MODULE 1 - INTRODUCTION

TOPIC OUTLINE:
 Basic Terminology
 Fuels & Fuels Classification
 Combustion & Combustion Engineering

TOPIC OUTCOMES:
After completing this lesson, student will be able to:
1. Define basic combustion engineering terms
2. Identify the classification of fuels
3. Describe combustion reaction

BASIC TERMINOLOGY
ACCELERATOR – A device to quickly control the engine speed, to quickly open and close the t
hrottle, which regulates the amount of air fuel mixture in the engine cylinder.
ACTIVATED CARBON – A highly absorbent form of carbon used to remove gaseous emissions
of odors and toxic substances or to remove dissolved organic matter from waste water.
ADDITIVE – A substance that is added to a fuel, or oil or grease that improves its properties.
ADIABATIC FLAME TEMPERATURE – The maximum temperature achieved by the reaction
products when the reaction is complete and all the heat released is used to heat up the products.
AERATION TEST BURNER – Apparatus allowing to correlate and calibrate the combustion
characteristics of commercial gasses.
AFTER BOIL – Boil the fuel in the carburetor or the engine coolant immediately after the engine
is stopped.
AFTER BURNING – The continuation of the combustion phase of an internal combustion engine
past the time proper to the operating cycle, i.e. in the period of expansion.
AFTER BURNER – A type of exhaust manifold burning the hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide
in an automotive engine
AIR FUEL MIXTURE – Air and fuel traveling through the carburetor to the combustion chamber
after mixing.
AIR FUEL RATIO – Air-to - fuel ratio (by weight) that makes up engine fuel mixture.
AIR INJECTION SYSTEM – A system that injects air into the exhaust manifold or thermal
reactor in order to complete the combustion of carbon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons in the
exhaust.
AIR MASS METERING – In some fuel injection systems, the fuel metering is primarily
controlled by the speed of the engine and the amount of air actually entering it.
ALCOHOL – A volatile liquid fuel composed of alcohol, in whole or in part, that can withstand
high compression ratios without detonation.
ANTHRACITE COALS – Slow burning coals which yield very little ash, moisture and less than
10 percent volatiles, generally used in closed stoves.
ANILINE POINT-The lowest temperature at which an oil with an equal volume of aniline is
completely miscible.
ANTIBACKFIRE VALVE – Valve used in the exhaust emission control system of air injection
reaction to prevent backfiring immediately after sudden deceleration during the period.
ANTIKNOCK – The property the opposes knocking, i.e., autoignition, in engine fuels.

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ANTIKNOCK COMPOUND – A fuel additive used to prevent knocking or detonation, e.g., tetra
ethyl lead.
ANTIPERCOLATOR – A carburetor venting device for venting vapors from the main discharge
tube, or well.
APIEZON OILS – The residue of virtually zero vapor pressure produced by petroleum product
vacuum distillation.
API GRAVITY – The formula for measuring the specific gravity of a fuel or oil has been
developed by the American Petroleum Institute (API) as Degree API= ((141.5 / specific gravity at
60/60 F)–131.5). The symbol 60/60-degree F is defined as the ratio of the weight at 60-degree F
of a given volume of oil to the weight at 60-degree F of the same volume of water.
AROMATICS - A range of hydrocarbons which have a distinctive sweet smell and include
benzene and toluene. These occur naturally in petroleum and are also extracted as a petrochemical
feedstock, as well as for use as solvents.
ASH – An inorganic non-combustible residue which is produced in the presence of air by
combustion of an oil or coal.
ASH AND SLAG - Impurities in coal-fired boilers that do not burn and usually disturbing
elements.
ASH FREE BASIS – When fuels are delivered free of ash, this means that the percentage of ash
has been deducted and the other constituents have recalculated their percentages to a total of 100
per cent without ash.
ATMOSPHERIC GAS BURNER SYSTEM – a natural draught burner injector, in which the
momentum of the gas stream projected from the orifice into the throat of the injector inspires a
part of the air required for combustion from the atmosphere.
ATOMIZATION – Sprinkling of a liquid through a nozzle to break the liquid into a very fine
mist.
ATOMIZER - A nozzle from which oil fuel is poured into the combustion chamber of an oil
engine or boiler furnace. To ensure proper dispersion and combustion it breaks the fuel down into
a fine mist.
AUTOIGNITION – The self-ignition or spontaneous combustion of a fuel in the cylinder of a
compression ignition engine when inserted into the heated environment.
AUTOMATIC CHOKE – A carburetor choke device (valve) that automatically positions itself
according to the needs of the carburetor or temperature of the engine.
BALANCED DRAFT – A boiler that uses both a forced draft fan and an induced draft fan can be
controlled and balanced in the amount of air and flue gas treated so that the pressure on the furnace
is almost atmospheric.
BAGASSE – A fuel produced as a by-product of the abstraction of juice from sugar cane. The
dried cane (fibrous residue) is usually fed into a specially designed furnace by means of overfeed
stokers.
BENCH – The name applied to a complete coal-gas plant. Often called BENCH RETORT.
BENZOL – Crude benzene, generally mixed with petrol, used as a motor spirit, and valued for its
antiknock properties.
BIODIESEL – A fuel produced from biological products that can be used in diesel engines instead
of gasoline derived from petroleum; by the transesterification process, triglycerides in biologically
produced oils are removed from glycerine, providing a safe, renewable fuel.

