energies

Article
Design of Partial Discharge Test Environment for
Oil-Filled Submarine Cable Terminals and
Ultrasonic Monitoring
Yulong Wang 1,2 , Xiaohong Zhang 1, *, Lili Li 1,2 , Jinyang Du 1 and Junguo Gao 1
1 Key Laboratory of Engineering Dielectrics and its Application, Ministry of Education, Harbin University of
Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China; fly712@126.com (Y.W.); lily_li@hrbust.edu.cn (L.L.);
jinyangdu@hrbust.edu.cn (J.D.); gaojunguo@hrbust.edu.cn (J.G.)
2 College of Rongcheng, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Rongcheng 264300, China
* Correspondence: x_hzhang2002@hrbust.edu.cn; Tel./Fax: +86-0451-8639-1660




Received: 28 October 2019; Accepted: 11 December 2019; Published: 14 December 2019


Abstract: Based on the principle of operating an oil-filled-cable operation and the explanation of
the oil-filling process provided in the cable operation and maintenance manual of submarine cables,
this study investigated oil-pressure variation caused by gas generated as a result of cable faults.
First, a set of oil-filled cables and their terminal oil-filled simulation system were designed in the
laboratory, and a typical oil-filled-cable fault model was established according to the common faults
of oil-filled cables observed in practice. Thereafter, ultrasonic signals of partial discharge (PD) under
different fault models were obtained via validation experiments, which were performed by using
oil-filled-cable simulation equipment. Subsequently, the ultrasonic signal mechanism was analyzed;
these signals were generated via electric, thermal, and acoustic expansion and contraction, along with
electric, mechanical, and acoustic electrostriction. Finally, upon processing the 400 experimental data
groups, four practical parameters—maximum amplitude of the ultrasonic signal spectrum, Dmax ,
maximum frequency of the ultrasonic signals, fmax , average ultrasonic signal energy, Dav , and the
ultrasonic signal amplitude coefficient, M—were designed to characterize the ultrasonic signals.
These parameters can be used for subsequent pattern recognition. Thus, in this study, the terminal
PD of an oil-filled marine cable was monitored.

Keywords: submarine cable; cable fault model; partial discharge monitoring; ultrasonic characteristic
quantity analysis

1. Introduction
Partial discharge (PD) can cause two types of damage to electrical equipment [1,2]: (1) direct
damage, owing to the effect of the discharge particles, resulting in local damage to the insulation and
further deterioration; and (2) damage due to the PD of companions, such as nitrogen oxide and ozone,
in addition to local damage due to a certain degree of corrosion and large heat insulation dielectric
loss, resulting in thermal breakdown. In electrical equipment with a solid–liquid composite medium
constituting the main body, PD is also caused by a complex structure and an uneven electric field
distribution. During PD and other deterioration of insulation, electric pulses, gas products, ultrasonic
and electromagnetic radiation, light, local overheating, and energy loss often occur [3–5]. Ultrasonic
signal detection can be used to effectively monitor the PD of insulation.
Herein, the primary insulation of high-voltage oil-filled cable is an oil–paper structure. During
long-term operation, cable oil and insulating paper decompose the generated gas after extended periods
of time. This is because of two parts: One part is the oil-filled-cable structure, running environment,

Energies 2019, 12, 4774; doi:10.3390/en12244774 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 4774 2 of 14

condition
Energies 2020,of13,
the oil, PEER
x FOR and the inside of the cable joint; the other part is thermal stresses, electrical stresses,
REVIEW 2 of 14
and mechanical stresses induced after a several complex chemical changes. This decomposed gas
decomposed
subsequentlygas subsequently
dissolves dissolves
in the cable in the resulting
oil, thereby cable oil, in
thereby resulting
variations in theincable
variations in the cable
oil pressure.
oil pressure.
Figure 1 illustrates the structure of a 500 kV, oil-filled submarine cable.
Figure 1 illustrates the structure of a 500 kV, oil-filled submarine cable.

Figure 1. Structure of a 500 kV, kV, oil-filled

oil-filled submarine
submarine cable.
cable. 1.
1. Oil channel; 2. conductor; 3. conductor
conductor
shield; 4.
shield; 4. insulation;
insulation;5.5.insulation
insulationshield;
shield;6.6.copper
copperbraid
braid belt;
belt; 7. 7. alloy
alloy lead
lead sleeve;
sleeve; 8. 8. copper
copper braid;
braid; 9.
9. reinforcement layer; 10. cushion belt; 11. internal anticorrosive layer; 12. mothproof layer;
reinforcement layer; 10. cushion belt; 11. internal anticorrosive layer; 12. mothproof layer; 13. cushion13. cushion
sheath; 15.
belt; 14. sheath; 15. outer
outercoating.
coating.

