Fuel 302 (2021) 121076

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Full Length Article

Effect of process parameters and biomass composition on flat-die pellet

production from underexploited forest and agricultural biomass
Simon Lavergne a, b, *, Sylvia.H. Larsson c, Denilson Da Silva Perez d, Muriel Marchand b,
Matthieu Campargue a, Capucine Dupont e
a
RAGT Energie S.A.S., Chemin de la Teulière, 81000 Albi, France
b
CEA Liten, 17 Avenue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
c
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, SE 90183 Umeå, Sweden
d
FCBA, 341 Rue de la Papeterie, 38610 Gières, France
e
IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Department of Environmental Engineering and Water Technology, Delft, the Netherlands

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study investigates the impact of biomass moisture content, press-channel length, energy input, and die
Pelletizing temperature on pellet quality in pilot-scale flat-die pellet production. In addition, observed correlations between
Wood pellet pellet quality and the chemical composition of the pelletized biomass assortments are presented. Ten different
Straw
feedstock assortments: Scots pine bark, Scots pine forest residues, willow, poplar stemwood with bark, beech
Bark
Galactose
stemwood with bark, wheat straw, reed canary grass, corn cobs, sunflower shells, and grape seed cakes were
Acetyl groups pelletized in a flat-die pilot-scale pelletizer with a die-channel diameter of 6 mm. The die-channel length varied
within a range of 18–60 mm and biomass moisture content from 10% to 23%. In all, 72 pelletizing experiments
were performed.
Biomass moisture content was the most important parameter for mechanical durability. The feedstock mois­
ture content required to obtain maximum pellet durability depended on the feedstock and showed correlations
with its extractives and galactose content. For all feedstocks, bulk density correlated negatively with moisture
content. The mechanical durability and bulk density of pellets increased with energy consumption. Energy
consumption increased with press-channel length and was correlated with acetyl-group content.

1. Introduction improve processing methodologies. International standards series ISO

17225 [2–4] have been developed to determine several quality classes
Biomass pellets are produced to deliver a product with a high bulk (AX, B, IX) and specifications for woody and non-woody pellets. Physical
density, homogeneous composition, and a particle shape with the requirements are shown in Table 1 and Table 2, and are mainly
following advantages: controlled through the following parameters:

- lower transportation, storage and handling costs;
- suitable for automated feeding systems.
The feeding and particle-shape properties obtained are also benefi­
cial in specific conversion processes, particularly combustion, enabling
better process control and conversion efficiency [1]. Due to the rising
global demand for biomass as a feedstock for chemicals, materials, and
energy, handling and conversion properties are increasingly important.
Obtaining high pellet quality, especially from unconventional biomasses
is a challenge, which requires further research and development to
1) Mechanical durability (DU) is defined as “the ability to withstand
wear, pressure, or damage and represents the pellets’ resistance to­
wards shocks and/or abrasion as a consequence of handling and
transportation”. It is expressed in percentage, and quantified by
standard ISO 17831–1:2015 [2]. This parameter is of great impor­
tance because if pellets break during handling and storage, they
produce fines that are hazardous for health – inhalation, skin contact
– and safety reasons – self-heating, explosive nature of airborne dust,
off-gassing. It can also increase the risk of pellets swelling through

* Corresponding author at: RAGT Energie S.A.S., Chemin de la Teulière, 81000 Albi, France.
E-mail address: simon.lavergne@2016.icam.fr (S. Lavergne).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121076
Received 3 April 2020; Received in revised form 30 March 2021; Accepted 15 May 2021
Available online 2 June 2021
0016-2361/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Lavergne et al. Fuel 302 (2021) 121076

Table 1
ISO 17225–2 physical quality specifications for woody pellets.
Property Unit A1 A2 B I1 I2 I3

Mechanical durability % a.r ≥97.5 ≥96.5 [97.5;99.0] [97.0;99.0] [96.0;99.0]

Fines % a.r ≤1.0 ≤4.0 ≤5.0 ≤6.0
Bulk density kg.m− 3 ≥600
Diameter mm 6–8 6–8-10 6–8-10–14
Length mm [3.15; 40]

