Course AC 6 – Basic Electrical Engineering

Sem/AY First Semester/2020-2021

Module No. 7
Lesson Title Cells and Batteries
Week
8
Duration
Date
Description This topic introduces principles and mathematical models of electrochemical energy
of the Lesson conversion and storage. Students study equivalent circuits and applications to batteries and
cells.

Learning Outcomes

Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning ● Understand the arrangement of cells in batteries
Outcomes ● Know the difference between primary and secondary battery
● Be able to identify the similarities and differences of the different kind of batteries
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives ● Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each type of cells and batteries.
● Know when to use the different types of battery connection or battery bank.

Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a two-hour class discussion on Connection of
Asynchronous) Resistors. To have access to the online discussion, refer to this link:
____________________.

The online discussion will happen on , from (For further

instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the schedule of activities
for this module)

Some useful links for YouTube lectures:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gu2X87xR3A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gWKOjncBMCQ

B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What is the difference between series battery connections and parallel battery
connections and how do they increase battery capacity and voltage?

Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning
Management System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.
 Lecture Guide

Batteries play numerous important roles in everyday life, from providing the initial
power needed to start the engines of cars to acting as a backup source of electricity in
telecommunications, public transportation, and medical procedures.
Batteries also have the potential to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions by
efficiently storing electricity generated from both conventional and renewable energy
sources and as a source of power for electric vehicles.
Life without batteries would be a trip back in time, a century or two, when pretty
much the only way of making portable energy was either steam power or
clockwork. Batteries—handy, convenient power supplies as small as a fingernail or as
big as a trunk—give us a sure and steady supply of electrical energy whenever and
wherever we need it. Although we get through billions of them every year and they
have a big environmental impact, we couldn't live our modern lives without them. For
this lesson we will tackle the difference between battery and cell. Their different kind
and application.

What is Cell? What is battery?

The cell is a single power generating unit which stores the chemical energy and then
converts it into electrical energy. It has two electrodes namely cathode and the anode.
The cell has an electrolyte, a chemical substance that reacts with the electrodes and
produces electric current.
The  electrochemical oxidation-reduction or redox reaction occurs between the
electrolyte and the electrodes and due to this reaction the electric current starts
Offline Activities flowing through an external circuit. The cell is mainly classified into four types. They
(e-Learning/Self- are the wet cell, dry cell, reserve cell and fuel cell. The wet cell uses a liquid electrolyte,
Paced) and in the dry cell, the electrolyte is in the form of the powder.
A battery is an electrochemical cell or series of cells that produces an electric current;
hence battery is composed of linked cells. In principle, any galvanic cell could be used
as a battery. An ideal battery would never run down, produce an unchanging voltage,
and be capable of withstanding environmental extremes of heat and humidity. Real
batteries strike a balance between ideal characteristics and practical limitations. For
example, the mass of a car battery is about 18 kg or about 1% of the mass of an
average car or light-duty truck. This type of battery would supply nearly unlimited
energy if used in a smartphone but would be rejected for this application because of its
mass. Thus, no single battery is “best”, and batteries are selected for a particular
application, keeping things like the mass of the battery, its cost, reliability, and current
capacity in mind.

The symbol for a cell is very simple, consisting of one long line and one short line,
parallel to each other, with connecting wires:

A cell has two ends, labelled + (positive) and – (negative).

A cell pushes the electric current from the positive terminal round to the negative one.
This is the way that conventional current flows
The symbol for a battery is nothing more than a couple of cell symbols stacked in
series:

Two or more cells can be connected end-to-end to make a battery. A typical cell has a
voltage of 1.5 volts (we write this as 1.5 V). By connecting cells in series, we can make
batteries with 3 V, 6 V and so on.
Sometimes we call a single cell a ‘battery’, although technically we ought to say 'cell'.

What are the main parts of a battery?

