Sweeney, Marvin A. Jewish Mysticism: From Ancient Times through Today.

Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Eerdmans, 2020. 432 pp. Hc; $60. Link to Eerdmans Link to EerdWorld to read
a twenty-six page excerpt

In his preface Marvin Sweeny explains the need for a new

textbook on Jewish mysticism. Since he began teaching both
undergraduate and graduate courses, his only choices for
textbooks were Gershom Scholem’s Major Trends in Jewish
Mysticism (1941) and William Kaufman’s Journeys: An
Introductory Guide to Jewish Mysticism (1980). Both volumes
begin their survey with rabbinic literature. Sweeney could find
nothing which included mysticism from the Ancient Near East,
the Hebrew Bible, Qumran and Jewish apocalyptic texts. In
addition, Sweeney gives a greater place in his volume to Jewish
liturgical and theurgical practices, as well as textual
interpretations of earlier mystical works. As he says in his
introduction, later mystics built on their predecessors in order to
“resolve ongoing problems left open by earlier movements and
texts” (7).

The first chapter describes visionary experiences in the Ancient

Near East. By surveying Egyptian, Canaanite and Babylonian
texts which depict “seeing and hearing the gods” Sweeney argues
Ancient Near Eastern had a wide variety of ways of expressing human experience of the gods
through dreams, visionary experience, and divine interaction. These were powerful experiences,
but ultimately “undependable, self-interested, and frequently amoral.”

Chapters 2-4 survey visionary and dream experiences in the Pentateuch, Former Prophets and
Psalms, and Latter Prophets (pp. 50-166). He collects every example of someone “seeing and
hearing G-d” through visions and dreams in the canonical Hebrew Bible. Although these
experiences often have tangible elements, “YHWH is experienced in the world by divine acts of
mercy and justice the stand as the basis of the covenant between YHWH and Israel” (p. 81). For
example, the Pentateuch describes YHWH’s enthronement in the tabernacle though the pillar of
cloud and fire, but more importantly the Pentateuch “presents a creation narrative modeled on
those of the Ancient Near East in which YHWH puts his creation in order, and establishes
YHWH’s own people, Israel, in the midst of that creation, and establishes a sanctuary to honor
YHWH as the creator” (p. 85). Isaiah’s temple vision (Isa 6:1-13) and Ezekiel’s throne room
vision (Ezek 1-3) are foundational for Heikhalot literature (temple visions) and Merkavah
literature (throne visions).

Jewish apocalyptic literature serves as the transition from the Hebrew Bible to the Heikhalot
literature. (ch. 5). He begins with a survey of “proto-apocalyptic” such as Isaiah 24-27, 34-35,
56-66, Ezekiel 1; 8-11, 37, 38-39; 40-48; Joel and Zechariah 9-14. Wisdom literature is
important for the development of Jewish mysticism, especially Job, Proverbs, and Song of
Solomon. He then briefly discusses two major Second Temple apocalyptic texts 1 Enoch and
Daniel (which uses “the setting the Babylonian exile to address issues relevant to the outbreak of
the Hasmonean revolt against Seleucid Syria” (p. 189). In his brief survey of the Judean
Wilderness Scrolls, Sweeny highlights the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice as “anticipating later
heikhalot compositions” (p. 194). Finally, he briefly introduces three late first century C.E. texts,
Revelation, 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch. Although a Christian text, Revelation includes a heavenly
ascent, throne room visions, and abundant allusions to the Exodus narrative. Bo0th 4 Ezra and 2
Baruch call on Jews to “observe divine Torah” in response to the destruction of the Jerusalem
Temple. This, Sweeny suggests, “constitutes the foundational viewpoint of rabbinic Judaism: to
sanctify Jewish life and the world of creation by adhering to the divine Torah in preparation for
the time when God would bring about the restoration” as promised in Ezekiel 40-48, Isaiah 40-
66, Jeremiah 30-33, and Zechariah 9-14 (p. 206).

Chapter 6 introduces the Heikhalot and Merkavah literature. After the failure of the Bar-Khokba
revolt and the development of Oral Torah, rabbis sought to place limits on study of mysticism.
Sweeney cites a parable which illustrates the dangers of mystical study (b.Hag. 14b). Four rabbis
entered the Garden (Pardes, paradise), but only Akiva left unhurt. “Entering Pardes” refers to the
proper study of the Torah. Only Akiva understood his own knowledge and succeeded in mystical
study (p. 216). These experiences of these four are developed in the Heikhalot and Merkavah
literature.

Sweeney surveys four texts in this chapter. First, Ma’aseh Merkavah is the most basic account of
the four rabbis who ascended to Pardes. The book focuses on the hymns and prayers a mystic
must employ in order to undertake ascent the seventh level of heaven. Second, Heikhalot Rabbati
describes the ascent of R. Nehunyah ben Haqanah to the throne of G-d in the seventh heaven
narrated by R. Ishmael ben Elisha. R. Ishmael was one of the key Tannaitic sages, one of the
most prominent rabbis of his day and one the Ten Martyrs. The book anticipates a time when the
Torah will be “fully understood and applied to the sanctification of the world of creation” (p.
222). Third, one of the oldest heikhalot texts, Heikhalot Zutari (Lesser Places) begins with the
parable of the four rabbis attempting to enter Pardes in order to “specify the experience of the
prospective mystics” (p. 231). The book refers to Metatron, the powerful angel of the presence
who sits on the throne of G-d in the seventh heaven when Go-d is not present. The name may be
derived from the Greek meta, with, and thronos, throne, but Sweeny suggests it is related to the
Aramaic mattara’, “keeper of the watch” (p. 238). Finally, in this chapter, Sweeney introduces
Sefer Heikhalot (Third Enoch). The book seems to be a response to the story of the four who
entered Pardes but focuses on the visualizations of Metatron.