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Bioethanol - Ethanol derived from feedstock’s of biomass; involves ethanol generated from seed
fermentation, such as corn, and cellulosic ethanol derived from woody plants or grasses.
BIOGAS – Obtained though fermentation in the sewage treatment system, or by fermentation of
animal waste, agricultural waste etc.
BIOFUELS - The common term for liquid or gaseous fuels not derived from petroleum-based
fossil fuels or including a proportion of non-fossil fuel; plant-based fuels, such as sugar beet, rape
seed oil, or reprocessed vegetable oils or fuel extracted from gaseous biomass; fuels produced from
renewable biological sources, including ethanol, methanol and biodiesel.
BIOMASS - Any organic matter that is available on a renewable or recurring basis, including
agricultural crops and trees, wood and wood residues, plants (including aquatic plants), grasses,
animal manure, municipal residues, and other residue materials.
BLAST FURNACE GAS – A low calorific value gas, an iron smelting by-product due to burning
of coke in a furnace with insufficient air, used for blast preheating, steam rising, etc. It can contain
carbon monoxide up to 30 per cent.
BLAST MAIN – The main air pipe which supplies air to a furnace.
BLOW BY – During compression and combustion strokes, the leakage of unburned air fuel
mixture and some burnt gases ringing through the piston into the crankcase.
BLOW TORCH EFFECT – In furnaces burning with gas or oil, when the fire impinges on any
surface, such as a tube or refractory wall, that surface is burnt like a blow torch. This is a condition
of combustion that must be avoided as being destructive to the surface.
BLUE WATER GAS – A mixture of approximately equal amounts of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, formed in special generators by passing steam over incandescent coke.
BOILING POINT – Temperature a liquid starts boiling.
BOMB CALORIEMETER - A tool used to measure fuel calorific values. The bomb consists of
a thick walled steel vessel which ignites a weighed quantity of fuel in a compressed oxygen
atmosphere. The device is immersed in a specified volume of water; the calorific value is
determined from the increase of the water temperature.
BONE DRY - having a moisture content of zero percent. Wood heated to a minimum temperature
of 100 ° C (212 ° F) or higher in an oven until its weight stabilizes is called dry bone or dry oven.
BOTTLED GAS – LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) compressed into metal containers. The gas
when contained in the tank, under pressure, is in liquid form.
BRIQUETS – Coherent masses of uniform size, created by applying pressure to any powdery
material put in an acceptable mold with or without a binder.
BUTANE - A synthetically produced hydrocarbon gas by zinc or ethyl iodide action. When under
pressure, natural gas, that is, liquid. Also used in vehicles as motor fuel.
CALORIE – The amount of heat needed to raise 1 gram of water to 1 ° C. Calorie is a heat-unit.
CALORIFIC INTENSITY – The maximum temperature of flame reached when the fuel is
burned.
CALORIFIC VALVE – The heat value of a fuel, either measured in BTU per pound or CHU per
pound or kilocalories / kg. The quantity of heat generated by burning fuel unit weight.
CALORIEMETER – A measuring device used to measure the amount of heat generated when
burning a material, as well as friction and the heat created by chemical change.
CARBON DEPOSIT – A black, hard, or soft residue formed on engine components by fuel
combustion. Carbon forms that inhibit their action on pistons, rings, valves, valve heads etc.

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CARBONDIOXIDE – A colorless, odorless gas that occurs when the carbon or hydrocarbon is
fully burned.
CARBONIZE – Building carbon from an engine on items like spark plug, piston head etc.
CARBON MONOXIDE-A colorless, odorless, tasteless, poisonous gas found in exhaust from the
engine. Formed by incomplete burning of carbon or hydrocarbons.
CARBURETED WATER GAS – An artificial gas formed by steam flowing through a bed of
glowing coke and enriching the gas thus produced with petroleum vapor.
CATALYTIC CONVERTER – A muffler-like component to be used in an exhaust system that
turns dangerous exhaust gases into harmless gasses by facilitating a chemical reaction between a
catalyst and pollutants.
CETANE NUMBER – Ignition output rating or the characteristic output of diesel fuel. A high
amount of fuel ignites at lower temperature more quickly than a fuel with a low cetane number.
CHARCOAL CANISTER – A container filled with activated charcoal used when the engine is
off to capture gasoline vapor from the fuel tank and carburetor.
CLOUD POINT – The temperature at which a liquid (as a petroleum oil) starts to cloud (as from
the cooling wax separation)
COAL – A solid, brittle, sedimentary, combustible rock derived from vegetable derbies that have
accumulated several million years of complex chemical and physical changes.
COAL GAS – A fuel that is produced by coal distillation, typically in retort or coke oven.
COEFFICIENT OF HAZE – A measurement of the ambient visibility disturbance.
COKE – A fused, porous cell structure that remains from coal after free moisture and the majority
of volatile matter has been removed.
CAKING COALS – Coals that get soft under the normal furnace temperatures and mix into
unwanted coke masses. The coal that is soft, melts and solidifies into a more or less solid mass that
tends to harden out of contact with air while heating.
COLLOIDAL FUEL – A mixture of fuel oil and coal powder.
COMBUSTION – The process involved in rapid burning. The release of chemical energy into
thermal energy occurs during combustion.
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY – Is the ratio of the (heat) energy released to that which could
be released under ideal conditions. The quantity of CO2 and H2O in the exhaust indicates the
energy released, while the quantity of H2, CO and CH4 indicates the energy released.
CRACKING – The process of breaking down heavy molecules into lighter hydrocarbons.
COMPRESSION IGNITION - Ignition of fuel as in a diesel engine through compression heat.
COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS – typically takes the form of compressed methane, which is
suitable for ultra-low emissions from combustion engines. Soot production is almost zero.
CONSTANT PRESSURE COMBUSTION – Combustion that occurs without a change in
pressure. This is achieved in the engine by a slower burning rate than by constant combustion
volume.
CRUDE OIL – Oil from oil (raw or raw state) as it comes from a petroleum well. It forms the
foundation for petrol, oil, diesel, petrol, etc.
DETONATION – An uncontrolled instantaneous second explosion in a funnel ignition engine
following the occurrence of spark, resulting enzyme or pinging noise, which leads to the
excessively rapid burning of a part of the compressed air fuel mixture (close end charge exploding).
DIESEL INDEX – Fuel rating based on the ignition characteristics. The higher the number of
diesel indicators, the better the fuel's ignition quality.