The Anode is the negative or reducing electrode that releases electrons to the external
circuit and oxidizes during and electrochemical reaction.
The Cathode is the positive or oxidizing electrode that acquires electrons from the
external circuit and is reduced during the electrochemical reaction.
The Electrolyte is the medium that provides the ion transport mechanism between
the cathode and anode of a cell. Electrolytes are often thought of as liquids, such as
water or other solvents, with dissolved salts, acids, or alkalis that are required for
ionic conduction. It should however be noted that many batteries including the
conventional (AA/AAA/D) batteries contain solid electrolytes that act as ionic
conductors at room temperature.

How does a battery really work?

It's important to note that the electrodes in a battery are always made from two
dissimilar materials (so never from the same metal), which obviously have to be
conductors of electricity. This is the key to how and why a battery works: one of the
materials "likes" to give up electrons, the other likes to receive them. If both electrodes
were made from the same material, that wouldn't happen and no current would flow.
The battery's positive terminal (shown in the figure A and colored red in the Figure B
below) is connected to a positive electrode that's mostly hidden inside the battery. We
call this the cathode. The outer case and the bottom of the battery make up the
negative terminal, or negative electrode, which is called the anode and represented by
colored green in the Figure B. The paperclip wire in figure A is represented in the
figure B by the blue line.

https://cdn4.explainthatstuff.com/batterytest.jpg https://cdn4.explainthatstuff.com/howbatteryworks.gif
Figure A Figure B
 Types of batteries

Batteries come in all different shapes, sizes, voltages, and capacities (amounts of
stored charge or energy). Although they can be made with all sorts of different
chemical electrolytes and electrodes, there are really only two main types:

Primary batteries are single-use batteries because they cannot be recharged. A

common primary battery is the dry cell, since there's no liquid in them as the name
implies. The three main kinds of primary batteries are zinc carbon, alkaline, and
lithium.
Secondary batteries are rechargeable. These are the types of batteries found in
devices such as smartphones, electronic tablets, and automobiles. Secondary batteries
include lead-acid, nickel-cadmium (NiCad), Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), Lithium-ion

https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/wp-content/uploads/sites/150/2016/05/CNX_Chem_17_05_Lead.jpg
Figure C. Lead -acid Battery

Comparison Chart

How is the
Basis for
Cell Battery Size of the
Comparison
Battery
Relevant?
Definition The single unit device It is the collection of
If the
which converts the electrochemical cells which
physical size
chemical energy into either connects in series or in
of a cell has
electrical energy parallel
no impact on
its voltage,
Symbol
then what
does it
affect? The
Types Dry Cell, Wet Cell , Reserve Primary battery and answer is
Cell and Fuel Cell. Secondary battery. resistance,
which in
Specification Light and compact Heavy turn affects
the
Power Supply power for a short Supply power for a long time. maximum
time. amount of
current that
Applications Clocks, lamp, radio, remote Automobiles, inverter, a cell can
control devices etc. emergency light etc. provide.
Every voltaic
Cost Cheap Costly cell contains
some amount of internal resistance due to the electrodes and the electrolyte. The
larger a cell is constructed, the greater the electrode contact area with the electrolyte,
and thus the less internal resistance it will have.
Although we generally consider a cell or battery in a circuit to be a perfect source of
voltage (absolutely constant), the current through it dictated solely by the external
resistance of the circuit to which it is attached, this is not entirely true in real life. Since
every cell or battery contains some internal resistance, that resistance must affect the
current in any given circuit:

https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/uploads/articles/ideal-real-battery-1.jpg
Figure D: Battery showing the internal resistance

Series and Parallel Battery Configurations

The battery bank is the result of connecting two or more batteries together for a single
application (i.e. a sailboat). What does joining more than one battery together
accomplish? By connecting the batteries, you either increase the voltage or amp-hour
capacity, and sometimes both, ultimately allowing for more power and/or energy.
The first thing you need to know is that there are two primary ways to successfully
connect two or more batteries: The first is called a series connection and the second is
called a parallel connection.

