CB8a Efficient Transport and Exchange
1. Using examples, why does the body need to excrete
waste substances?
The body needs to excrete waste substances so that
they do not cause problems. For example, kidneys
remove urea which is a poison created by breaking
down amino acids, and lungs get rid of carbon dioxide
which is produced during aerobic respiration
2. What is diffusion and how can the rate be increased?
Diffusion is the spreading of particles from a high to a
low concentration of particles. The rate can be
increased with surfaces that are thin, so particles do
not need to move far, and have a large surface area,
so that there is more room for particles to move.
3. Why do humans need a circulatory system?
The circulatory system carries oxygen, nutrients, and
hormones to cells, and removes waste products, like
carbon dioxide.
4. How is SA:V ratio calculated and why is it beneficial if
this is larger?
SA:V ratio is surface area/volume. It is beneficial if it is
larger because the bigger this ratio, the more surface
area something has per unit volume.
5. How are alveoli adapted for efficient gas exchange?  do not have to withstand a lot of pressure when
Firstly they are round instead of flat, this increases
surface area, secondly they have a moist lining which
allows gases to dissolve. Thirdly, they have very thin
walls and finally they have a very good blood supply.
CB8b The Circulatory System CB8c The Heart
1. What is the circulatory system made of? 1. How does a heart attack occur?
Blood flows away from the heart into arteries. These When blood stops flowing to muscles in parts of
divide into narrow capillaries, which form fine the heart, damaging them and stopping the heart
networks running through tissues. Blood returns to pumping properly.
the heart in veins. 2. Annotate the diagram and colour it to show
2. How is a pulse created? oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. 
With each beat, the heart squirts blood into arteries
under high pressure. Artery walls are thick to
withstand pressure, but it makes them stretch. A
wave of stretching then passes along the artery
walls, you feel this wave as a pulse.
3. Adaptations of arteries: 
They have a narrow tube and thick layer of elastic
and muscle fibres which can withstand the high
pressure from the blood they carry away from the
heart.
4. Adaptations of capillaries:
They have very thin walls of only one cell, this allows
faster diffusion of substances into and out of the
capillaries, they have a very narrow tube.
5. Adaptations of veins:
They have a wide tube, and a thin flexible since they
3. Define cardiac output, heart rate and stroke
carrying blood to the heart. volume and write down how each is calculated. 
Component Adaptation and Function Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate
of Blood Heart rate = cardiac output / stroke volume
Plasma Transports urea and carbon dioxide + Stroke volume = cardiac output / heart rate
makes up 55% of blood + hormones are
found here
Red blood Has a red pigment, haemoglobin, which
cells binds to oxygen + no nucleus so space for
haemoglobin + biconcave shape increases
surface area
White blood Phagocytes surround and digest foreign
cells cells  lymphocytes produce antibodies to
destroy foreign cells + both increase
during infections
Platelets Fragments of cells + no nucleus + releases
chemical to clot blood + allows wounds to
heal, clump together to stop bleeding.
 CB8d Cellular Respiration
Aerobic
Main type of cellular respiration.
A series of chemical reactions that
take place mostly in the
mitochondria because it is an
exothermic reaction. It happens
continuously in living cells, it is the
main source of energy for cells.
Use in animals:
For metabolic processes to build
larger molecules from smaller
ones, e.g. proteins from amino
acids, large carbohydrates (starch,
glycogen) from small sugars
(glucose), fats from fatty acids and
glycerol. and to enable muscle
contraction. In birds and mammals,
to maintain steady body
temperature in colder
surroundings.
Use in plant:
To build larger molecules from
smaller ones, e.g. sugars, nitrates
and other nutrients into minos
which are used to make proteins.
Glucose + Oxygen 
-> 
Carbon Dioxide + Water
1. Why do heart and breathing rates stay high after
exercise?
Because extra oxygen is needed to replace the oxygen lost
from blood and muscles. Extra oxygen also needed to release
the extra energy required to get rid of lactic acid.
CB8d Core Practical Respiration Rates
Anaerobic 1. Annotate the diagram.
During exercise, energy
needed for muscle
contraction comes from
aerobic respiration. If there is
not enough oxygen, or
aerobic respiration is not
possible, anaerobic
respiration takes place.
Anaerobic respiration =
incomplete breakdown of
glucose to release energy
Does not use oxygen so can
supply energy for muscles
when there is not enough
oxygen for aerobic
respiration. 
Happens in muscle cells,
produces lactic acid, blood
2. Outline in your own words how a respirometer
flowing through muscles works. 
removes lactic acid. A respirometer is used for investigating rates of respiration.
Extra oxygen is required to A respirometer measures oxygen uptake by respiring
oxidise the lactic acid to organisms. Any CO2 produced is absorbed in the apparatus,
carbon dioxide and water
so any change in gas volume is due to removal of oxygen by
after exercise.
Much less energy is released the organisms through aerobic respiration. Hence oxygen
uptake is used as an indication of respiration rate.
per molecule of glucose than
during aerobic respiration. 3. How does temperature affect the rate of respiration
Is useful for muscle cells as it and why?
can release energy to allow The increase in temperature increases the rate of respiration.
muscles to contract when the
This is because heat speeds up reactions.
heart and lungs cannot deliver
oxygen and glucose fast
enough and respiration can
continue in organisms that
have no, or very limited,
oxygen supply.
Disadvantages: less energy is
released and lactic acid is not
removes, it builds up so must
be broken down
Glucose -> lactic acid