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DIMETHYLETHER – is a synthetic product with a high cetane number, which if combusted in

a diesel engine, create little soot and reduces nitrogen oxide.
DISTILLATION – Heat a liquid, then catch and condense the vapors produced by the heating
process.
DRAFT – Differential pressure in the furnace to allow the movement of gasses from the furnace
and the passage of air through the furnace.
E85-An alcohol-fuel mixture that contains 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline by volume.
EFFLUENT – Waste substance released to the environment, treated or untreated.
EGR SYSTEM – Exhaust gas recirculation system. It returns the exhaust gas via the carburetor
or intake collector to the engine, which reduces the amount of NOx formed by an engine.
ELECTOSTATIC PRECIPITATOR – An Air Pollution Control System in which solid or liquid
particles are charged by a gas stream and dropped onto the sample surface through the electric
field.
ELUTRIATION – A process by slowly moving upward fluid, which is used to separated lighter
particulates from heavier particles by washes solid waste.
EMISSION CONTROLS – A term applied to any device or modification added onto, or designed
into a motor vehicle for the purpose of controlling a source of air pollution emission.
ETHANOL – Ethyl alcohol produced by fermentation of a variety of carbohydrates such as
saccharin (sugar canes, sugar beets, molasses and fruit juices), starch (cereals and potatoes) or
cellulose (wood waste, sulphite liquor).
ETHYL GASOLINE – Gasoline to which ethyl fluid has been applied to improve its resistance
to knocking. This slows down the burning rate, providing a smooth pressure curve that will allow
the fuel to be used in high compression engines.
EVAPORATIVE EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM – A system that prevents the escape of
fuel vapors from the fuel tank or carburetor float bowl to the atmosphere when the engine is off.
The vapors will be stored in a canister.
EXCESS AIR – Air in the cylinder over and above what is theoretically needed to burn the fuel.
EXHAUST GAS – Combustion products which come from an internal combustion engine.
EXHAUST GAS ANALYZER – A device to analyze an engine's exhaust gas and determine the
quantity of contaminants in the exhaust. It decides the efficiency of combustion.
FLAME DETECTOR – A device that monitors the flame in a furnace that is burning oil, gas, or
pulverized coal fuel. Failure of the flame results in a signal and the actuation of various protective
controls on the fuel feed to prevent an explosion.
FLAME SAFEGUARD SYSTEM – An arrangement of a flame detection system, interlocks and
relays that will detect the presence of a proper flame in the furnace and cause the fuel to be shut
off in the furnace when a hazardous condition (improper flame or combustion) develops.
FLASH POINT – The point at which the amount of vapor released by the liquid into the
atmosphere is sufficient to cause a spark to ignite the mixture of vapor air above the fluid.
FLUE DUST – Particulate solids (less than 100 microns) carried in the combustion products.
FLUE GAS ANALYZER – a device that measures the concentrations of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and oxygen in the boiler's flue gas.
FLY ASH – Combustion ash so fine that the flue gas flow carries it up and into the atmosphere.
FORCED DRAFT FAN – The fan that drives or forces air into the furnace, normally at a greater
level than ambient pressure.

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FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION – A method of separation on a molecular level or on the basis

of the boiling point of various fractions.
FUEL – The substance that is burned to produce heat and create motion in an engine or heat
substances. Any combustible substance.
FUEL CALORIEMETER – A meter (also called oxygen bomb) to determine the heating value
of 1 kg of fuel by burning a sample of the fuel under controlled conditions.
FUGITIVE DUST – Particulate matter composed of soil which is uncontaminated by pollutants
resulting from industrial activity.
FUME – The noxious gas that occurs out of a combustion process or chemical reactions.
FUME AFTERBURNERS – System designed to consume combustible fumes by means of a
direct fired combustion chamber through which the fumes must pass on their way to the stack and
the atmosphere.
GASIFICATION - A chemical or heat process used to transform carbonaceous material (such as
coal, petroleum, and biomass) to gaseous materials such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
GASOLINE – A liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, derived from petroleum crude oil, used as the
fuel for most automobile SI engines.
GRINDABILITY – A descriptive term of a coal characteristic that is essential for pulverized coal
systems.
HEATING VALUE OF A FUEL – The heat produced by the complete and rapid combustion of
the fuel per unit weight or volume of the fuel. Often known as the calorific value of the fuel.
HIGHER HEATING VALUE (HHV) - Refers to a heating value measurement in which the
product water vapor is allowed to condense.
HIGH TEST GASOLINE – a term that refers to the octane level of a gasoline. Highly test
gasoline has a high octane level.
HYDROCARBON – A compound made of elements of hydrogen and carbon atoms. Gasoline,
diesel oil are blends of different hydrocarbons refined from crude oil.
HYDRODESULFURIZATION - The removal of sulfur by hydrotreating.
HYDROTREATING - Removal of heteroatomic (nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur) organisms by
treatment of a feedstock or substance in the presence of hydrogen at relatively low temperatures.
IGNITION TEMPERATURE – The temperature at which the heat produced by the reaction
between the air and the fuel vapor is faster than the temperature lost to the surroundings, and the
combustion is therefore self-propelled.
IGNITION QUALITY OF DIESELS – is indicated by cetane number. It is the percentage of
cetane by volume, in a mixture of cetane (C16 H34) and alpha methyl naphthalene which will
exhibit the same ignition characteristic of the fuel under test when tested in a standard engine,
under a set of standard test conditions.
INCINERATOR - Any device used to burn solid or liquid residues or wastes as a method of
disposal.
INDIRECT-INJECTION ENGINE - An older model of a diesel engine in which fuel is injected
into a pre-chamber, partially combusted, and then sent to a fuel-injection chamber.
INDUCED DRAFT FAN – a fan that draws the gasses from the furnace by generating a partial
vacuum on the fan's suction side.
INFRARED GAS ANALYZER – A non-dispersive infrared gas analyzer used to measure very
small concentrations of exhaust gas pollutants.