The high-voltage
The high-voltagecable cableterminal
terminal [6–8] is anisindispensable
[6–8] an indispensable accessory for connecting
accessory other electrical
for connecting other
equipment
electrical when high-voltage
equipment cables are laid.
when high-voltage cablesIt are
is widely
laid. Itused for cable
is widely usedcircuits with circuits
for cable a voltage level
with a
of 110 kV and above. Furthermore, oil-filled terminals account for the majority
voltage level of 110 kV and above. Furthermore, oil-filled terminals account for the majority of high- of high-voltage cable
terminals.
voltage Theterminals.
cable primary component
The primary of component
oil-filled terminals is theterminals
of oil-filled layer of insulation
is the layer shielding at the
of insulation
end of the cable that is equipped with a stress cone to achieve better electric
shielding at the end of the cable that is equipped with a stress cone to achieve better electric field field distribution in the
casing, as compared to that in ceramic or composite materials. Normally,
distribution in the casing, as compared to that in ceramic or composite materials. Normally, silicone silicone oil or an insulating
medium,
oil such as polybutylene
or an insulating medium, such or polyisobutylene,
as polybutyleneisorfilled between the stress
polyisobutylene, is filledcone and thethe
between bushing
stress
at the end of the cable, for the purpose of insulation. The probability
cone and the bushing at the end of the cable, for the purpose of insulation. The probability of the of the failure of the power
cable circuit
failure of thefailure
powerbased
cable on previous
circuit failureincidents
based onindicates
previousthat the probabilities
incidents indicates that of thethefailures of the
probabilities
intermediate
of the failuresconnector and the cable
of the intermediate terminal
connector and account
the cablefor approximately
terminal account 67% forofapproximately
the total failure67% of the
of
cable circuit [9]. Therefore, the insulation quality of the cable terminal directly
the total failure of the cable circuit [9]. Therefore, the insulation quality of the cable terminal directly affects the safe operation
of the entire
affects the safecable circuit, of
operation as the
the entire
terminal is acircuit,
cable key connecting device is
as the terminal inathe
key cable circuit. device in the
connecting
For oil-filled
cable circuit. submarine cable terminals, voltage transformers are not installed in the terminals at
both Forendsoil-filled
of the oil-filled cable. Therefore, the actual voltage signals
submarine cable terminals, voltage transformers are not installed in to ground at the two
theends of the
terminals
cable
at both cannot
ends beof obtained, making
the oil-filled cable.it Therefore,
impossible the to test the insulation
actual performance
voltage signals to ground of the cable.
at the two However,
ends of
the cable cannot be obtained, making it impossible to test the insulation performance of the cables,
the ultrasonic method can be used to monitor the high-voltage terminals of oil-filled submarine cable.
to realize warnings
However, of the method
the ultrasonic imminentcan faults.
be used to monitor the high-voltage terminals of oil-filled
The ultrasonic
submarine cables, tomethod
realizecan effectively
warnings reduce
of the imminentelectromagnetic
faults. interference [10]. Implementation of
online monitoring for this method is easy. Furthermore,
The ultrasonic method can effectively reduce electromagnetic interference this method supports noninvasive detection,
[10]. Implementation
is simple
of online tomonitoring
implement,for andthishas method
been widely employed
is easy. in transformers
Furthermore, and gas-insulated
this method substations
supports noninvasive
(GIS), capacitors, motors, cables, and cable terminal power equipment,
detection, is simple to implement, and has been widely employed in transformers and gas-insulated such as those presented
in [11,12]. Furthermore, GIS-electric-joint detection or sound-by-voice
substations (GIS), capacitors, motors, cables, and cable terminal power equipment, such as those detection in transformers has
also been realized.
presented in [11,12]. Furthermore, GIS-electric-joint detection or sound-by-voice detection in
transformers has also been realized.
Richárd Cselkó et al. [13] simulated a 10 kV cable termination semiconductor layer scratch with
a heat-shrinkable air-gap tube with six defect types, while simultaneously employing the pulse
current and ultrasonic methods for PD measurement and the acoustic detection method that employs
Energies 2019, 12, 4774 3 of 14

Richárd Cselkó et al. [13] simulated a 10 kV cable termination semiconductor layer scratch with
a heat-shrinkable air-gap tube with six defect types, while simultaneously employing the pulse current
and ultrasonic methods for PD measurement and the acoustic detection method that employs a glass
fiber guide, to introduce the ultrasonic sensor based on the axial and radial axes at 5 mm intervals
per point. Richárd Cselkó et al. [13] also obtained the cable terminal PD ultrasonic RMS, periodic
component peak, 50-Hz-related component, and 100-Hz-related component and detected position
relations. According to their study, the 100-Hz-related component has the highest sensitivity and
dynamic range, and it is less sensitive to external noise or noise interference caused by accidental
waveguide rod movement. Within a certain range, when the voltage gradually increases, the discharge
quantity measured by the pulse current method becomes approximately linearly related to the amplitude
of the 100-Hz-related components. Markalous et al. [14] used the ultrasonic and ultrahigh-frequency
methods to detect and locate the local electricity inside the transformer. Their results showed that
a combination of the ultrahigh-frequency and ultrasonic methods could overcome the disadvantages
of the ultrasonic method in terms of positioning by using the time difference between PD signals
and the sensor. Such a combination of the two methods can improve both detection and positioning
accuracies. Suwarno et al. [15] used the ultrasonic method to detect PD in a gas-insulated substation.
By analyzing the frequency spectrum, amplitude, and number of signals in unit time of the ultrasonic
signals collected on site, the ultrasonic method could enable detection of typical discharge signals,
such as suspension potentials and pin-plate discharges. Wang et al. [16] built the 110 kV XLPE
cable intermediate connector at the Sumitomo company, to simulate the four defects of air gap, burr,
slide-flash, and suspension discharges in the terminal. The ultrasonic waveforms of the four types
of defects were obtained by placing the piezoelectric sensors directly on the outside of the cable’s
middle connector.
This article mainly studies from the perspective of oil-pressure changes caused by gas generated
by cable failure. We learned the operation of oil-filled cables and the principle of oil replenishment
introduced in the submarine cable operation and maintenance manual, and then we designed an
oil-filled cable and its terminal recharge simulation system in the laboratory. Additionally, considering
the commonly occurring faults in an oil-filled cable during actual operation, a typical oil-filled cable
fault model was also established.
Using the research platform of a typical fault model of oil-filled cable equipment, the oil-filled-cable
simulation equipment was experimentally verified, the ultrasonic generation mechanism of PD
was discussed, the frequency spectrum of different types of PD ultrasonic was analyzed, and the
characteristics of local discharge signals were summarized.

2. Test-Device Design
PD is the main manifestation of the early stage of faults in an oil-filled cable terminal, the main
factor causing further aging of the terminal insulation, and an important characteristic of the terminal
insulation state.