3) Specific energy consumption represents the energy needed by the

Table 2 pelletizer to densify a fixed quantity of material. It depends on
ISO 17225–6 physical quality specifications for non-woody pellets.
different process settings (roller- and/or die rotation speed, feeding
Property Unit A B rate, etc.) and on feedstock properties [17]. It has been shown that
Mechanical % a.r ≥97.5 ≥96.0 the energy required to produce biomass pellets has been positively
durability correlated with their physical quality [6].
Fines % a.r ≤2.0 ≤3.0 4) The temperature of the die during pelletizing depends largely on
Bulk density kg.
friction. In industrial production units, die temperature cannot be
≥600
m− 3
Diameter mm 6–8-10–12-25 regulated, but instead reaches an equilibrium [5,15,18–21]. Die
Length mm [3.15; 40] for 6–8-10;[3.15; 50] for temperature (combined with feedstock composition and MC) im­
12–25 pacts softening of natural binding agents in the biomass (lignin and
monosugars). So it is a major factor in pellet quality [10].
moisture sorption, and higher particulate matter emissions from
In the literature, most of the studies of the impact of operating
combustion [1].
conditions have been carried out at laboratory scale, using single-pellet
2) Bulk density (BD) is defined as “the mass of many particles of a
press devices [5,15,18–21]. This type of press only requires a few grams
material divided by the total volume they occupy” and is quantified
of raw material and it is easy to vary operational settings independently
by standard ISO 17828:2015 [3]. It is an important parameter for
from one another. But it is questionable [22] how relevant such results
solid biofuel commercialization because it indirectly represents en­
are to industrial pellet production.
ergy density and gives an idea of the space required for transport and
Furthermore, most of the studies use limited operating conditions.
storage [1].
For example only one moisture content was used: Zamorano et al. [23],
3) The diameter and length of pellets are quantified by standard ISO
with olive wood, almond wood, leaves, black poplar wood and holm oak
17829:2016 [4]. These parameters must be homogeneous, and they
wood; Brand and Jacinto [24] with apple pruning residues; or Lerma-
determine the correct choice of feeding and furnace technology [1].
Arce et al [25] with ten Mediterranean pinewood mixtures.
Systematic studies of different operating settings using a wide range
Pellet quality depends on many parameters, including feedstock
of feedstocks whose compositions are known, under realistic industrial
properties and production conditions [5]. Straws, grasses, and residues
conditions could better control of pelletizing when dealing with new
from forestry and agriculture have been historically used less for
underexploited forest and agricultural biomass. Agar et al. [6] worked in
pelletizing than stem wood and they therefore suffer from a less opti­
this direction by studying pellet production on a ring-die pellet press
mized production technology.
using seven underexploited agricultural and forestry biomasses. This
The lack of process development for these materials entails that they
work yielded unique guidelines for the use of non-conventional feed­
generally have poorer mechanical properties [6,7]. Whittaker and
stock which must be consolidated. An extended analysis of these results
Shield [8] noted that low lignin content and its melting properties, as
has been proposed by Larsson et al [40], which have confirmed by
well as a high extractives content, compared to wood can also explain
Principal Componant Analysis (PCA) that the composition of the feed­
these differences. Castellano et al. [9] and Kaliyan and Morey [10]
stoclss is representative forfor their biomass types: hardwood, softwood
explained that lignin is the most reactive biomass polymer in the auto-
bark, short rotation coppice (SRC), and straw and energy crops. More­
crosslinking reactions occurring in the inter-fiber bonding area of the
over, Orthogonal Partial Least Squares Projections to Latent Structures
particles, and this is responsible for the inter-particle bonding. However,
(OPLS) models were created with the content of macromolecules as
the conditions of lignin softening during pelletizing are still in discussion
factors and pelletizing parameters as responses, which have lead to
[11,12], and consideration of other constitutive elements in pellet
consider acetyl groups, arabinan, xylan, or mannan as new constituents
binding is now suggested [13,14]. which requires further research.
with a probable impact on pelletizing moisture content and press
In industrial production, four main operating conditions impact
channel length used for producing high durability pellets.
pellet quality:
The objective of the present study is to systematically analyze the
links between biomass composition for ten different biomass assort­
1) Moisture improves the bonding between particles but also reduces
ments; five from forestry and five from agriculture, to varying combi­
friction in the die due to its lubricating effect. At extreme values,
nations of process settings for a flat-die pelletizer on a relevant industrial
water can create a layer that is too large to hold the particles
scale. Seven of these feedstocks are the same used by Agar et al. [6] and
together. Once an acceptable moisture content has been achieved, it
Larsson et al. [40] and will establish a comparison of the pelletizing
has been shown that higher moisture content (MC) reduces the final
behaviour on another type of pellet press.
BD of the pellet produced; optimal MC, to maximize DU, depends on
To achieve this, we defined the following approach:
the feedstock [8].
2) Press-channel length (PCL) increases friction between biomass par­
1) Produce pellets with a flat die-pelletizer from a wide range of bio­
ticles and channel walls as well as the time during which the material
masses to pinpoint the most suitable moisture content and press-
is exposed to heat and pressure [15]. This parameter must be
channel length for stable production of high-quality pellets.
adjusted according to the compression force required for a specific
2) Identify the effects of moisture content, press-channel length, energy
material [16].
input and die temperature on pellet quality for different feedstocks.

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S. Lavergne et al. Fuel 302 (2021) 121076