Series connections involve connecting 2 or more batteries together to

increase the voltage of the battery system, but keeps the same amp-hour
rating. Keep in mind in series connections each battery needs to have the
same voltage and capacity rating, or you can end up damaging the battery. To
connect batteries in series, you connect the positive terminal of one battery to
the negative of another until the desired voltage is achieved. When charging
batteries in series, you need to utilize a charger that matches the system
voltage. We recommend you charge each battery individually, with a multi-
bank charger, to avoid imbalance between batteries.

Adding cells in a string increases the voltage; the capacity remains the same. Courtesy of Cadex
Figure E: Series connection of four cells (4s).

Figure F, illustrates a battery pack in which “cell 3” produces only 2.8V instead of the
full nominal 3.6V. With depressed operating voltage, this battery reaches the end-of-
discharge point sooner than a normal pack. The voltage collapses and the device turn
off with a “Low Battery” message.
 Faulty cell 3 lowers the voltage and cuts the equipment off prematurely. Courtesy of Cadex
Figure F: Series connection with a faulty cell.

It is bad practice to connect batteries in series when they don't have the same capacity.
The battery with the smaller capacity will be empty before the larger one, resulting in
a lower voltage for the smaller battery. At that point things will start to get interesting
as the larger battery will start to charge the smaller one through the connected circuit
and with reversed voltage. The cell is not designed for being reversed and charged and
bad things may happen a.o.: leaking acid and exploding. Neither of these situations are
desirable. This is also the reason why most manuals of battery-operated devices urge
to replace all batteries at the same time.

Parallel connections involve connecting 2 or more batteries together to increase the

amp-hour capacity of the battery bank, but your voltage stays the same. To connect
batteries in parallel, the positive terminals are connected together via a cable and the
negative terminals are connected together with another cable until you reach your
desired capacity.
A parallel connection is not meant to allow your batteries to power anything above its
standard voltage output, but rather increase the duration for which it could power
equipment. It’s important to note that when charging batteries that are connected in
parallel, the increased amp-hour capacity may require a longer charge time.

With parallel cells, capacity in Ah and runtime increases while the voltage stays the same. Courtesy of Cadex
Figure G: Parallel connection of four cells (4p).

A cell that develops high resistance or opens is less critical in a parallel circuit than in a
series configuration, but a failing cell will reduce the total load capability. It’s like an
engine only firing on three cylinders instead of on all four. An electrical short, on the
other hand, is more serious as the faulty cell drains energy from the other cells,
causing a fire hazard. Most so-called electrical shorts are mild and manifest
themselves as elevated self-discharge.
A total short can occur through reverse polarization or dendrite growth. Large packs
often include a fuse that disconnects the failing cell from the parallel circuit if it were
to short. Figure H illustrates a parallel configuration with one faulty cell.
A weak cell will not affect the voltage but provide a low runtime due to reduced capacity. A shorted cell could cause excessive heat and
become a fire hazard. On larger packs a fuse prevents high current by isolating the cell. Courtesy of Cadex
Figure H: Parallel/connection with one faulty cell.