2.1. Oil-Cycle Simulation System

Under normal operating conditions of the cable circuit, the variation in oil pressure remains
minimal. In this study, to simulate the changes in the oil pressure in submarine cables, an oil circulation
system was built in the laboratory, to simulate the possible faults in the cables. The system was
employed to simulate the faults in the cable, e.g., PD and local overheating of degradation products,
including the variation of oil pressure within the oil-filled cable being monitored. Figure 2 shows the
composition of the simulated oil-path system. The system mainly comprises three parts:

• An oil-pressure-variation simulation unit for an oil-filled cable;

• An oil-filled cable-terminal refueling-tank simulation unit;
• A computer data acquisition and control unit.
Energies 2019, 12, 4774 4 of 14
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14
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Figure
Figure 2.
2. Schematic
Schematic of
of the
the oil
oil circuit
circuit system
system simulating
simulating oil-pressure
oil-pressure variation in an oil-filled cable.
Figure 2. Schematic of the oil circuit system simulating oil-pressure variation in an oil-filled cable.
2.2. Design
2.2. Design of
of Simulation
Simulation Unit
Unit for
for Oil-Pressure
Oil-Pressure Variation
Variation in
in Oil-Filled
Oil-Filled Cable
Cable
A sealed
2.2. Design
A pressure
pressure vessel
of Simulation
sealed was
Unit for
vessel was used
usedasasthe
Oil-Pressure test
testchamber
Variation
the to to
monitor
in Oil-Filled
chamber Cableoiloil
monitor pressure.
pressure.To To
ensure
ensurethatthat
the
vessel
the waswas
vessel airtight andand
airtight safe,safe,
three valves
three werewere
valves installed in the pipeline, as shown in Figure 3:
A sealed pressure vessel was used as the testinstalled
chamberintothe pipeline,
monitor oil as shown
pressure. in
ToFigure
ensure3:that
the
(1) vessel was airtight
High-pressure
High-pressure andOwing
valve:
valve: safe,
Owing three valves
tothe
to the were installed
simulated
simulated gasinproduction,
faultgas
fault the pipeline,
production, asoil
the
the shown
oil in Figure
pressure
pressure the3:tank
in the
in tank
increased. After
increased.
(1) High-pressure After monitoring
monitoring
valve: Owing the the
to oilsimulated
oil
the pressure,the
pressure, the high-pressure
fault high-pressure
gas production, valve
valve was
thewas opened in
opened
oil pressure in the
in order
order to
tank
allow
allow oil
oil and
and gas
gas to
to flow
flow into
into the
the oil-filling
oil-filling system,
system, to
to achieve
achieve the
the
increased. After monitoring the oil pressure, the high-pressure valve was opened in order to system
system pressure.
pressure.
Checkoil
(2) allow
Check valve:
valve:
and gas After
After opening
to opening
flow the
intothe high-pressure
thehigh-pressure valve,
valve,
oil-filling system, the oil
to the oil and
achieve and gas
the gas smoothly
smoothly
system flowed through
pressure.
the
the check
check valve
valve into
into the
the oil-filling
oil-filling system.
system. This
This is
is because
because the
the check
check
(2) Check valve: After opening the high-pressure valve, the oil and gas smoothly flowed through valve
valve has
has directionality,
directionality, can
effectively
effectively avoid
avoid oil
oil and
and gas
gas backflow,
backflow, and can complete the decompression
the check valve into the oil-filling system. This is because the check valve has directionality, can process.
(3) effectively
Low-pressure
Low-pressure avoidvalve:
valve: After
After
oil and gasthe
the tank
tanksimulating
backflow, and canthe
simulating the cable
cable was
complete therelieved
was relieved of
of pressure,
decompressionpressure, the
the liquid
process. liquid level
level
inside
inside the
the tank
tank dropped.
dropped. At
At this
this time,
time, the
thelow-pressure
low-pressure valve
valve was
was opened
opened
(3) Low-pressure valve: After the tank simulating the cable was relieved of pressure, the liquid level in
in order
order to
to enable
enable the
the
cable
cableoil
inside thein
oil the
theoil-filling
intank oil-fillingsystem
dropped. At this to
system toindependently
independently
time, fill
the low-pressurefill the tank
tankbecause
thevalve because
was of
openedofgravity,
gravity,
in orderuntil the whole
whole
to enable the
tank
tank was
was filled,
filled, to
to prepare
prepare for
for the
the next
next experiment.
experiment.
cable oil in the oil-filling system to independently fill the tank because of gravity, until the whole
tank was filled, to prepare for the next experiment.

Figure 3. Schematic of valve setting in oil-pressure-monitoring test chamber.

Figure 3. Schematic of valve setting in oil-pressure-monitoring test chamber.
3. Schematic
Figureare
Generally, there of valve
two reasons setting
for the in oil-pressure-monitoring
oil-pressure variation in thetest chamber.
oil-filled cable. The second
reason is that
Generally,the cable’s oil-pressure variation is caused by the by-product of PD. For thisThe
reason, we
Generally, there are two
there are two reasons
reasons for
for the
the oil-pressure
oil-pressure variation
variation in
in the
the oil-filled
oil-filled cable.
cable. The second
second
designed
reason individual closed-tank test chambers forcaused
the thermal aging and PDoftests. Thisthis
article mainly
reason is
isthat
thatthe
thecable’s
cable’soil-pressure
oil-pressurevariation
variation is is causedbybythethe
by-product
by-product PD. For
of PD. reason,
For this we
reason,
describes the local release test.
designed individual closed-tank test chambers for the thermal aging and PD tests. This article mainly
describes the local release test.
Energies 2019, 12, 4774 5 of 14

we designed individual closed-tank test chambers for the thermal aging and PD tests. This article
mainly2020,
Energies describes the
13, x FOR local
PEER release test.
REVIEW 5 of 14

2.3. Design
2.3. Design of
of Closed-Tank
Closed-Tank Test
Test Chamber
Chamber for
for Partial-Discharge
Partial-Discharge Test
Test
Figure 44 shows
Figure shows the
the schematic
schematic of
of the
the PD
PD test
test chamber.
chamber.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Schematic
Schematic of
of partial-discharge
partial-discharge test chamber. 1.
test chamber. 1. High-voltage
High-voltage power
power supply; 2. low-voltage
supply; 2. low-voltage
grounding; 3. data acquisition to the computer; 4. simulation of partial-discharge fault.
grounding; 3. data acquisition to the computer; 4. simulation of partial-discharge fault.