Table 3 (screen size: 4 mm) in an industrial hammer-mill (Vertica DFZK, Büh­

Source and collection date of feedstock materials. ler Nordic, Sweden). The visual appearance of the shredded materials is
Label Common name Latin name Place of origin Collection displayed in Fig. 1. After hammer-milling, the materials were shipped to
date RAGT Energie’s laboratory in Albi, France, for pelletizing.
SPB Scots pine bark Pinus sylvestris Hällnäs, Sweden 25/08/2015
FOR Scots pine Pinus sylvestris Robertsfors, 15/09/2015 2.2. Pellet production
forest residue Sweden
SAX Willow (SRC) Salix ssp. Enköping, Djurby 04/11/2015 Pelletizing and sampling were carried out according to the proced­
gård, Sweden
POC Poplar chips Poplar ssp. Toulouse, France 28/07/2016
ures described in Fig. 2. For each experimental setting, 10 kg of milled
BEC Beech chips Fagus ssp. Toulouse, France 28/07/2016 material was conditioned by adding water to a mixer operating for at
WST Wheat straw Triticum ssp. Mälardalen, 01/10/2015 least 20 min to obtain even moisture. The conditioned material was then
Sweden fed into a 50L silo and conveyed by a screw feeder into a 3 kW flat-die
RCG Reed canary Phalaris Umeå, Sweden 01/05/2010
pelletizer (14–175, Amandus Kahl, Germany) (Fig. 3).
grass arundinacea
CCB Corn cobs Zea mays Rodez, France 16/10/2015 The pelletizer has two rollers (130 mm; width, 29 mm) over a flat die
SFS Sunflower Helianthus Bassens, France 16/10/2015 (175 mm; 6 mm channels with lengths of 6, 12, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33,
shells annuus 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 72, or 84 mm). The pellets are cut by knives set 25
GSC Grape seed Vitis vinifera Beziers, France 28/10/2015 mm from the die outlets. After pelletizing, pellets are cooled on 3.15 mm
cakes
sieves at ambient temperature. Pelletizer motor current (A), electric
frequency (Hz), power (kW), motor angular velocity (rpm) and die
3) Discuss the influence of biomass composition and settings on flat-die temperature (◦ C) were recorded continuously (1 Hz) with a data logging
pellet production process behavior and pellet quality and compare it system (SIMATIC WinCC, Siemens, Germany).
with corresponding results from the Agar et al. [6] and Larsson et al. Due to the different MC and PCL ranges for obtaining acceptable
[40] studies. pellet quality and production behavior, an experimental design with
identical settings for all feedstock assortments was not feasible. The
ranges for PCL and MC for each specific material were determined by
2. Materials and methods
pre-trials to obtain a good pellet shape, low fines and a reasonable
production rate. Based on these pre-trials, pelletizing was performed at
2.1. Biomass materials
the setting combinations presented in the appendix (Table A).
Before each run, the chosen die was warmed up to 80 ◦ C by pellet­
Five forestry and five agricultural biomasses represented both
izing olive pomace or walnut. Then, two samples of the studied mixture
Northern and Southern European climatic zones, were selected with
were collected and their moisture content was determined according to
regard to their potential for use as solid biofuel. Beech (Fagus ssp.) and
the oven-standard method [26]. Pelletizing was performed at a nominal
poplar (Poplar ssp.) stem wood with bark, corn (Zea mays) cobs, sun­
power consumption of 3 kW. Once production was stabilized, generally
flower (Helianthus annuus) shells and grape (Vitis vinifera) seed cakes
after at least 10 min, measurements started, and two different samples
were collected in France. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) bark and forest
were collected in plastic containers for 120 s. All pellets produced during
residues, willow (Salix ssp.), wheat (Triticum ssp.) straw, and reed canary
this time were cooled until the following day. Sampled pellets were
grass (Phalaris arundinacea) originated in Sweden. The source and
weighed to measure the production flow rate (kg/h) and sieved (screen
collection date of these feedstocks are displayed in Table 3. All feed­
size: 3.15 mm) to determine the amount of fines (%). Finally, three
stocks were prepared at the Biomass Technology Centre (BTC) in Umeå,
samples were collected from the total quantity produced during the test
Sweden, where they were dried at 40 ◦ C with a flatbed dryer and
and analyzed for mechanical durability (%) and bulk density (kg/m3).
shredded (screen size: 15 mm) in an industrial shredder (Micromat
2000, Lindner-Recyclingtech GmbH, Austria) and hammer-milled

Fig. 1. Shredded feedstocks. From left to right from above: a) Scots pine bark; b) Scots pine forest residues; c) willow; d) poplar stemwood with bark; e) beech
stemwood with bark; f) wheat straw; g) reed canary grass; h) corn cobs; i) sunflower shells; j) grape seed cakes.

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S. Lavergne et al. Fuel 302 (2021) 121076

Table 4
Higher and lower heating value, ash content and ultimate analysis (wdb =
weight-% dry basis).
Parameter HHV LHV C H O N S Cl
Standard ISO ISO 16948:2015 ISO 16994:2016
18125:2017
Unit MJ.kg− 1 %wdb %wdb

Scots pine bark 20.8 19.7 52.5 5.7 38.6 0.4 0.03 0.08
Scots pine 20.6 19.4 51.2 6.0 40.0 0.7 0.03 <0.01
forest
residues
Willow 18.4 17.2 48.6 5.9 42.7 0.5 0.03 <0.01
Poplar 18.0 16.7 49.0 5.9 43.5 0.2 <0.10 –
stemwood
Beech 18.2 16.9 49.1 6.0 43.0 0.2 < –
stemwood 0.10
Wheat straw 18.9 17.8 44.6 5.6 39.9 0.5 0.13 0.46
Reed canary 18.9 17.6 47.4 5.9 39.4 0.7 0.08 0.06
grass
Corn cobs 18.5 18.0 47.4 6.1 44.3 0.4 0.03 0.14
Sunflower 20.2 18.9 51.5 6.3 38.2 0.8 0.09 0.04
shells
Grape seed 20.4 19.2 50.6 5.8 36.8 2.5 0.16 <0.01
cakes

in [34] by ASE (Accelerated Solvent Extractor) type extraction in two

Fig. 2. Pellet production and sampling procedures. MC = moisture content;
PCL = pellet die channel length.
2.3. Characterization of feedstock and pellets
2.3.1. Feedstock
Chemical analysis of the milled and dried materials was carried out
at FCBA, Grenoble, France, using standard methods [27 28 29 30 31 32
33]. Extractives were analyzed according to an internal method detailed
cycles at 1500psi, firstly with water at 110 ◦ C, then with acetone at
95 ◦ C. Solvents were evaporated under reduced pressure, and the resi­
dues were weighed and reported as the extractive content. Acetyl groups
were analyzed with an internal method detailed in [34] by ion chro­
matography with an IonPac AS11.HC column and an electrometric de­
tector in conductometric mode with an eluent gradient NaOH 60 mM
and water.
Higher (HHV) and lower (LHV) heating values, and CHON, S, and Cl
contents for each feedstock are presented in Table 4, cellulose and
hemicelluloses, lignin, extractives, and ash contents in Table 5, glucose,
xylose, mannose, galactose, arabinose and acetyl groups content as a

Fig. 3. Pelletizer design detailed with picture of rollers and flat die.