Amp-Hour Application to Measure the Battery’s Capacity

A battery with a capacity of 1 amp-hour should be able to continuously

supply current of 1 amp to a load for exactly 1 hour, or 2 amps for 1/2 hour, or 1/3
amp for 3 hours, etc., before becoming completely discharged. In an ideal battery, this
relationship between continuous current and discharge time is stable and absolute,
but real batteries don’t behave exactly as this simple linear formula would indicate.
Therefore, when amp-hour capacity is given for a battery, it is specified at either a
given current, given time, or assumed to be rated for a time period of 8 hours (if no
limiting factor is given).
For example, an average automotive battery might have a capacity of about 70 amp-
hours, specified at a current of 3.5 amps. This means that the amount of time this
battery could continuously supply current of 3.5 amps to a load would be 20 hours (70
amp-hours / 3.5 amps). But let’s suppose that a lower-resistance load was connected
to that battery, drawing 70 amps continuously. Our amp-hour equation tells us that
the battery should hold out for exactly 1 hour (70 amp-hours / 70 amps), but this
might not be true in real life. With higher currents, the battery will dissipate more heat
across its internal resistance, which has the effect of altering the chemical reactions
taking place within. Chances are, the battery would fully discharge some
time before the calculated time of 1 hour under this greater load.
Conversely, if a very light load (1 mA) were to be connected to the battery, our
equation would tell us that the battery should provide power for 70,000 hours, or just
under 8 years (70 amp-hours / 1 milliamp), but the odds are that much of the chemical
energy in a real battery would have been drained due to other factors (evaporation of
electrolyte, deterioration of electrodes, leakage current within battery) long before 8
years had elapsed. Therefore, we must take the amp-hour relationship as being an
ideal approximation of battery life, the amp-hour rating trusted only near the specified
current or timespan given by the manufacturer. Some manufacturers will provide
amp-hour derating factors specifying reductions in total capacity at different levels of
current and/or temperature.
For secondary cells, the amp-hour rating provides a rule for necessary charging time
at any given level of charge current. For example, the 70 amp-hour automotive battery
in the previous example should take 10 hours to charge from a fully-discharged state
at a constant charging current of 7 amps (70 amp-hours / 7 amps).
Approximate amp-hour capacities of some common batteries are given here:
Typical automotive battery: 70 amp-hours @ 3.5 A (secondary cell)
D-size carbon-zinc battery: 4.5 amp-hours @ 100 mA (primary cell)
9 volt carbon-zinc battery: 400 milliamp-hours @ 8 mA (primary cell)

How to Check the Condition of the Battery - With and Without Load?
As a battery discharges, not only does it diminish its internal store of energy, but its
internal resistance also increases (as the electrolyte becomes less and less
conductive), and its open-circuit cell voltage decreases (as the chemicals become more
and more dilute). The most deceptive change that a discharging battery exhibit is
increased resistance. The best check for a battery’s condition is a voltage
measurement under load, while the battery is supplying a substantial current through
a circuit. Otherwise, a simple voltmeter checks across the terminals may falsely
indicate a healthy battery (adequate voltage) even though the internal resistance has
increased considerably. What constitutes a “substantial current” is determined by the
battery’s design parameters. A voltmeter check to reveal too low of a voltage, of
course, would positively indicate a discharged battery:
Fully charged battery:

Now, if the battery discharges a bit . . .

. . . and discharges a bit further . . .

. . . and a bit further until its dead.

Notice how much better the battery’s true condition is revealed when its voltage is
checked under load as opposed to without a load. Does this mean that it’s pointless to
check a battery with just a voltmeter (no load)? Well, no. If a simple voltmeter check
reveals only 7.5 volts for a 13.2-volt battery, then you know without a doubt that it’s
dead. However, if the voltmeter were to indicate 12.5 volts, it may be near full charge
or somewhat depleted—you couldn’t tell without a load check. Bear in mind also that
the resistance used to place a battery under load must be rated for the amount of
power expected to be dissipated. For checking large batteries such as an automobile
(12-volt nominal) lead-acid battery, this may mean a resistor with a power rating of
several hundred watts.

The amp-hour is a unit of battery energy capacity, equal to the amount of

continuous current multiplied by the discharge time, that a battery can supply before
exhausting its internal store of chemical energy.

An amp-hour battery rating is only an approximation of the battery’s charge

capacity and should be trusted only at the current level or time specified by the
manufacturer. Such a rating cannot be extrapolated for very high currents or very long
times with any accuracy.
Discharged batteries lose voltage and increase in resistance. The best check for
a dead battery is a voltage test under load.
Simple Guidelines for Using Household Primary Batteries

 Keep the battery contacts clean. A four-cell configuration has eight contacts, and
each contact adds resistance (cell to holder and holder to next cell).
 Never mix batteries; replace all cells when weak. The overall performance is only
as good as the weakest link in the chain.
 Observe polarity. A reversed cell subtracts rather than adds to the cell voltage.
 Remove batteries from the equipment when no longer in use to prevent leakage
and corrosion. This is especially important with zinc-carbon primary cells.
 Do not store loose cells in a metal box. Place individual cells in small plastic bags to
prevent an electrical short. Do not carry loose cells in your pockets.
 Keep batteries away from small children. In addition to being a choking hazard, the
current flow of the battery can ulcerate the stomach wall if swallowed. The battery
 can also rupture and cause poisoning.
 Do not recharge non-rechargeable batteries; hydrogen buildup can lead to an
explosion. Perform experimental charging only under supervision.