Chapter 7 surveys the transition from Heikhalot to early Kabbalistic literature. Kabbalah means
tradition or “that which is received” and the study of this literature became a major Jewish
mystical movement in the mid-twelfth century. Since Heikhalot literature assumes the
transcendent nature of G-d who is approached by the mystic through liturgical prayer and
theurgic practice, and Torah study, the Kabbalistic literature began to consider the immanent
presence of G-d in the world of creation. After an introduction to the development of Jewish life
in the Middle Ages, Sweeney introduces several early Kabbalistic texts.

First, Shiur Qomah “is easily one of the most problematic, controversial, and misunderstood
writings in all of Jewish tradition” (p. 255). The name of the books means “The Measure of G-
d’s Body,” a fair description of the contents of the book G-d’s height is given and 2,300,000,000
parasangs and the crown on his head is an additional 600,000 parasangs. A parasang is 30 stadia,
or about 3.5 miles. G-d’s height is therefore more than 80 billion miles and an additional 2.1
million miles for his crown. The point here is that “the divine presence is beyond human capacity
to comprehend in any meaningful way” (p. 263). Second, Sefer Yetzirah, the “Book of
Formation,” focuses on language has the means by which G-d manifests himself in creation and
the creative power of human speech. The book observes that G-d spoke ten times in Genesis 1
and then uses several other numerical observations to outline the Ten Sefirot and describes their
role in creation. Third, Sefer Habahir, the “Book of Brilliance” is the first major Kabbalistic
work (p. 271). The name derives from Job 37:21, the sun is “brilliant (bahir) in the clouds.”
Sweeney suggests the development of the Ten Sefirot in the book is dependent on gnosticism
and is highly intertextual. The book is a synthesis of earlier Jewish texts with gnostic ideas to
explain how an ultimately transcendent being can be fully present in a finite earthly world. He
concludes the chapter with a brief survey of other key movements and figures in the period (The
Hasidei Ashkenaz, Isaac the Blind, and Abraham Abulafia).

Chapter 8 focuses on the most well-known kabalistic texts, The Zohar. The name Zohar means
splendor or brilliance and is likely drawn from Ezekiel’s description of a human-like figure show
lifted the prophet up and transported him to Jerusalem to witness the fall of the city (Ezek 8:2).
The book is a mystical comment on the Torah revealing the hidden meaning of the text. Like
earlier kabalistic texts, the primary concern of the text is how the infinite character of God is
manifested as a divine presence in a finite world (p. 289). The book therefore discussed the
Sefirot, God’s shekhinah, his glory dwelling in the world (using sexual language), the nature of
creation and the origin of evil and demons.

The final two chapters treat more recent forms of Jewish mysticism. In Chapter 9 Sweeney
discusses Lurianic Kabbalah, a popular movement prompting Jews to adopt cabalistic spiritual
practices and study in anticipation of the messianic age when the Messiah would appear, the
temple would be reestablished, and the world of creation would be completed” (p. 325). After a
short review of the Spanish expulsion of Jews in 1492, Sweeny describes the activity of Jewish
mystics who gathered in in Safed, a small town in the upper Galilean hills. R. Luria (1534-1572)
studied under kabbalist Moses Cordovero (1522-1570) and became the principle kabbalist
teacher in Safed after Cordovero’s death. Luranic kabbalah has three basic principles. First, the
Tzimtzym is the contraction of the infinite God into the finite world. Second, Luria’s idea of the
Abba (father) and Imma (mother), two aspects of God. When they are united, they form the third
basic principle, the Zeir Anin, the “Impatient One.” Each of these three principles are tied to
aspects of the Ten Sefirot. Luria also believed in the transmigration of the soul: a tzaddik
(righteous person) could embody a past tzaddik. Luria thought he was the embodiment of R.
Shimon bar Yohai, for example. This form of mysticism had an influence on Shabbetai Zevi
(1626-1676), a failed messiah who converted to Islam in 1666. Many of his followers continued
to believe he was the messiah long after his death (the Dönmeh).

Chapter 10 concludes with an introduction to Hasidism, the modern manifestation of Jewish

mysticism. He is quick to point out modern Hasidism as nothing to do with the earlier
movement. In this chapter, Sweeney describes the earlier mystical and pietistic movement led by
Baal Shem Tov (1700-1760) in the early eighteenth century and his follower Shneur Zalman
(1745-1831). Zalman was the founder of the Schneersohn family line and the founder of Habad
Hasidism (p. 379). Habad theology is rooted in the idea God is the only reality in the universe
and all other realities are illusions. The chapter traces several movements which developed from
this eighteenth century origin, including Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook (1865-1935) and the
Lubavitcher Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson (1902-1994).

Conclusion. For each mystical text surveyed in chapter 6-10 Sweeney provides a footnote to
sources for reading the text and key studies. He only rarely uses long quotations from the texts,
preferring to summarize the esoteric content for the reader. Although I would usually prefer to
read selections from the original texts, the esoteric nature of this literature makes me appreciate
his careful summaries. Still, a second volume collecting example readings for each chapter
would be useful, especially when this book is used in a classroom setting.

NB: Spelling and use of YHWH and G-d conforms to Sweeney’s text. Thanks to Eerdmans for
kindly providing me with a review copy of this book. This did not influence my thoughts
regarding the work.

Published on May 4, 2020 on Reading Acts.