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S. Lavergne et al. Fuel 302 (2021) 121076

Table 5
Macromolecular composition (wdb = weight-% dry basis).
Parameter Cellulose Hemicellulose. Lignin Extractives Ash Mass balance
Standard TAPPI T249 cm-85 TAPPI T222 om-83 & 4 Internal method ISO 18122:2015 Calculation
Unit %wdb

Scots pine bark 21.9 18.3 40.7 15.2 2.8 98.9

Scots pine forest residues 22.3 27.9 27.5 18.9 2.2 102.3
Willow 44.3 22.6 25.1 8.0 2.8 98.5
Poplar stemwood 42.7 21.8 26.9 4.4 2.8 98.5
Beech stemwood 41.3 25.3 26.5 1.9 0.8 95.7
Wheat straw 38.1 24.7 22.4 7.8 9.3 102.3
Reed canary grass 39.5 25.7 24.7 6.4 6.6 102.8
Corn cobs 38.4 34.8 15.9 6.9 1.9 97.7
Sunflower shells 37.0 26.4 25.9 10.7 8.3 105.9
Grape seed cakes 7.8 21.9 62.8 7.6 4.2 104.2

Table 6
Neutral monosugar distribution and functional groups of feedstocks (wdb = weight-% dry basis).
Parameter Glucose Xylose Mannose Galactose Arabinose Acetyl groups
Standard ASTM E1758 Calculation
Unit % of total monosugars %wdb

Scots pine bark 64.3 7.9 9.9 7.1 10.9 1.6

Scots pine forest residues 58.8 10.7 14.4 8.7 7.5 2.7
Willow 69.1 21.8 2.8 3.0 3.4 4.9
Poplar stem wood with bark 68.9 22.7 4.3 2.0 2.2 5.9
Beech stem wood with bark 63.9 29.1 3.0 2.0 2.0 8.3
Wheat straw 61.0 32.5 0.3 1.6 4.6 3.7
Reed canary grass 61.0 29.9 0.4 3.1 5.6 5.0
Corn cobs 52.4 39.4 0.0 2.5 5.7 5.0
Sunflower shells 59.5 30.7 1.0 2.2 6.6 7.5
Grape seed cakes 33.6 48.2 7.4 5.2 5.6 3.1

percentage of the total amount of monosugars in Table 6. 2.4. Data exploitation for measuring the effect of biomass composition

2.3.2. Pellet quality Mechanical durability was considered the most important parameter
Mechanical durability [2], bulk density [3], and pellet diameter and for assessing pellet quality: it is the best indication of the risk of pellet
length [4] were analyzed as recommended in the solid biofuel standards. deterioration and fines production during transport and handling. It is

Fig. 4. A) Mechanical durability and C) bulk density as a function of feedstock moisture content when using the die-channel length yielding the highest pellet
durability. B) Mechanical durability and D) bulk density of pellets as a function of press-channel length, at the feedstock moisture content that provided the highest
pellet durability.