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KEROSENE – This petroleum oil is a liquid fuel with an average latent vaporization heat of 105-
110 BTU lb and a specific heat of 0,50.
KNOCK (engine) – In an engine, a rapping or hammering noise resulting from excessively rapid
burning of the compressed air fuel charge.
LIGNITE – A coal with a high content of moisture and low calorific value, generally below 8300
BTU / lb. May require pre-drying prior to fuel use.
LIQUID ASH REMOVAL SYSTEM – A piping system from which the molten ash is removed
from the bottom of a furnace continuously or intermittently, as needed. Usually the working
medium is compressed air with pneumatic control system.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG) – A petroleum fuel that is contained in liquid form and
converted into gas as it exits the storage tank by means of a pressure regulator that reduces the
storage pressure on the liquid at the exit of the tank and thereby enables the liquid to maintain its
normal gaseous state at the existing temperature and lower pressure.
LONG FLAME BURNER – An oil or gas burner where the fuel and air mixture is delayed long
enough to create a long fire from the burner nozzle.
LOWER HEATING VALUE (LHV) - Corresponds to a heating value in which the water
remains a vapor and does not yield its heat of vaporization.
LOW LEAD FUEL – Gasoline low in tetraethyl lead (about 0.5 gm / gallon).
M85 - An alcohol-fuel mixture containing 85% methanol and 15% gasoline per volume. Methanol
is usually made of natural gas, but may also be produced from biomass fermentation.
MECHANICAL DRAFT – Draft produced artificially, using forced or induced draft fans.
METHANOL – Methyl alcohol derived from coal by its liquefaction, by pyrolysis, or by its
reaction with high pressure hydrogen.
NATURAL DRAFT – Draft produced by a chimney, by a column of hot gases existing inside the
chimney.
NATURAL GAS – Gas obtained from petroleum mines.
NOx-Nitrogen oxides, a combustion by-product in the combustion chamber at high temperature
and under heavy load.
NOx CONTROL – Any type of device, or system, used to reduce the amount of NOx produced
by an engine.
NO LEAD FUEL – Gasoline to which there has been no intentional addition of lead compounds.
OCTANE RATING – Measurement of gasoline antiknock property. The higher the octane rating
(OCTANE NUMBER), the more resistant the fuel is to knock or detonate and increase the quality:
higher compression engines require higher octane fuel.
OCTANE NUMBER OF A FUEL – is the percentage by volume of isooctane in a mixture of is-
octane (C8 H18) and n-heptane (C7 H16) which will exhibit the same antiknock characteristic of
the fuel under test when tested in a standard CFR variable compression ratio engine, under a set
of standard test conditions.
OIL BURNER – Any device for combustion in which oil fuel is vaporized or so-called atomized
and combined with air in a proper proportion.
PARTICULATES – Small particles and other substances which occur in the exhaust gas as solid
matter.
PEAT – A substance of vegetable origin found in swamps and bogs often more or less saturated
with water.

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PETROLEUM – Crude oil as it comes out of the ground, composed of 83-87 percent carbon, and
10-14 per cent hydrogen, plus traces of oxygen, nitrogen and Sulphur.
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG – The result of atmospheric reaction by sunlight with
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides.
PING – The sound produced by the sudden auto-ignition of the air fuel charge in the combustion
chamber of the SI engine.
POSITIVE CRANKCASE VENTILATION – PCV system – A crankcase ventilation system
that produces air circulation through the crankcase, clearing the crankcase of water vapor,
unburned hydrocarbons, and blowing the air into the intake system of the engine, and thus into the
combustion chambers where it is burned.
POT TYPE BURNER – It is a hot plate burner in which the fuel oil drops into a hot plate and
vaporizes.
POUR POINT OF FUEL – is the temperature at which crystals tend to appear and where the fuel
is cooled, the fuel flow will be disrupted.
PRE-IGNITION – Ignition (by whatever means) of an air fuel mixture in the SI engine cylinder
before the (ignition) spark happens at the spark plug terminals.
PRIMARY AIR – The air mixed with the fuel at or in the burner. It ensures instant combustion
as the fuel enters the furnace.
PROPANE – A type of LPG that is liquid below –42°C at atmospheric pressure.
PULSATION – A panting of the flames in a furnace, indicating cyclic and rapid changes in the
pressure in the furnace.
PURGE – Evacuation of air from the duct line, pipe line, tube or furnace or some other specified
water. In some cases, purging can be done simply by using a fan or blower, in others by driving
out the air or gas by means of inert gas, such as nitrogen, under high pressure.
REFUSE – A term generally used for all solid waste materials.
RETORT – A channel or trough built into an underfeed stoker from which the stoker ram drives
green coal into the fire.
ROTARY BURNER – One in which the oil entering in the center of a rotating cup is very quickly
whirled around until the oil is thrown away from the cup. It blends with air and ignites by
centrifugal force.
SAFETY CONTROLS – Devices which protect against (1) overpressure leading to water side or
steam side explosions, (2) overheating of metal parts, possibly leading to explosion in a fired
boiler, (3) fire side explosions (furnace explosions) due to uncontrolled fuel mixtures on the firing
side.
SECONDARY AIR – Air that is introduced into a furnace above and around the flames as would
be critical to attain combustion. This air is in addition to the primary air which enters either as a
fuel mixture or as a blast underneath the stoker.
SCRUBBER – A device that removes aerosol and gaseous pollutants from an air stream using a
liquid spray.
SLACK – Fine-sized coal, often screenings, the maximum size is unlikely to exceed 62.5 mm.
SLAG TAP FURNACE – A furnace for burning pulverized coal in which the ash puddles in a
molten state at the bottom of the furnace and is regularly or continuously collected, depending on
the configuration of the machine, while still in molten condition.