A GDJ3-160
GDJ3-160 flange electrode with a rated voltage of 20 kV
kV was
was used
used as
as the
thehigh-voltage
high-voltage electrode
electrode
(1), as well as the grounding electrode (2), in Figure
Figure 4.
4.

2.4. Discharge
2.4. Discharge Model
Model Design
Design
The internal
The internal insulation
insulation structure
structure ofof the
the oil-filled
oil-filled cable terminal
terminal is complex,
complex, and
and it may contain
These different
many defect types. These different defect
defect types
types affect
affect the form of PD [17–20], thereby resulting in the
generation of different ultrasonic signals.
There isisnonounified
unifiedconclusion
conclusionregarding
regardingthe construction of theof
the construction physical model inmodel
the physical many in
previous
many
studies and
previous the cable
studies andterminal
the cable failure reports
terminal presented
failure in presented
reports recent years.
in This article
recent constructs
years. five
This article
types of discharge models in order to simulate different defects, as shown in Figure 5, and successfully
constructs five types of discharge models in order to simulate different defects, as shown in Figure 5,
inspects
and and records
successfully the ultrasonic
inspects and records signals generatedsignals
the ultrasonic by PD.generated by PD.

•• Pin-plate discharge
Pin-plate discharge model:
model: This
This model
model isis used
used toto simulate
simulate PDPD generated
generated by by the
the development
development of of
electric branches
electric branches resulting
resulting from
from the
the presence
presence ofof sharp
sharp conductors
conductors in in the
the cable
cable terminal.
terminal.
•• Air-gap discharge
discharge model: This model is used to simulate PD caused by an airorgap
model: This model is used to simulate PD caused by an air gap an air
or bubble
an air
in the cable
bubble terminal.
in the cable terminal.
•• model: This model is used to simulate
Suspended electrode model: simulate PD caused
caused by thethe presence
presence of carbon
carbon
particles, metal particles, or other impurities in the cablecable terminal
terminal insulation
insulation oil.
oil.
•• Creeping discharge
discharge model:
model: This
This model
modelisisused
usedtotosimulate
simulatePD PDwhen
whenthe theelectric
electric field
field intensity
intensity at
at
thethe liquid–solid
liquid–solid interface
interface inside
inside thethe cable
cable terminal
terminal exceeds
exceeds thethe initial
initial discharge
discharge field
field intensity.
intensity.
•• Sliding-flash
Sliding-flash discharge
discharge model:
model: This
This model
model is is used
used toto simulate
simulate PD PD caused
caused by by pollution
pollution on on the
the
surface of the cable terminal.
surface of the cable terminal.
Energies 2019, 12, 4774 6 of 14
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

(a) Discharge needle plate (b) Slide-flash discharge

1.

4.
3.

5.

(c) Suspended discharge (d) Creeping discharge

(e) Discharge of plate with air gap

Figure
Figure 5.
5. The
Thefive
fivetypes
typesofofdischarge
dischargemodels:
models:(a)(a)
discharge
dischargeneedle plate,
needle (b) (b)
plate, slide-flash discharge,
slide-flash (c)
discharge,
Suspended discharge, (d) creeping discharge, and (e) discharge of plate with air gap. 1. High-voltage
(c) Suspended discharge, (d) creeping discharge, and (e) discharge of plate with air gap. 1. High-voltage
leads;
leads; 2.
2. polyethylene
polyethylene test
test board;
board; 3.
3. PTFE
PTFE bracket;
bracket; 4.4. copper
copperelectrode;
electrode; and
and 5.
5. cable
cableoil.
oil.

Currently,
Currently, the the PD
PD test
test environment
environment of
of our
our oil-filled
oil-filled marine
marine cable
cable has
has been
been designed.
designed. Figure
Figure 66
shows
shows the
Energies the actual
2020,actual discharge-fault
discharge-fault
13, x FOR simulation system and operating platform.
PEER REVIEW simulation system and operating platform. 7 of 14

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Discharge-fault
Discharge-fault simulation
simulation system
system and
and operating
operating platform.
platform.

3. Test
Figure 7 shows the system based on the principle of the circuit diagram. Herein, we address the
power frequency voltage observed after usage of isolation transformers, voltage regulator, low-
pressure, low-pass type II filter, high-pressure test in transformer PD, and high-pressure processing
Energies 2019, 12, 4774 7 of 14
Figure 6. Discharge-fault simulation system and operating platform.

3.
3. Test
Test
Figure
Figure 77 shows
shows the the system
system based
based onon the
the principle
principle of
of the
the circuit
circuit diagram.
diagram. Herein,
Herein,weweaddress
address the
the
power frequencyvoltage
power frequency voltageobserved
observed after
after usageusage of isolation
of isolation transformers,
transformers, voltagevoltage regulator,
regulator, low-
low-pressure,
pressure,
low-pass low-pass type
type II filter, II filter, high-pressure
high-pressure test in transformer
test in transformer PD, and high-pressure
PD, and high-pressure processing
processing of low-pass
of
filter to employ the method of the impulse current system in the experimental sample sample
low-pass filter to employ the method of the impulse current system in the experimental testing.
testing. Simultaneously,
Simultaneously, the test the
systemtest was
system was discharged
discharged for ultrasonic
for ultrasonic piezoelectric
piezoelectric sensorsnear
sensors placed placed
the
near the samples, and the PD of the ultrasonic signal was detected. The jfd-2b-type
samples, and the PD of the ultrasonic signal was detected. The jfd-2b-type pulsed current method pulsed current
method
system system
produced produced
by Wuhan by Wuhan
NanruiNanrui was used.
was used. The The
entireentire experimental
experimental system
system waswas placed
placed in
in a well-shielded
a well-shielded roomroomin in order
order to to avoid
avoid electromagnetic
electromagnetic interference
interference from
from signals
signals in outer
in outer space.
space.