5
S. Lavergne et al.
Fig. 5. A) Mechanical durability, C) bulk density as a function of energy input; and B) mechanical durability, and D) bulk density of pellets as a function of die
temperature when using the die channel length yielding the highest pellet durability.
also the most difficult parameter to maximize during production. So
more detailed analysis was carried out to optimize this parameter. For
each feedstock assortment, two replicate runs at the setting that pro­
duced pellets with the highest mechanical durability were performed,
and averages for the data obtained from these three tests were
calculated.
Linear regression models for each pellet quality and process pa­
rameters versus the physicochemical properties of feedstock were
created, with coefficients of determination (R2) to evaluate their po­
tential connections.
3. Results
Process settings and pellet properties for each test are presented in
the appendix (Table A). Batches yielding the highest DU are highlighted.
High pellet qualities were obtained from most of the feedstocks. The
highest DU and BD values were obtained with sunflower shells, the
lowest DU with beech, and the lowest BD with wheat straw.
The effects of feedstock moisture content (MC), press-channel length
(PCL), energy input (E), and die temperature (DT), on pellet durability
(DU) and bulk density (BD) are presented below.
3.1. Moisture content
To obtain pellets of reasonably high quality, pelletizing was per­
formed at pre-determined MC intervals. Most feedstock could be
pelletized in the 12–16% MC interval, but Scots pine forest residues
required a 10–14% MC interval to obtain good pellets, and wheat straw
and beech a 18–22% MC interval (Fig. 4. A). MC was negatively corre­
lated with pellet DU for Scots pine forest residues. Willow and poplar
pellet DU increased with higher MC values up to approximately
14–15%. Beech pellet DU increased with MC in the 18–22% range. No
significant effect of MC on DU was observed for the other assortments.
6
Fuel 302 (2021) 121076
Pellet BD decreased with increasing MC for all feedstocks except
beech (Fig. 4. C.). The moisture effect was most pronounced for Scots
pine forest residues and wheat straw.
3.2. Press-channel length
PCL had a significant positive correlation with pellet DU for corn
cobs, sunflower shells, forest residues, reed canary grass, willow, and
beech, in descending order. No significant effect was found for Scots
pine bark, poplar, and wheat straw (Fig. 4. B.).
PCL had a positive effect on BD for all feedstock assortments. The
magnitude of the effect increased in the following order: Scots pine bark,
wheat straw, Scots pine forest residues, poplar, reed canary grass, beech,
corn cobs, and sunflower shells (Fig. 4. D.).
3.3. Energy input
Energy had a positive correlation with pellet DU for beech and poplar
(Fig. 5. A). For Scots pine barks, corn cobs and sunflower shells, pellet
DU was not affected by changing E, whereas for Scots pine forest res­
idue, willow, wheat straw, and reed canary grass pellet DU varied with
no change in E.
If we exclude beech, which behaved in a very particular way during
pelletizing due to the high MC required, it seems that a general trend
emerged independently of the feedstock considered: at high E values,
above 90kWh/T, high DU readings were obtained; for low E, below
70kWh/T, lower DU values were obtained.
E had a positive correlation with pellet BD for Scots pine residue, and
a negative correlation for willow, reed canary grass, and poplar (Fig. 5.
C). Decreasing BD could be explained by the fact that increasing E was
coupled with increased moisture content. No significant effect was
found for beech, corn cobs, and sunflower shell. No change in energy (E)
was observed for Scots pine forest residue and wheat straw, whereas
S. Lavergne et al.
Fig. 6. A) Pelletizing moisture content of batches with best durability as a function of extractives, and B) galactose content. C) Press-channel length content of
batches with best durability as a function of soluble lignin content. D) Energy input for batches with best durability as a function of acetyl groups content.
their apparent density (BD) did vary.
Again, if we exclude beech, a general trend is apparent indepen­
dently of the feedstock considered: a high E value could yield high BD.
However, this is less clear than for DU due to the combined effect of
moisture content on BD.
3.4. Die temperature
Reasonably high quality pellets were obtained in a range of
95–115 ◦ C for all pellets except Scots pine forest residue pellets, which
were produced in a range of 80–95 ◦ C (Fig. 5. B). DT had no significant
effect on DU.
DT had a negative correlation with pellet BD for wheat straw and
reed canary grass (Fig. 5. D). No significant correlation was found for
Scots pine bark, willow, poplar, beech, corn cobs and sunflower shells.
4. Discussion
Maximum pellet mechanical durability and the corresponding bulk
density were not correlated with any feedstock component.
The lignin content, considered as an essential constituent for
pelletizing biomasses [10] did not lead to higher DU contrary to what
Whittaker & Shield [8] or Castellano et al. [9] found. As discussed by
Zeng et al [11], the softening mechanisms of lignin are heterogeneous
depending on the biomass, and the temperature ranges where good
densification occurs may not have been reached in all cases.
Cellulose and hemicelluloses, seen as affecting the binding mecha­
nisms of lignin by Jiang et al. [17], were correlated to neither maximum
pellet DU nor the corresponding BD.
The diversity of biomass types and the production method, which
targeted maximum DU, may explain these differences.
4.1. Moisture content
In the interests of industry, the aim was to determine a moisture
content that resulted in pellets with high mechanical durability. These
7
Fuel 302 (2021) 121076
“optimum MC” values were specific to the feedstock used.
This optimum MC was negatively correlated with extractive content
(Fig. 6 A), mainly due to the high level of extractives coupled with low
optimum MC for Scots pine bark and forest residues and the low level of
extractives at a high optimum MC for beech.
In the literature, extractives were seen as causing a fall in both pellet
durability and energy input, due to the formers’ lubricant effect on press
channels [35]. At the same time, moisture is also thought to have a
lubricant effect during pelletizing [6]. This may explain why lower MC is
required when feedstocks contain a higher extractives level, competing
in this situation.
Some authors have also suggested that extractives may block binding
sites for hydrogen bonding during pelletizing [36], which would reduce
the importance of water in activating natural binders. Larsson et al. [40]
found a negative correlation between water-soluble extractives and
pelletizing moisture content used in ring-die pellet production with
similar materials.
Optimum MC was also negatively correlated with the galactan con­
tent of feedstocks (Fig. 6 B), mainly due to the high level of galactan
coupled with low optimum MC for Scots pine bark and forest residues.
Frodeson et al. recently showed that there is variation in how the
polysaccharides are affected by changes in MC [37]. Galactose was
treated as one of the “other polysaccharides“ and it has been suggested
that its moisture may have influenced its thickening effect during