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SMOG – A term derived from fog and smoke. It refers to the fog-like film, which remains under
some ambient conditions in other regions. Smog is formed by smoke, moisture, and various
chemicals created by combustion, and from numerous processes of nature and industry.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY – A measure of the weight per unit volume of a liquid as compared with
the weight of an equal volume of water.
SURFACE IGNITION – Ignition of air fuel mixture produced by hot metal surfaces or heated
carbon particles in the combustion chamber.
SYNTHETIC FUELS – Fuels such as coal-derived ethanol and butanol, and hydrogen from
water.
TETRA ETHYL LEAD – A chemical put into the engine fuel that increases the octane rating or
reduces the knock tendency.
VAPORIZING BURNER – A burner in which the fuel oil is vaporized by heating in a retort. It
may be a mixing or non-mixing type.
VAPOR LOCK – A condition in the fuel system where gasoline has vaporized and turned into
fuel line or fuel pump bubbles, preventing or delaying the fuel delivery to the SI engine's
carburetor.
VOLATILITY- Refers to how easily a liquid vaporizes.
WIND BOX – A plenum from which air is supplied to a stoker or a gas or oil burner.

FUELS & FUELS CLASSIFICATION

Fuel is a substance that, when burned, i.e. when it comes into contact and reacts with oxygen or
air, produces heat. Therefore, the substances defined as fuel must necessarily contain one or more
of the fuel elements: carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, etc. In the process of combustion, the chemical
energy of the fuel is converted into heat energy.

Fuels can be classified in a number of ways. From the point of view of the combustion device, the
critical aspects of the fuel are how it is transported within the combustion device and how it is
burned.

Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways:

 Base on the physical state in which they exist in nature – solid, liquid and gaseous
 Base on the mode of their occurrence – natural and manufactured.

On the basis of these class, combustion engineering, fuels classify primarily as gaseous, liquid or
solid.

GASEOUS FUEL
Gas fuel is the most convenient because it needs the least amount of handling and is used in the
simplest and most maintenance-free burner systems. Gas is distributed "on demand" via a
distribution network, and is thus suitable for areas of high population or industrial density. Large
individual customers, however, do have gasholders and some produce their own gas.

TYPES OF GASEOUS FUEL

 Fuels naturally found in nature:
 Natural gas
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 Methane from coal mines

 Fuel gases made from solid fuel
 Gases derived from coal
 Gases derived from waste and biomass
 From other industrial processes (blast furnace gas)
 Gases made from petroleum
 Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
 Refinery gases
 Gases from oil gasification
 Gases from some fermentation process

ADVANTAGES OF GASEOUS FUEL

Due to the flexibility of their applications, gaseous fuels have the following advantages over solid
or liquid fuels:
 Clean in use.
 Can be lighted at ease.
 Do not require any special burner.
 Have high heat contents therefore provides higher temperatures.
 Burn without any shoot, smoke and ashes.
 Free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.
 Can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need, thereby eliminating
manual labor in transportation.
 Have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures.
 Can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting economy in heat.
 Combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or reducing
atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.

DISADVANTAGES OF GASEOUS FUEL

 Very large storage tanks are needed.
 They are highly flammable; the fire hazards are possible.

NATURAL GAS AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

 Natural Gas is a naturally occurring combination of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon
gases found underneath the earth's surface in porous formations. It is not a pure product
like oxygen but a mixture of gases, the components of which are hydrocarbon gases that
are combustible and generate heat.
 The approximate composition of natural gas is: CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO
+ CO2 = 22%
 The heating value of natural gas varies from 42 to 55 MJ/kg. It is a colorless gas and is
non-poisonous. Its specific gravity usually varies between 0.57 and 0.7.

MANUFACTURED GASES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Manufactured gases are derived from solid and fluid fuels. Some of the essential gaseous fuels that
are produced are coal gas, blast furnace gas, water gas, producer gas and oil gas.

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Coal Gas its Characteristics

 Coal gas is produced in either coke ovens or gas-producing retorts when it is carbonized or
heated at about 1300oC in the absence of air. Coal is fed in the gas retort process in closed
silica retorts, which are then heated by burning gas and air mixture from the producer to
about 1300oC.
 Coal gas is a colorless gas with a distinguishable odor. It's lighter than air, and it burns with
a long smoky flame.
 Its average composition is: H2 = 47%, CH4 = 32%, CO = 7%, C2H2 = 2%, C2H4 = 3%,
N2 = 4%, CO2 = 1% and rest = 4%.
BLAST FURNACE GAS AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
 It is a by-product flue gas that is obtained in blast furnace when iron ore is reduced by coke.
 It contains around 20-25% carbon monoxide, along with CO2, N2, etc. Approximately 1/3
of this gas is used for preheating air used in blast furnace itself; while the remaining 2/3 is
usable for use in boilers or after cleaning in gas motors.
 It is also used for burning in a special type of stove where the furnace is preheated (called
the Cowper's stove).
 This gas contains a lot of dust and is generally clean by dust settlers, cyclones or electrolyte
precipitators before use.

PRODUCER GAS AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

 Producer gas is essentially a mixture of fuel gasses associated with non-combustible gases
N2, CO2, etc., carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
 This is prepared by passing air combined with little steam (about 0.35 kg / kg of fuel) over
a red hot fuel or coke bed stored in a special reactor called gas producer at around 1100oC
 It consists of a steel vessel with a diameter of about 3 m and a height of 4 m. The vessel is
lined with fire bricks at the inside. It is fitted with a top-mounted cup and cone feeder and
a side opening for producer gas exit. It has an inlet at the base for passing through air and
steam. The base producer is also supplied with an outlet for the produced mud.