Figure 7.
Figure Test-system schematic.
7. Test-system schematic. T1—isolation
T1—isolationtransformer;
transformer;T2—voltage
T2—voltageregulator;
regulator;C1,
C1, L1—low-
L1—low-
pressure, low-pass PI filter; T3—high-voltage experimental transformer; C2, L2—high-voltage
pressure, low-pass PI filter; T3—high-voltage experimental transformer; C2, L2—high-voltage low-
low-pass
pass filter;filter; CK —coupling
CK—coupling capacitor;
capacitor; Zin —detection
Zin—detection impedance;
impedance; T—tank;S—piezoelectric
T—tank; S—piezoelectricsensor;
sensor;
AMP—preamplifier; and DAQ—data acquisition
AMP—preamplifier; and DAQ—data acquisition card. card.

When PD
When PD occurs,
occurs, the
the acoustic
acoustic wave
wave is is emitted
emitted outward
outward in in the
the form
form ofof aaspherical
spherical wave
wave in
in the
theoil
oil
tank. Simultaneously, as sound waves propagate faster in solids, they spread to the
tank. Simultaneously, as sound waves propagate faster in solids, they spread to the side walls of the side walls of the oil
tank
oil andand
tank thenthen
spread alongalong
spread the side
thewall to wall
side the sensor.
to theThe reflection
sensor. field of sound
The reflection fieldwaves propagating
of sound waves
to the sensor, coupled with the face-to-face box wall, affects the normal acquisition
propagating to the sensor, coupled with the face-to-face box wall, affects the normal acquisition of the waveform. of
Therefore, sound-absorbing materials are positioned on the three tank walls
the waveform. Therefore, sound-absorbing materials are positioned on the three tank walls and the and the bottom of the
tank, except
bottom of thefortank,
the coupling
except forsurface of the sensor.
the coupling surfaceMost
of of
thethe sound-absorption
sensor. Most of the materials are loose
sound-absorption
and porous. Herein, polyester fiber was selected as the absorption material.
materials are loose and porous. Herein, polyester fiber was selected as the absorption material.
The following
The following aspects
aspects should
should bebe noted
noted during
during the
the experiment.
experiment.

1.
1. Duringthe
During thecalibration
calibrationprocess
processofofthe
thepulse
pulsecurrent
currentmethod,
method,thethetransformer
transformershould
shouldbebepowered
powered
off;otherwise
off; otherwisethe
thecalibration
calibrationaccuracy
accuracywill
willbe
beaffected,
affected, and
and the
the test
test result
result will
will be
be inaccurate.
inaccurate.
2. The initial local discharge voltage of the whole system should be measured before the experiment.
PD may occur in parts including transformers, high-voltage leads, and lead joints. Consider the
needle plate, for example. The high-voltage needle electrode should be removed for testing, and
the voltage should be gradually increased until the system detects the discharge. At this time, the
voltage is the initial local discharge voltage of the system. To ensure that the measured electrical
or ultrasonic signals are generated by PD at the electrode of the discharge model, the applied
voltage during the experiment cannot be higher than the initial local discharge voltage of the
system. Under normal circumstances, an electrical measurement system and an ultrasonic system
have different sensitivities and insulation levels, and it is impossible to simultaneously detect
the discharge signal in these systems. During gradual voltage boost, the initial local discharge
voltage of the test system should be the voltage at which the discharge signal was detected earlier.
3. The pressurization process should be slow and uniform, and the pressurization time should
not exceed 30 min. Excessive pressurization may lead to unstable PD and the breakdown of or
damage to the equipment in serious cases.
 the initial local discharge voltage of the test system should be the voltage at which the discharge
to simultaneously detect the discharge signal in these systems. During gradual voltage boost,
signal was detected earlier.
the initial local discharge voltage of the test system should be the voltage at which the discharge
3. The pressurization process should be slow and uniform, and the pressurization time should not
signal was detected earlier.
exceed 30 min. Excessive pressurization may lead to unstable PD and the breakdown of or
3. The pressurization process should be slow and uniform, and the pressurization time should not
damage to the equipment in serious cases.
Energies 2019, 12,
exceed 304774
min. Excessive pressurization may lead to unstable PD and the breakdown 8ofofor 14
Then,
damage thetocharacteristics
the equipment ofin
ultrasonic signals in the pin-plate discharge model are discussed, and
serious cases.
the parameters are extracted. The typical time-domain waveform of the pin-plate discharge model is
Then, the characteristics of ultrasonic signals in the pin-plate
pin-plate discharge model are discussed, and
shown in Figure 8. As can be seen, the maximum positive and negative semidocycles of this ultrasonic
the parameters are extracted. The typical time-domain waveform of the pin-plate discharge model is
signal are ±0.4 V, and they last for approximately 4700 μs. As shown in Figures 9 and 10, the time and
shown in Figure 8. As As can
can be
beseen,
seen,the themaximum
maximum positive
positive and
and negative
negative semidocycles
semidocycles of this
this ultrasonic
ultrasonic
frequency domain waveforms of ultrasonic signals with a duration of 2200 and 260 microns,
signal are
are ±0.4
±0.4V, V,and
andthey
theylast
lastfor
forapproximately
approximately 4700 μs.µs.
4700 AsAs
shown
shown in Figures 9 and
in Figures 10, the
9 and 10, time and
the time
respectively, overlap with each other, as do the time-domain and frequency-domain waveforms of
frequency
and frequency domain waveforms
domain waveforms of ultrasonic signals
of ultrasonic with
signals a duration
with a durationofof2200
2200and
and 260
260 microns,
microns,
an ultrasonic signal with multiple pulse signals shown in Figure 11.
respectively, overlapwith
respectively, overlap witheach
eachother,
other,asasdodothe
the time-domain
time-domain and
and frequency-domain
frequency-domain waveforms
waveforms of
of an
an ultrasonic
ultrasonic signalsignal with
with multiple
multiple pulse
pulse signals
signals shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 11. 11.