pelletizing. Larsson et al. [40] have found that the distribution of xylan
and mannan in the feedstock affected the optimum moisture content in
ring-die pellet production. They hypothesized that this is due to dis­
similarities in these hemicelluloses’ comparably high, sorption capac­
ities which, in turn, have a marked impact on the biomasses’ softening
behavior.
In ring-die pelleting, Agar et al. found a negative effect of MC on
pellet BD attributed to the lubricating effect of water [6], but this effect
is more affected by the feedstock type in this study. Again, extractives
and galactan content could affect the role of water as Scots pine bark,
and forest residues showed the highest negative correlations, whereas
beech and corn cobs displayed the lowest negative correlations.
S. Lavergne et al.
4.2. Press-channel length
The positive correlation of press-channel length on durability and
bulk density is attributed to the increase in the physical forces in the
channel with friction effects as the length increases, leading to greater
pelletizing pressure [38].
In the present study this effect depended on the feedstock in use.
Corn cobs with the lowest lignin and highest hemicellulose content were
the most affected by changes in PCL; Scots pine bark, with the highest
lignin and lowest hemicellulose content, was not significantly impacted
by changes in PCL. However, wheat straw, with low lignin content, was
not greatly affected by changes in PCL either.
As explained previously, this study did not highlight the positive
impact of lignin on pellet DU contrary to what is commonly suggested in
the literature. These observations may have been made with a sub-
optimum PCL, producing low-DU pellets when studying feedstocks
with low lignin and high hemicellulose contents.
The level of PCL needed to obtain the highest pellet DU, called
“optimum PCL”, was only negatively correlated with soluble lignin
content (Fig. 6 C), which was also constatedstated by Larsson et al. [40]
in ring-die pellet production. On their side, they also found that acetyl
groups could have a negative impact, which could be due to a reduced
hydrophobicity, and that acetone extractives and arabinan could have a
positive on the PCL, probably because the lubricating effects of these
elements requires the application of higher frictional forces.
PCL also affected the impact of MC on DU. At a lower PCL, a variation
in MC had a greater effect on the durability of willow, corn cobs, sun­
flower shells and beech pellets.
Hence, choosing a longer press channel could be a good strategy for
pellet producers, potentially reducing the risk of variable quality due to
moisture flexibility. A compromise needs to be found, as too long a press
channel can lead to varying flow rates, hazardous die temperatures, or
clogging due to the presence of unexpected frictional forces.
4.3. Energy input
The possible positive correlation of durability and bulk density with
energy may be explained by the fact that pelletizing pressure and E are
associated somehow at an industrial scale.
At the same time, the highest DU for each feedstock was not obtained
with the same E value, or “optimum E”.
It has been suggested that this value is positively correlated with MC
[39] and negatively correlated with extractives content [35]. In the
present study, Scots pine bark and forest residue presented low optimum
E, associated with low optimum MC and high extractives content; beech
presented high optimum E, associated with high optimum MC and low
extractives content, which could confirm this hypothesis.
Optimum E was also strongly positively correlated with acetyl group
content (Fig. 6. D). We found no mention in the literature of acetyl
groups having an impact on their own. Further work is needed on the
possible impacts of acetyl groups during pelletizing.
4.4. Die temperature
In the literature, die temperature positively affects durability at a
laboratory scale [5]. At pilot scale and using similar feedstock, the
temperature of pellets measured during extrusion from the die corre­
lated positively with DU and BD [6].
The absence of trends in this study could be due to the measurement
method.
8
Fuel 302 (2021) 121076
5. Conclusion
The aim of this paper was to understand how and why the use of
forest and agricultural feedstocks affect production settings and pellet
quality in a real-life production environment.
The results of pelletizing ten different under-exploited feedstocks
were clearly impacted by the material used.
In general high energy input enhanced durability and bulk density.
Die temperature exerted no observable influence, but pelletizing mois­
ture content and press-channel length had to be set to a specific level, its
value and sensitivity depending entirely on the suitable biomass.
Linear regressions showed that the optimal moisture level needed to
produce high durability pellets was positively correlated with galactose,
a sugar contained in hemicelluloses, and extractives content. Energy
input was positively correlated with acetyl group content. Contrary to
what is commonly suggested in the literature, no correlation was found
between lignin or hemicellulose content and the pelletizing behavior of
the studied feedstocks. These observations could be explained by the
high diversity of biomass studied here, and further work should be done
to enlarge the number of biomasses and conditions tested or focus on
biomasses with a specific level of galactose, extractives, or acetyl-group
content.
From the point of view of pellet producers, Scots pine bark and forest
residues could represent the best feedstocks for pelletizing, as produc­
tion resulted in high quality pellets coupled with low energy input and
fines, potentially due to a high level of galactose and extractives, and a
low level of acetyl-group contents. Sunflower shells, corn cobs, and
poplar resulted in high-quality pellets but with high energy input.
Grapes seed cakes and reed canary grass resulted in acceptable quality
pellets and energy input. It was not possible to produce pellets that
complied with European quality standards using wheat straw and beech
under the conditions tested in this study.
Authorship contributions
Conception and design of study: Simon Lavergne, Sylvia. H. Larsson,
Muriel Marchand, Matthieu Campargue, Capucine Dupont. Acquisition
of data: Simon Lavergne, Sylvia. H. Larsson, Denilson Da Silva Perez.
Analysis and/or interpretation of data: Simon Lavergne, Sylvia. H.
Larsson, Denilson Da Silva Perez, Matthieu Campargue. Drafting the
manuscript: Simon Lavergne. Revising the manuscript critically for
important intellectual content: Simon Lavergne, Sylvia. H. Larsson,
Denilson Da Silva Perez, Muriel Marchand, Matthieu Campargue,
Capucine Dupont. Approval of the version of the manuscript to be
published (the names of all authors must be listed): Simon Lavergne,
Sylvia. H. Larsson, Denilson Da Silva Perez, Muriel Marchand, Matthieu
Campargue, Capucine Dupont.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Maxime Rojas for his assistance with
pelletizing and characterization at RAGT Energie. The authors thank
Magnus Rudolfsson and David A. Agar of the Department of Forest
Biomaterials and Technology for discussions and hospitality during the
collaboration. This study was conducted under the EU Horizon 2020
research and innovation programme MOBILE FLIP 637020.
S. Lavergne et al. Fuel 302 (2021) 121076