Simple Guidelines for Using Secondary Batteries

 Observe polarity when charging a secondary cell. Reversed polarity can cause an
electrical short, leading to a hazardous condition.
 Remove fully charged batteries from the charger. A consumer charger may not
apply the correct trickle charge when fully charged and the cell can overheat.
 Charge only at room temperature.

Terms to remember.

alkaline battery
primary battery that uses an alkaline (often potassium hydroxide) electrolyte;
designed to be an exact replacement for the dry cell, but with more energy storage and
less electrolyte leakage than typical dry cell
battery
galvanic cell or series of cells that produces a current; in theory, any galvanic cell
dry cell
primary battery, also called a zinc-carbon battery; can be used in any orientation
because it uses a paste as the electrolyte; tends to leak electrolyte when stored
fuel cell
devices that produce an electrical current as long as fuel and oxidizer are continuously
added; more efficient than internal combustion engines
lead acid battery
secondary battery that consists of multiple cells; the lead acid battery found in
automobiles has six cells and a voltage of 12 V
lithium ion battery
very popular secondary battery; uses lithium ions to conduct current and is light,
rechargeable, and produces a nearly constant potential as it discharges
nickel-cadmium battery
(NiCd battery) secondary battery that uses cadmium, which is a toxic heavy metal;
heavier than lithium ion batteries, but with similar performance characteristics
primary battery
single-use nonrechargeable battery
secondary battery
battery that can be recharged
Problem Solving.

1. A battery has an emf of 12 V and connected to a resistor of 3 Ω. The current in the
circuit is 3.93 A. Calculate (a) terminal voltage and the internal resistance of the
battery (b) power delivered by the battery and power delivered to the resistor
Solution
The given values I = 3.93 A, Vs = 12 V, R = 3 Ω
(a) The terminal voltage of the battery is equal to voltage drop across the resistor
V = IR = 3.93 × 3 = 11.79 V
The internal resistance of the battery,
r =  ((Vs –V) / V) x R = ( (12 −11 .79 )/11 .79 )× 3 = 0.05 Ω
The power delivered by the battery P = IVs = 3.93 × 12 = 47.1 W
The power delivered to the resistor = I2 R = 46.3 W
The remaining power = (47.1 – 46.3) P = 0.772 W is delivered to the internal
resistance and cannot be used to do useful work. (it is equal to I 2 r).

2. From the given circuit,

Find
i) Equivalent emf of the combination
ii) Equivalent internal resistance
iii) Total current
iv) Potential difference across external resistance
v) Potential difference across each cell

Solution
i) Equivalent emf of the combination Veq = nVeq = 4(9) = 36 V
ii) Equivalent internal resistance req = nr = 4 × 0.1 = 0.4 Ω
iii) Total current I = ((nVeq) / R) + nr
 = ([4 ×9] / 10 + ( 4 ×0.1)
= [4 ×9] /  [10 +0 .4] = 36 /10.4
I = 3.46 A
iv) Potential difference across external resistance V = IR = 3.46 × 10 = 34.6 V. The
remaining 1.4 V is dropped across the internal resistance of cells.
v) Potential difference across each cell V/n = 34.6/4 = 8 .65V

3. From the given circuit

Find
i) Equivalent emf
ii) Equivalent internal resistance
iii) Total current (I)
iv) Potential difference across each cell
v) Current from each cell

Solution
i) Equivalent emf Veq = 5 V
ii) Equivalent internal resistance,
Req = r/n = 0 .5/4 = 0.125Ω
iii) total current, 

Veq Veq
I= = =0.5 A
r 0.5
R+ 10+
n 4

iv) Potential difference across each cell V = IR = 0.5 × 10 = 5 V

v) Current from each cell, I ′ = I/n
 I ′ = 0.5/4 = 0.125 A

4. For the following circuit, calculate:

a. the potential differences V1, V2 and V3 across the resistors R1, R2, and
R3 .
b. the resistance of R3.
c. If the internal resistance is 0.1 Ω, what is the emf of the battery and
what power is dissipated by the internal resistance of the battery?