GENERAL PROPERTIES AND DESCRIPTION OF GASEOUS FUELS

Source: Speight, James G., SYNTHETIC FUELS HANDBOOK, PROPERTIES, PROCESS, AND PERFORMANCE, 2008

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COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT GASEOUS FUELS

Source: Speight, James G., SYNTHETIC FUELS HANDBOOK, PROPERTIES, PROCESS, AND PERFORMANCE, 2008

CALORIFIC VALUE OF GASEOUS FUELS

LIQUID FUEL
ADVANTAGES OF LIQUID FUEL
 They possess higher calorific value per unit mass as compare to solid fuels.
 They burn without dust, ash, clinkers.
 Easy to fire and fire can be extinguished easily by stopping liquid fuel supply.
 Easy to transport through pipes.
 Can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
 They are clean in use and economic to handle.
 Heat loss in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness.
 They require less furnace space and excess air for complete combustion

DISADVANTAGES OF LIQUID FUEL

 The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
 There is a greater risk of five hazards, in case of highly inflammable and volatile liquid
fuels.
 They give bad odor.
 Special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
 Specially constructed burners and spraying apparatus are required for efficient burning of
liquid fuels.

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PETROLEUM AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

 Petroleum is a basic natural fuel. It is a dark greenish brown, viscous mineral oil, found
deep in earth’s crust.
 It consists mainly of different hydrocarbons (such as straight paraffins, cycloparaffins or
napthenes, olefins, and aromatics) along with a small amount of organic compounds
containing oxygen nitrogen and sulphur.
 The average composition of crude petroleum is: C = 79.5 to 87.1%; H = 11.5 to 14.8%; S
= 0.1 to 3.5%, N and O = 0.1 to 0.5%.

Petroleum are graded according to the following properties:

 Specific gravity
 Calorific value
 Flash point
 Ignition point
 Viscosity
 Sulphur contents
 Moisture and sediment content
 Specific heat and coefficient of expansion.

CLASSIFICATION OF PETROLEUM
 Paraffin-Base Crude Oils - These contain paraffins of higher molecular weight that are
solid at room temperature but have little to no asphaltic (bituminous) matter. They are able
to produce high quality lubricating oils.
 Asphalt-Base Crude Oils - Contains significant quantities of asphaltic matter, and little to
no paraffin. These are mainly naphthenes, and they create a lubricating oil that is more
prone to changes in temperature than crudes at the base of paraffin.
 Mixed base Crude Oils - The "grey area" between the above two forms. There are both
paraffins and naphthens, and aromatic hydrocarbons. The majority of crudes fit in this
group.

MANUFACTURED LIQUID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

GASOLINE OR PETROL AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
 The straight run petrol is obtained either by crude petroleum distillation or by synthesis. It
contains some undesirable straight chain hydrocarbons and compounds of sulphur. It has
40-120oC, boiling range.
 Some of the characteristics of an ideal gasoline are the following:
 It must be cheap and readily available.
 It must burn clean and produce no corrosion, etc. on combustion.
 It should mix readily with air and afford uniform manifold
 distribution, i.e. should easily vaporize.
 It must be knock resistant.
 It should be pre-ignite easily.
 It must have a high calorific value.

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DIESEL FUEL AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

 During the fractional distillation of crude petroleum, the diesel or gas oil is obtained
between 250-320oC.
 A Diesel fuel's suitability is determined by its value of cetane.
 Diesel fuels are made of longer hydrocarbons and have low ash, sand , water and sulfur
content.
 The main attributes of a diesel fuel are that it can quickly ignite below the temperature of
compression.
 The hydrocarbon molecules in a diesel fuel should be the straight-chain molecules with
minimum admixture of aromatic and side-chain hydrocarbon molecules.

KEROSENE OIL AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

 Kerosene oil is obtained from 180-250oC during crude petroleum fractional distillation.
 It is used as a fuel for illuminant, jet engine, tractor fuel, and as laboratory gas preparation.
Kerosene has become a commodity of much greater significance than used to be with the
development of jet engines.
 The kerosene is always vaporized before combustion when used in domestic appliances. It
burns with a smokeless blue flame, using a decent excess of oxygen.

Heavy Oil and its Characteristics

 It is a fraction of crude petroleum obtained between 320-400oC during fractional
distillation.
 This oil on refractionation gives; Lubricating Oil, Petroleum-jell, Greases and Paraffin wax

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUID PRODUCTS FROM PETROLEUM

Source: Speight, James G., SYNTHETIC FUELS HANDBOOK, PROPERTIES, PROCESS, AND PERFORMANCE, 2008

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HEAT CONTENT OF VARIOUS LIQUID FUELS

PROPERTIES OF DISTILLATE AND RESIDUAL LIQUID FUELS

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PROPERTIES OF SOME ALTERNATE LIQUID FUELS

PROPERTIES OF CONVENTIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE FUELS

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SPECIFICATIONS FOR DIESEL AND BIODIESEL (ASTM)

SOLID FUEL
 The combustion, handling and monitoring of solid fuels is more difficult than liquid or
gaseous fuels. The volatiles are released from the fuel matrix after the initial drying
process, and burned in the gas phase. The residual fuel, known as char, undergoes a
heterogeneous cycle of combustion, that is to say the char is oxidized by oxygen.
 The burning rates are generally small, and a normally high volume of combustion is
needed. Nevertheless, the size of the gas and oil flames can also be reached in some cyclone
firing equipment.
 Due to the increase in fuel prices, the use of waste or by-product fuels and gasified solid
fuels is becoming more widespread. Factories that produce such materials either use them
on-site as an energy source or sell them as fuel. The difficulty of handling, the fluctuating
amount of available waste and the problems of environmental pollution complicate the use
of these fuels.

ADVANTAGES OF SOLID FUEL

 They are easy to transport.
 The production cost is low.
 They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
 They possess moderate ignition temperature.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLID FUEL

 The ash contents are high.
 They burn with clinker formation.
 Large proportion of heat is wasted.
 Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
 Handling cost is high.