Appendix

Table A.

Table 1A
Process settings, corresponding pellets properties and response parameters of the pelletizer for all feedstocks.
Parameter PCL/D Moisture Durability Bulk density PelletM. C. Pellet Fines Die Energy
content production production temperature input
Standard - IS/TC 238 ISO ISO IS/TC 238 - - - -
17831–1:2015 17828:2015
Unit mm % % kg/m3 % kg/h % ◦
C kWh/T

Scots pine barks 48/6 12,0 0,0 98,2 0,1 708 0 9,0 0,0 52 10 0,6 0,5 101 5 61 10
Scots pine barks 48/6 13,1 0,0 98,1 0,1 700 0 9,8 0,0 56 3 0,4 0,2 103 5* 51 2
Scots pine barks 48/6 14,7 0,1 98,2 0,0 681 2 10,9 0,1 63 2 0,4 0,0 96 5* 46 2
Scots pine barks 36/6 12,0 0,0 97,8 0,1 694 4 9,2 0,0 57 1 0,8 0,3 90 5* 53 2
Scots pine barks 36/6 13,1 0,0 97,8 0,0 682 0 9,6 0,0 63 4 0,7 0,3 100 5* 45 2
Scots pine barks 36/6 14,7 0,1 97,7 0,1 660 1 10,8 0,1 52 22 0,4 0,2 90 4 69 32
Forest residue 48/6 10,7 0,1 97,0 0,3 614 1 8,9 0,7 63 1 0,1 0,0 91 1 48 2
Forest residue 48/6 11,4 0,2 95,0 0,0 550 1 10,0 0,0 68 5* 0,2 0,3* 82 2* 44 3*
Forest residue 48/6 14,4 0,2 93,0 0,1 469 1 11,4 0,0 65 5* 0,5 0,3* 85 2* 49 3*
Forest residue 42/6 10,7 0,1 93,7 0,6 584 3 8,4 0,7* 71 5* 0,3 0,3* 82 2* 44 3*
Forest residue 42/6 11,0 0,2 92,9 0,0 560 2 8,7 0,7* 70 5* 0,2 0,3* 83 2* 41 3*
Forest residue 42/6 14,3 0,2 87,3 1,2 463 2 11,6 0,2 72 5 0,4 0,3 78 2 40 3
Willow 42/6 10,3 0,0 95,3 0,0 674 2 7,1 0,1 48 1* 0,0 0,0* 96 1* 61 1*
Willow 42/6 12,0 0,0 98,2 0,1 660 1 8,8 0,0 48 1* 0,0 0,0* 95 1* 60 1*
Willow 42/6 14,2 0,0 99,1 0,1 643 6 10,6 0,3 48 1* 0,1 0,0 99 1 62 1*
Willow 42/6 15,2 0,3 98,7 0,0 636 1 11,0 0,1 50 1* 0,0 0,0* 97 1* 61 1*
Willow 42/6 16,5 0,0 98,5 0,2 635 3 11,9 0,1 46 1* 0,0 0,0* 100 1* 66 1*
Willow 42/6 18,3 0,0 99,1 0,0 593 2 12,5 0,0 42 1* 0,0 0,0* 96 1* 72 1*
Willow 42/6 20,5 0,0 99,0 0,0 572 2 15,0 0,1 39 1* 0,0 0,0* 98 1* 77 1*
Willow 33/6 10,3 0,0 90,2 0,5 603 2 7,5 0,0 56 1* 0,0 0,0* 91 1 46 1*
Willow 33/6 12,0 0,2 95,4 0,3 597 3 8,7 0,2 59 1* 0,0 0,0* 92 1 45 1*
Willow 33/6 14,2 0,0 96,1 0,3 554 0 11,2 0,1 49 1* 0,1 0,0* 95 1* 59 1*
Willow 33/6 15,2 0,3 96,1 0,3 561 31 11,2 0,0 52 1* 0,2 0,0* 94 1* 52 1*
Willow 33/6 16,5 0,0 96,1 0,2 537 4 11,6 1,0 51 1 0,2 0,0 97 1 58 1
Willow 33/6 18,3 0,0 97,7 0,1 523 5 13,8 0,1 45 1* 0,0 0,0* 96 1* 66 1*
Willow 33/6 20,5 0,0 97,0 0,1 453 5 15,7 0,0 43 1* 0,0 0,0* 100 1* 70 1*
Willow 27/6 10,2 0,0 77,4 2,6 554 4 8,9 0,1 48 1* 0,2 0,0* 94 1* 62 1*
Willow 27/6 12,6 0,1 87,1 1,5 537 2 10,2 0,1 58 1* 0,1 0,0* 92 1* 52 1*
Willow 27/6 14,9 0,3 94,4 0,6 524 8 11,7 0,0 56 1* 0,0 0,0* 94 1* 54 1*
Willow 27/6 15,9 0,1 94,5 0,4 520 10 11,5 0,1 54 1* 0,0 0,0* 94 1* 57 1*
Willow 27/6 16,7 0,2 94,7 1,5 505 5 12,2 0,0 50 1* 0,0 0,0* 95 1* 59 1*
Willow 27/6 18,5 0,3 96,5 0,2 488 12 13,3 0,1 43 1* 0,0 0,0* 95 1* 69 1*
Willow 27/6 21,6 0,3 89,4 6,7 394 10 15,3 0,1 38 1* 0,0 0,0* 96 1* 80 1*
Poplar chips 42/6 12,2 0,1 95,7 0,0 712 1 7,1 0,1 38 1 0,1 2,4* 112 2* 78 14*
Poplar chips 42/6 14,7 0,0 98,6 0,1 690 1 8,2 0,1 34 1 0,1 2,4* 111 2* 85 2
Poplar chips 42/6 16,8 0,1 98,9 0,1 685 8 9,4 0,5 32 3 1,3 1,1 114 2 91 7
Poplar chips 33/6 12,2 0,1 95,0 0,2 684 5 7,5 0,3 37 3 2,9 2,4 110 2 80 8
Poplar chips 33/6 14,7 0,0 98,4 0,1 668 2 8,7 0,0 36 5 0,2 2,4* 110 2* 82 12
Poplar chips 33/6 16,7 0,0 98,9 0,1 639 2 10,5 0,1 38 7 0,2 2,4* 109 2* 78 14
Beech chips 30/6 18,5 0,1 95,8 0,9 645 2 7,4 0,1 24 1 0,2 0,0 113 1 133 8
Beech chips 30/6 20,8 0,1 96,5 0,8 675 2 7,9 0,1 21 1* 0,0 0,0* 107 4* 148 8*
Beech chips 30/6 23,0 0,1 96,8 0,3 611 3 7,6 0,0 19 1* 0,0 0,0* 110 4* 156 8*
Beech chips 18/6 18,1 0,3 93,6 0,4 515 1 10,6 0,5 33 1 3,1 5,3 104 4 96 2
Beech chips 18/6 20,8 0,2 86,7 0,6 403 0 12,0 0,0 33 1* 5,8 5,3* 96 4* 91 8*
Beech chips 18/6 22,1 0,2 58,0 0,3 336 1 11,2 0,0 32 1* 4,6 5,3* 97 4* 93 8*
Wheat straw 48/6 18,5 0,0 97,1 0,1 552 1 12,3 0,7 40 6 0,9 0,9 98 2 57 6
Wheat straw 48/6 19,8 0,7 96,6 0,2 543 3 – – 35 6* 0,3 0,9* 100 2* 68 8*
Wheat straw 48/6 20,7 0,2 97,2 0,1 502 2 13,5 0,0 32 6* 0,2 0,9* 102 2* 69 8*
Wheat straw 42/6 18,0 0,0 97,2 0,1 535 1 12,3 0,1 32 6* 0,2 0,9* 94 2* 57 8*
Wheat straw 42/6 19,8 0,7 95,0 0,5 509 0 13,2 0,0 22 6* 0,4 0,9* 96 2* 89 8*
Wheat straw 42/6 20,7 0,2 95,1 0,3 463 6 14,0 1,2 33 4 1,0 0,7 97 0 64 8
Reed canarygr. 48/6 13,3 0,2* 96,8 0,0 713 5 8,9 0,1 – – – – 98 3* – –
Reed canarygr. 48/6 14,0 0,0 97,0 0,1 701 2 10,2 0,0 38 2* 5,4 2,0* 99 3* 64 4*
Reed canarygr. 48/6 15,0 0,1 96,4 0,2 693 2 10,6 0,1 39 2* 1,3 2,0* 101 3* 68 4*
Reed canarygr. 48/6 15,9 0,1 98,2 0,2 675 4 11,6 1,2 40 2 0,9 0,1 102 1 67 3
Reed canarygr. 42/6 13,1 0,2* 91,3 0,6 662 6 9,5 0,1 26 2* 5,6 2,0* 98 3* 81 4*
Reed canarygr. 42/6 14,0 0,0 92,2 0,9 636 3 10,4 0,4 48 1 6,1 2,0 95 3 56 4
Reed canarygr. 42/6 15,1 0,1 93,7 0,1 634 2 10,8 0,0 50 2* 3,0 2,0* 98 3* 58 4*
Reed canarygr. 42/6 16,2 0,2 95,8 0,4 618 8 11,8 0,1 50 2* 5,6 2,0* 100 3* 55 4*
Corn cobs 27/6 12,1 0,0 99,1 0,0 699 0 6,1 0,1 31 5* 0,1 0,0* 107 4* 94 8*
Corn cobs 27/6 14,1 0,3 99,2 0,1 704 0 7,7 0,5 31 3 0,1 0,0 111 4 100 8
Corn cobs 27/6 16,5 0,1 99,3 0,0 685 0 8,4 0,0 25 5* 0,2 0,0* 105 4* 122 8*
Corn cobs 18/6 12,3 0,3 83,9 2,3 552 0 9,7 0,4 52 5 8,7 2,7 96 4 55 3
Corn cobs 18/6 14,0 0,0 68,8 0,3 469 0 11,1 0,1 53 5* 9,8 2,7* 89 4* 54 8*
Corn cobs 18/6 16,1 0,0 49,3 0,8 430 0 12,5 0,1 58 5* 9,2 2,7* 82 4* 49 8*
(continued on next page)