Amplitude (V/Hz)
Amplitude (V)

Amplitude (V/Hz)
Amplitude (V)

f(Hz)
Time(μs)

(a) Time-domain
Time(μs) waveform (b) Frequency-domain
f(Hz)
waveform

(a) Time-domain
Figure 8. Waveform of the 4700 waveform
μs ultrasound signal.(b)(a)Frequency-domain waveform
Time-domain waveform. (b) Frequency-
domain waveform. Waveform of the 4700 µs
Figure 8. Waveform of Figure 8. μs
the 4700 ultrasound signal. (a)ultrasound signal.
Time-domain waveform. (b) Frequency-
domain waveform.
Amplitude (V)

Amplitude (V/Hz)
Amplitude (V)

Amplitude (V/Hz)

Time(μs) f(Hz)

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR(a) Time-domain

PEER REVIEW
Time(μs)
waveform (b) Frequency-domain
f(Hz) waveform 9 of 14

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR(a)

PEER REVIEW
Time-domain
Figure 9. waveform (b)µs
Waveform of the 2200 Frequency-domain
ultrasound signal.waveform 9 of 14
Figure 9. Waveform of the 2200 μs ultrasound signal. (a) Time-domain waveform. (b) Frequency-
domain waveform.
(V)

(V/Hz) (V/Hz)

Figure 9. Waveform of the 2200 μs ultrasound signal. (a) Time-domain waveform. (b) Frequency-
AmplitudeAmplitude

AmplitudeAmplitude

domain waveform.
(V)

Time(μs) f(Hz)

Time(μs) f(Hz)
(a) Time-domain waveform (b) Frequency-domain waveform

(a) Time-domain waveform (b) Frequency-domain waveform

Figure 10. Waveform of the 260 μs ultrasound signal. (a) Time-domain waveform. (b) Frequency-
domain waveform. Waveform of the 260 µs
Figure 10. Waveform ofFigure 10.μs
the 260 ultrasound signal. (a)ultrasound signal.
Time-domain waveform. (b) Frequency-
domain waveform.
(V)

(V/Hz) (V/Hz)
AmplitudeAmplitude

AmplitudeAmplitude
(V)

Time(μs) f(Hz)

Time(μs) f(Hz)
(a) Time-domain waveform (b) Frequency-domain waveform

(a) Time-domain
Figure waveformof the multi-pulse
11. Waveform (b) Frequency-domain
ultrasound waveform
signal.
Figure 11. Waveform of the multi-pulse ultrasound signal. (a) Time-domain waveform. (b)
Frequency-domain waveform.
Figure comparison,
Upon 11. Waveform of be
it can thefound
multi-pulse
that theultrasound signal. (a)waveform
frequency-domain Time-domain waveform.
of the ultrasonic(b)
signal
Frequency-domain
and the waveform.
duration of the signal are independent of each other. Therefore, we conclude that this is
Upon comparison, it can be found that the frequency-domain waveform of the ultrasonic signal
consistent for bothofsingle
and the duration and multiple
the signal ultrasonicofsignals.
are independent Therefore,
each other. the definition
Therefore, and processing
we conclude that this is
Upon comparison, it can be found that the frequency-domain waveform of the ultrasonic signal
consistent for both single and multiple ultrasonic signals. Therefore, the definition and processing
and the duration of the signal are independent of each other. Therefore, we conclude that this is
method of an ultrasonic pulse signal in the software system introduced previously do not affect the
consistent for both single and multiple ultrasonic signals. Therefore, the definition and processing
actual detection and analysis results.
method of an ultrasonic pulse signal in the software system introduced previously do not affect the
Next, PD tests and signal analyses were carried out for the other four discharge models. Figure
actual detection and analysis results.
12 shows a typical time-domain waveform and frequency-domain waveform of ultrasonic signal for
Next, PD tests and signal analyses were carried out for the other four discharge models. Figure
the air-gap discharge model. Figure 13 shows typical time-domain and frequency-domain waveforms
 Figure 11. Waveform of the multi-pulse ultrasound signal. (a) Time-domain waveform. (b)
Frequency-domain waveform.

Upon
Energies 2019, comparison,
12, 4774 it can be found that the frequency-domain waveform of the ultrasonic signal 9 of 14
and the duration of the signal are independent of each other. Therefore, we conclude that this is
consistent for both single and multiple ultrasonic signals. Therefore, the definition and processing
method of
method of an
an ultrasonic
ultrasonic pulse
pulse signal
signal in
in the
the software
software system
system introduced
introduced previously
previously dodo not
not affect
affect the
the
actual detection and analysis results.
actual detection and analysis results.
Next, PD
Next, PD tests
tests and
andsignal
signalanalyses
analyseswere
werecarried
carriedout
outfor
forthe
theother
otherfour discharge
four dischargemodels.
models.Figure 12
Figure
shows a typical time-domain waveform and frequency-domain waveform of ultrasonic
12 shows a typical time-domain waveform and frequency-domain waveform of ultrasonic signal for signal for the
air-gap
the discharge
air-gap dischargemodel. Figure
model. 13 shows
Figure typical
13 shows time-domain
typical time-domain and frequency-domain
and frequency-domain waveforms
waveforms of
ultrasonic
of signals
ultrasonic for the
signals for suspended-electrode
the suspended-electrode discharge model.
discharge FigureFigure
model. 14 shows typical typical
14 shows time-domain
time-
and frequency-domain waveforms of ultrasonic signal for the surface-discharge
domain and frequency-domain waveforms of ultrasonic signal for the surface-discharge model. model. Figure 15 shows
the typical
Figure time-domain
15 shows andtime-domain
the typical frequency-domain waveforms of ultrasonic
and frequency-domain waveforms signal for the sliding-flash
of ultrasonic signal for
discharge
the model.discharge model.
sliding-flash

