Tooth Form Modifications

Fig. Tip and root relief(*) Fig. Profile crowning(*)

bias-in

bias-out

Fig. Helix crowning(*) Fig. Bias modification(*)

(*) ISO 21772:2007, Gears ̶ Cylindrical involute gears and gear pairs ̶ Concepts and geometry

Summary

This chapter has introduced the following:

1. gear vibration model
2. equation of motion
3. concept of vibration reduction
4. tooth flank modification
 Appendix（Load Distribution）

p(ξ)
Equilibrium equation
x, ξ
li
dξ
∑∫ 2
l pi (ξi ) dξ = Fbn
−i
i 2
Kb(x,ξ)∙p(ξ)dξ
one equation which
includes i unknown
functions statically
indeterminate
variation of Δ during one pitch
Compatibility equations meshing is transmission error
li
i equations
∫ 2
−i
l Kb ( xi , ξi ) pi (ξi ) dξ + K c ( xi ) p ( xi ) = {Δ− e( xi )} cos βb which include
2 i unknown
Kb ( xi , ξi ) : the compliance of tooth deflection functions and
K c ( xi ) : the compliance of contact approach one unknown