9
S. Lavergne et al. Fuel 302 (2021) 121076

Table 1A (continued )
Parameter PCL/D Moisture Durability Bulk density PelletM. C. Pellet Fines Die Energy
content production production temperature input
Standard - IS/TC 238 ISO ISO IS/TC 238 - - - -
17831–1:2015 17828:2015
Unit mm % % kg/m3 % kg/h % ◦
C kWh/T

Sunflower shells 60/6 13,5 0,2 99,2 0,1 724 1 7,3 0,0 30 6* 0,1 0,1* 105 4* 89 5*
Sunflower shells 60/6 14,8 0,0 99,4 0,1 725 1 8,0 0,0 28 6* 0,1 0,1* 105 4* 109 5*
Sunflower shells 60/6 17,1 0,3 99,5 0,0 711 1 8,9 0,0 28 1 0,1 0,0 108 2 109 5
Sunflower shells 48/6 12,9 0,0 76,6 0,2 546 2 11,1 0,0 50 6* 49,2 0,1* 81 4* 60 5*
Sunflower shells 48/6 14,9 0,2 81,4 0,1 506 1 11,9 0,1 79 6* 17,5 0,1* 79 4* 38 5*
Sunflower shells 48/6 16,5 0,1 87,3 0,1 475 6 13,1 0,0 83 6 4,9 0,1 82 4 36 4
Grape seeds cake 30/6 16,1 0,1 95,9 0,3 671 5 12,3 0,1 54 3 3,7 0,7 97 1 55 3

*estimated

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