Amplitude (V/Hz)
Amplitude (V)

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Time(μs) f(Hz) 10 of 14

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR(a) Time-domain

PEER REVIEW waveform (b) Frequency-domain waveform 10 of 14

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEERFigure

REVIEW 10 of 14
Amplitude (V/Hz)
Amplitude (V)

Figure 12. Ultrasound signal 12. Ultrasound

waveform signal waveform
of cavity of cavity
discharge. (a) discharge.
Time-domain waveform. (b)
Frequency-domain waveform.
(V/Hz)
Amplitude Amplitude (V)

Amplitude Amplitude
(V/Hz)
(V)

Time(μs) f(Hz)

(a) Time-domain
Time(μs) waveform (b) Frequency-domain
f(Hz) waveform

Time(μs) f(Hz)
(a) Time-domain
Figure 13. Ultrasound waveformof floating(b)discharge.
signal waveform Frequency-domain waveform
(a) Time-domain waveform. (b)
Frequency-domain waveform. waveform
(a) Time-domain (b) Frequency-domain waveform
Figure 13. Ultrasound signal waveform of floating discharge. (a) Time-domain waveform. (b)
Frequency-domain waveform.13. Ultrasound
Figure
Figure 13. Ultrasound signal waveform signal waveform
of floating of floating
discharge. (a) discharge.
Time-domain waveform. (b)
Frequency-domain waveform.
Amplitude (V/Hz)
Amplitude (V)

(V/Hz)
Amplitude Amplitude (V)

Amplitude Amplitude
(V/Hz)
(V)

Time(μs) f(Hz)

(a) Time-domain
Time(μs) waveform (b) Frequency-domain
f(Hz) waveform

f(Hz)
(a) Time-domain
Figure 14. Ultrasound waveformof surface(b)
signal waveform Frequency-domain
discharge.
Time(μs)
waveform
(a) Time-domain waveform. (b)
Frequency-domain waveform.
(a) Time-domain waveform (b) Frequency-domain waveform
Figure
Figure 14. Ultrasound 14. Ultrasound
signal waveform signal waveform
of surface of surface
discharge. (a) discharge.
Time-domain waveform. (b)
Frequency-domain waveform.
Figure 14. Ultrasound signal waveform of surface discharge. (a) Time-domain waveform. (b)
Amplitude (V/Hz)

Frequency-domain waveform.
Amplitude (V)

(V/Hz)
Amplitude Amplitude (V)

Amplitude Amplitude
(V/Hz)
(V)

Time(μs) f(Hz)

Time(μs)
(a) Time-domain waveform (b) Frequency-domain
f(Hz)
waveform
Time(μs) f(Hz)
(a) Time-domain
Figure
Figure 15. Ultrasound signal waveformsignal
15. Ultrasound
waveform of sliding (b)
waveformFrequency-domain
of sliding
discharge. waveform
(a) discharge.
Time-domain waveform. (b)
Frequency-domain waveform. waveform
According to (a)
theTime-domain
abovementioned
Figure 15. Ultrasound signal waveform analysis
of sliding
(b) Frequency-domain
of different
discharge.discharge waveformwe conclude that
models,
(a) Time-domain waveform. (b)
the ultrasonic spectra
Frequency-domain
According of different
waveform.
to the abovementioned discharge models
analysis differ
of different significantly.
discharge The peak frequency
models, wewaveform.
conclude of the
that
Figure 15. Ultrasound signal waveform of sliding discharge. (a) Time-domain (b) the
ultrasonic spectra of different
Frequency-domain waveform.discharge models differ significantly. The peak frequency of the needle-
plateAccording to the abovementioned
discharge model analysis
is mainly concentrated of different
in the range of discharge models,
150–170 kHz. we conclude
The peak frequency that the
of the
ultrasonic
air-gap spectra
discharge of different discharge models differ significantly. The peak frequency of the needle-
According tomodel is mainly concentrated
the abovementioned analysisinofthe range ofdischarge
different 160–170 kHz and 240–270
models, kHz spectra.
we conclude that the
plate
The discharge model
peak frequency is mainly concentrated in the range of 150–170 kHz. The peak frequency of the
ultrasonic spectra of of the floating-electrode
different discharge modelsdischarge model is mainly
differ significantly. concentrated
The peak frequencyinofthe
therange of
needle-
air-gapkHz
50–100 discharge model is
and 150–200 kHzmainly concentrated
spectra. Moreover,inthethepeak
range of 160–170
frequency of kHz and 240–270
the creeping kHz spectra.
discharge model
Energies 2019, 12, 4774 10 of 14

needle-plate discharge model is mainly concentrated in the range of 150–170 kHz. The peak frequency
of the air-gap discharge model is mainly concentrated in the range of 160–170 kHz and 240–270 kHz
spectra. The peak frequency of the floating-electrode discharge model is mainly concentrated in the
range of 50–100 kHz and 150–200 kHz spectra. Moreover, the peak frequency of the creeping discharge
model is mainly concentrated in the 50–300 kHz spectra. The peak frequency of the flicker discharge
model mainly ranges between 50 and 80 kHz.