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BIOMASS
 The term biomass covers a wide range of fuels, such as wood, farm crops, forest and
agricultural waste and residues, as well as aquatic and marine biomass, such as algae and
seaweed. A lot of solid waste, like paper, cardboard, waste wood, etc., is biomass because
it is made up of lignocellulose materials.
 Biomass is widely distributed worldwide and is a source of renewable energy that contains
considerable amounts of oxygen and therefore has a lower energy value than coal. It is very
reactive, as it contains a great deal of volatiles.
 Biomass material consists largely of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose is a
linear D-glucose polysaccharide whereas the hemicelluloses are branched polysaccharides
which consist of several different monomer compounds of which the primary compound
is D-glucuronic acid. Lignin has the highest carbon content due to the greater amount of
aromatics it contains.

COAL

USES OF COAL
Coal has various purposes, the following are the uses of coal:
 Thermal coal is used to produce electricity.
 Coking coal is used in the production of steel.
 Coal is also used to make silicon metal which is used to produce silicones and silanes,
which are in turn used to make lubricants, water repellents, resins, cosmetics, hair
shampoos, and toothpaste.
 Activated charcoal is used to make face packs and cosmetics.

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 Carbon fiber is made from coal. Carbon fibre is an extremely strong but lightweight
reinforcement material used in construction, mountain bikes, and tennis rackets.
 Activated carbon is used in filters for water and air purification and in kidney dialysis
machines. Coal is used to make activated carbon.
 Paper manufacturers use coal to make paper.
 Coal helps to create alumina refineries.
 Thousands of different products have coal or coal by-products as components: soap,
aspirins, solvents, dyes, plastics, and fibers, such as rayon and nylon.

SOLID FUELS CHARACTERIZATION

 Proximate and ultimate analysis are the standard test methods and are, together with the
determination of the heating values (HHV and LHV), the most important characterization
methods.
 Proximate or immediate analysis - gives some information about the moisture, volatile
matter, fixed carbon, and ash on a mass percent basis but it is not exact. The exact
information about the solid fuel is determined by ultimate analysis.
 Ultimate Analysis - In the ultimate analysis the contents of the elements are determined,
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen being of especially high interest. In addition, the sulfur,
nitrogen, and in certain cases the chlorine contents of the fuels are measured

PROPERTIES OF COAL
Typical higher heating values (HHV) of various solid fuels

Source: 15. Maximilian L. et.al, HANDBOOK OF COMBUSTION FROM BASIC TO

APPLICATION, 2013

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Proximate Analysis and Ultimate Analysis of Solid Fuels (Dry, Ash-Free)

Moisture, Ash, Heat Content, and Chemical Composition of Selected Biomass Fuels

INTRODUCTION TO COMBSUTION
Combustion - a chemical reaction between substances, usually including oxygen and usually
accompanied by the generation of heat and light in the form of flame. The rate or speed at which
the reactants combine is high, in part because of the nature of the chemical reaction itself and in
part because more energy is generated than can escape into the surrounding medium, with the
result that the temperature of the reactants is raised to accelerate the reaction even more.

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Combustion Engineering -The science of combustion, as complex as it is, can be summed up

simply; it's the process by which fuel is turned into energy through a heating process. Combustion
engineering concerns the science of combustion as it applies to industry. Combustion
engineers plan and implement combustion equipment. They also test and design new energy-
burning systems.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMBUSTION
Premixed Combustion

 Fuel and oxidizer are mixed at the molecular level prior to ignition.
 Examples of premixed combustion include aspirated internal combustion engines, lean-
premixed gas turbine combustors, and gas-leak explosions.

Partial Premix Combustion

 Partially premixed combustion systems are premixed flames with non-uniform fuel-
oxidizing mixtures (equivalence ratios).
 Flames include premixed jets discharged into a quiet atmosphere, lean premixed burners
with diffusion pilot flames and/or cooling air jets, and imperfectly mixed inlets.

Diffusion Combustion

 Fuel and air enter process separately and are mixed at the flame front itself
 Mixing and reaction happen at the same place and time
 Laminar diffusion - through random molecular motion
 Turbulent diffusion - through turbulent eddies (much faster)

COMBUSTION EQUATION
Combustion may symbolically be represented by:

𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

 In this case the fuel and the oxidizer are reactants, i.e. substances present before the reaction
occurs.
 This relationship indicates the combustion products and energy produced by the reactants.

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 Either the released chemical energy is transmitted to the atmosphere as it is formed, or it

persists in the combustion products in the form of elevated internal energy (temperature)
or any combination thereof.
Ex.
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O

 Fuels are measured, in part, on the basis of the amount of energy or heat they emit per unit
mass or per mole during fuel combustion. Such a quantity is known as the reaction heat or
the heating value of the fuel.
 Reaction heats can be measured in a calorimeter, a device in which the flow of heat
released into the surrounding fluid determines the release of chemical energy. When
returning the combustion products to their initial temperature, the volume of heat
transferred to the fluid produces heat for reaction.
 The oxidizer is typically air in combustion processes but may be pure oxygen, an oxygen
mixture, or a material that includes some other oxidizing element such as fluorine.
 These are gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical fuels. Natural gas, petrol, and coal, perhaps
the most commonly used examples of these three types, are each a complex mixture of
interacting compounds and inerts. We will look more closely at each later in the chapter.

Mass and Mole Fractions

The quantity of a substance present in the sample may be indicated by its mass or by the number
of moles of the substance. The mole is defined as the mass of a substance equal to its molecular
weight or molecular weight.