Solution
a. Calculate potential difference across R1, R2 and R3, Since R1, R2 and R3 are
connected in series, the current is constant and I is given @ I =2A,
Using Ohm's Law:

V1
R 1=
I
V 1=IR 1=2 ( 1 )=2 v

V2
R 2=
I
V 2=IR 2=2 ( 3 )=3 v

For voltage across R3, we need to solve it in different way since R3 is not given,
 V =V 1+V 2+V 3
V 3=V −V 1−V 2
V 3=23−2−6
V 3=15 v
b. Therefore R3 is

V3
R 3=
I

15
R 3= =7.5 Ω
2

c. Potential difference across the internal resistance of the battery

The value of the emf can be calculated from the potential difference of the load
and the potential difference across the internal resistance.

Emf =V + Ir=23+ ( 2 )( 0.1 ) =23.2 v

Power dissipated in the battery

We know that the power dissipated in a resistor is given by P=VI=I 2R=V2/R and
we know the current in the circuit, the internal resistance and the potential
difference across it so we can use any form of the equation for power:

Pr=Vr Ir
But Vr=I x r=( 2 ) ( 0.1 )=0.2
Hence;
Pr ¿ Vr I =(0.2)(2)=0.4 watt

Performance Tasks
PT 7
Check Your Understanding. Analyze the following given problem statement. Show your solution.
Encircle your final answer. Maximum of ten (5) points will be given for every given problem. Reduce
your answer to two (2) decimal places.

1. What is the internal resistance of a battery if its emf is 6V and the potential difference across its terminals is
5.8 V when a current of 0.5A flows in the circuit when it is connected across a load?

2. A 12 V battery has an internal resistance of 7Ω.

a. What is the maximum current this battery could supply?
b. What is the potential difference across its terminals when it is supplying a current of 150.0 mA?

3. In a hearing aid a battery supplies a current of 25.0 mA through a resistance of 400 Ω. When the volume is
increased, the resistance is changed to 100 Ω and the current rises to 60 mA. What is the emf and internal
resistance of the cell?

4. A battery is connected in series with a rheostat and an ammeter. When the resistance of the resistor is 10 Ω
the current is 2.0 A. When the resistance is 5 Ω the current is 3.8 A. Find the emf and the internal resistance of
the battery.

5. When a cell is connected directly across a high resistance voltmeter the reading is 1,5 V. When the cell is
shorted through a low resistance ammeter the current is 2,5 A. What is the emf and internal resistance of the
cell?

6. The potential difference across a battery measures 18 V when it is connected to two parallel resistors of 4 Ω
and 12 Ω respectively. Calculate the current through the cell and through each of the resistors. If the internal
resistance of the battery is 0.375 Ω. What is the emf of the battery?

Learning Resources
 References
Boylestad, R. (2015). Introductory Circuit Analysis, 13th Edition. Pearson.
Hayt, J. e. (n.d.). Engineering circuit Analysis, 7th Edition. 2007: McGraw-Hill Education.
Romeo A. Rojas, J. (n.d.). 1001 Solved Problems in Electrical Engineering.
Sadiku. (2007). Fundamentals of Electric Circuit, 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill Education.
Theraja, B. L. (2005). A textbook of Electrical Technology Volume 1. S. Chand and Co. Ltd.
V. K. Mehta, R. M. (2008). Basic Electrical Engineering, Revised Edition. S. Chand and Co. Pvt. Ltd.

https://circuitglobe.com/difference-between-cell-and-battery.html
https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/current-electricity/cells-in-series-and-parallel/
https://slideplayer.com/slide/10507099/
https://www.electrical4u.com/series-parallel-battery-cells/

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