The composition of the mixture may be given as a list of the fractions of each substance present.
Thus, we define the mass fraction of the component I mfi, as the mass ratio of the component, mi,
to the mass of the mixture, m:

𝑚𝑖
𝑚𝑓𝑖 =
𝑚

The sum of the mass fractions of all the components must be 1, therefore
𝑚𝑓1 + 𝑚𝑓2 + ⋯ = 1

For ideal gases mixture at a given temperature and pressure:

𝑃𝑣𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑇
For the mixture as a whoel
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

Therefore, the mole fraction:

𝑉𝑖 𝑛𝑖
𝑥𝑖 = =
𝑉 𝑛

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Characterizing Air for Combustion Calculations

 Air is a mixture of approximately 21 percent oxygen, 78 per cent nitrogen and 1 per cent
other constituents by volume. For combustion calculations, it is usually satisfactory to
account for 21 percent of oxygen, 79 percent of nitrogen mixture, by volume.
 For every 21 moles of oxygen that react when the air oxidizes the fuel, 79 moles of nitrogen
are also involved. Therefore, for every mole of oxygen in the air, 79/21 = 3.76 moles of
nitrogen are present.
 All oxygen and nitrogen as diatomic molecules, respectively O2 and N2, exist at room
temperature. It is commonly accepted that the nitrogen in the air will not react at the
temperatures of combustion; that is, the products contain as many moles of pure
nitrogen as there were in the reactants.
 Small amounts of nitrogen react with oxygen at very high temperatures to form nitrogen
oxides, generally called NOx. Due to the important role of even small traces of NOx in
smog production such small concentrations are significant in pollution analysis. However,
since these levels of NOx are insignificant in applications for energy analysis, nitrogen is
treated as inert here.
 The molecular weight of a compound or mixture is the mass of 1 mole of the substance.
The average molecular weight, M, of the mixture, is the linear combination of the mole
fractions of the components and their respective molecular weights. Thus, the molecular
weight of air, Mair, is determined by the sum of the products of the molecular weights of
oxygen and nitrogen and their respective mole fractions in the air.

𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟/𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 = (𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑁2 /𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟)(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 /𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 )

+ (𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2 /𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟)(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2 /𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2 )

Or

𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.79 𝑀𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 0.21 𝑀𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0.79(28) + 0.21(32) = 28.84

The mass fractions of oxygen and nitrogen in air:

𝑚𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 = (0.21)(32)/28.84 = 0.233, 𝑜𝑟 23.3%

and
𝑚𝑓𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = (0.79)(28)/28.84 = 0.767, 𝑜𝑟 76.7%

Combustion Chemistry of a Simple Fuel

The equation for chemical reaction to the absolute combustion of methane in oxygen can be written
as:

Ex.1.0 Methane, CH4, is a common fuel that most natural gases make up a major constituent.
Imagine methane being completely combusted in pure oxygen.

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𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂

Analysis: Considering atomic weights (masses) of each element; C=12, H=1, O=16
[12 + 4(1)] + 4(16) → [12 + 2(16)] + 2[2(1) + 16] = 80

The 3 moles of the combustion products contain 2 moles of water, therefore, the mole fraction of
water in the combustion products is given by:
𝑥𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2/3 = 0.667 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

Similarly
𝑥𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 1/3 = 0.333 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

The 80 mass units of products contain 44 mass units of CO2 for a total fraction of CO2 in the
products;

𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 44/80 = 0.55

Similarly:
𝑚𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂 = 2(18)/80 = 0.45

Ex.2.0. Ethanol can be used as a fuel source in an alcohol lamp. The formula for ethanol is C2H5OH
𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻(𝑙) + 3𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)

Analysis: Considering atomic weights (masses) of each element; C=12, H=4, O=16
[(12)(2) + (1)(5) + (16) + (1)] + 3[(16)(2)] → 2[12 + 2(16)] + 3[2(1) + 16] = 142

The 5 moles of the combustion products contain 3 moles of water, therefore, the mole fraction of
water in the combustion products is given by:
𝑥𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 3/5 = 0.60 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

Similarly:
𝑥𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 2/5 = 0.40 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

The 142 mass units of products contain 88 mass units of CO2 for a total fraction of CO2 in the
products;

𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 88/142 = 0.62

Similarly:
𝑚𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂 = 3(18)/142 = 0.38

 Combustion reactions must have oxygen as a reactant. Realize that, because of the high
temperatures that follow a combustion reaction, water is produced in the gas rather than
the liquid state.

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 Carbon dioxide is a substance produced by complete carbon combustion through the C +

O2  CO2 reaction.
Combustion in Air
The same combustion products are produced as with oxygen combustion; nitrogen is the only
additional reactant present, and is considered inert. Furthermore, since we know that in air each
mole of oxygen is accompanied by 3.76 moles of nitrogen, the equation of the reaction can be
written as:

Ex. 1.0
𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 + 2(3.76)𝑁2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 2(3.76)𝑁2

Analysis: Considering atomic weights (masses) of each element; C=12, H=1, O=16, N=14
[12 + 4(1)] + [4(16)] + [2(3.76)(14)(2)] → [12 + 2(16)] + 2[2(1) + 16] + [2(3.76)(14)(2)] = 290.56

The 10.52 moles of the combustion products contain 2 moles of water, therefore, the mole fraction
of water in the combustion products is given by:
𝑥𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2/10.52 = 0.190 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

Similarly
𝑥𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 1/10.52 = 0.095 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

𝑥𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 7.52/10.52 = 0.715 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

At wet flue gas, the 290.56 mass units of products contain 44 mass units of CO2 for a total fraction
of CO2 in the products;

𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 44/290.56 = 0.1514

Similarly:
𝑚𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂 = 2(18)/290.56 = 0.1239

𝑚𝑓 𝑁2 = 2(3.76)(14)(2)/290.56 = 0.7247
At wet flue gas, the mass of dry combustion products is 254.56. Thus, the fraction of CO2 is given
by:
𝑚𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 44/254.56 = 0.1728

In combustion, the reference of discussions is frequently made to higher and lower heating values.
𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 𝐿𝐻𝑉 + (𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 /𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 )ℎ𝑓𝑔 → [𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏𝑚 | 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔]
Where
mwater = mass of liquid water in the combustion products
hfg = latent heat of vaporization of water.

ME 410 – COMBUSTION ENGINEERING 25

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 MODULE 1 - INTRODUCTION

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Speight, James G., SYNTHETIC FUELS HANDBOOK, PROPERTIES, PROCESS, AND

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PRACTICE Vol 2: COMBUSTION, FUELS, MATERIALS, DESIGN., MIT Press, 1985

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ME 410 – COMBUSTION ENGINEERING 26

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