4. Results Analysis
Previous scholars have extensively discussed the processing of acoustic signals; however, there
has been little discussion on how the energy in PD transforms from electric-field energy to sound-field
energy. Herein, we discuss this subject in part.
PDs occur differently in different electric-field environments or with different defects. When the
overvoltage is significantly high, a few PDs generate substantial thermal radiation. Contrarily, when
the overvoltage is not significantly high, they generate minimal thermal radiation.
This process can be analyzed solely from the physical perspective. A pulsed electric-field force
acts on the bubble at the instant PD occurs. At this time, the pressure inside the bubble rises, owing to
the high temperature generated by the arc current in the discharge channel.
Two factors play a decisive role in the process of a PD generating an ultrasonic wave: (1) the
pressure caused by the expansion of the air bubble owing to the high temperature generated by the arc
after discharging electricity under high overvoltage and (2) the electric field force when the power
is discharged at a low overvoltage. Owing to the action of the pulsed electric-field force, the bubble
will initiate a shock-attenuation process in the local area. Under the action of bubble vibration, the
surrounding medium will produce a density wave, which is caused by the electrostrictive effect.
When the bubbles in the transformer oil exposed to a high electric field are punctured and
discharged, several uneven spark-discharge channels with a width of several microns are created.
The air gap within the surrounding gas-spark-discharge channel—caused by local strong ionization
high voltage and the arc produced by high-temperature heating, resulting from high temperature after
rapid enlargement of the heating gas discharge channel—expands very fast; this can often occur at
a speed close to that of sound waves, and the plasma channel cross-sectional area reaches its maximum
value in a few microseconds. This is how spark discharge occurs.
Finally, as the energy of the electric field is gradually transformed into heat, sound, and other
energy forms, the electric-field intensity in the air gap gradually weakens, until the arc is extinguished
and the discharge stops. When the electric-field energy in the subsequent bubble accumulates to
a certain extent, the second discharge occurs, and the same process is repeated. However, in practice,
the real PD process is often caused by the simultaneous occurrence of the abovementioned factors to
produce ultrasonic signals.
When the ultrasonic wave traverses from one medium to another, both the wave velocity
and wavelength change; however, the frequency remains unchanged, and it exhibits the following
relationship:
v
λ= (1)
f
Simultaneously, ultrasonic waves will be refracted and reflected at the interface coupled with
two media. The energy loss caused by the refraction angle and reflection is related to the acoustic
impedance of the media [21]. Acoustic impedance Z is defined as follows:

Z = ρc (2)

where ρ is the medium density (kg/m2 ), and C is the velocity in the medium. In addition, an ultrasonic
wave has two characteristic quantities: sound intensity (I) and sound pressure (p). The diffusion,
scattering, and absorption of sound waves cause the rapid attenuation of sound waves during
Energies 2019, 12, 4774 11 of 14

propagation. In an ideal medium, sound waves only spread, and the attenuation rules of sound
intensity and sound pressure [22] are as follows:

px = p0 e−αx (3)

Ix = I0 e−2αx (4)

where p0 and I0 are the initial sound pressure and initial sound intensity, respectively; alpha is the
attenuation coefficient; and X is the propagation distance. According to the description of mechanical
wave motion in the standard manual, the wave process of acoustic waves can be expressed by using
the following differential equation [23]:
1 ∂2 p
∇2 p = 2 2 (5)
c ∂t
The absorption characteristics of different media are different. The higher the frequency is, the larger
the absorption coefficient is and the larger the attenuation is. In the gas medium, the attenuation of
sound waves is directly proportional to the frequency f and even f2 . On the contrary, in the liquid and
metal media, the ultrasonic wave achieves better transmission characteristics and slower attenuation,
rendering the ultrasonic method highly suitable for PD detection in cable terminals, transformers, and
other electrical equipment employing oil–paper insulation.
To effectively analyze different discharge modes, extracting characteristic parameters from
ultrasonic signals generated by PD is necessary, as this can enable more effective descriptions of
ultrasonic signals generated by PD. The time-domain signal is mainly used to describe the ultrasonic
signal generated by PD. The relationship between these generated signals and the aging degree of
dielectric materials, physical significance, experimental conditions, and calculation methods should
be considered when describing the signals. Existing studies on PD acoustic measurement state that
the most appropriate time-domain information to describe the development of PD is amplitude [24].
However, recent studies have shown that time-domain signals cannot be well classified into different
discharge modes, and there is no appropriate standard to classify different discharge modes.
To effectively describe different PD types, we must adopt appropriate parameters. Therefore,
the following parameters are defined:

• Maximum spectral amplitude of ultrasonic signal, Dmax ;

• Maximum ultrasonic signal frequency, fmax ;
• Average of ultrasonic signal energy, Dav ;
• Amplitude coefficient of ultrasonic signal, M.

Here, the mean value of the ultrasonic signal is as follows:

R f2
f1
D( f )
Dav = R f2
(6)
f1
df

The root-mean-square value of ultrasonic signal energy is as follows:

v
u
u
u R f2
D2 ( f ) d f
u
u
t
f1
Drms = R f2 (7)
f
df
1

The amplitude coefficient of ultrasonic wave is as follows:

Dmax
M= (8)
Drms
Energies 2019, 12, 4774 12 of 14

Table 1 lists the parameters of the different discharge models. The value of each parameter is the
average value obtained after calculating 400 waveform samples.

Table 1. Parameter value of each model.

Pin-Plate Air-Gap Sliding-Flash

Suspended-Electrode Surface Discharge
Parameter Discharge Discharge Discharge
Discharge Model Model
Model Model Model
Dmax (mv) 47.35 46.56 52.39 51.26 48.33
fmax (kHz) 180.56 360.12 320.52 337.88 320.78
Dav (mv) 12.51 12.87 25.36 25.33 25.64
M 2. 35 1.65 1.76 1.35 1.58

Upon calculating the parameter values of each model, we find that the maximum frequency, fmax ,
and amplitude coefficient, M, of the pin-plate discharge model in the frequency-domain analysis are
obviously different from other discharges. Based on Mason’s formula [25], the electric field of the
pin-plate discharge is more concentrated. Therefore, the following conclusions are made:

(1) When the test voltage reaches the initial discharge voltage, the ultrasonic signal shows a pulse-
oscillation attenuation pattern with a large amplitude and fast attenuation, forming a signal
pattern with a significantly lower fmax than other discharge models and a significantly higher M,
as shown in Figures 8–10.
(2) When the applied voltage is significantly higher than the initial discharge voltage, the electric field
of the pin-plate discharge is concentrated, and it assumes the form of repeated and accumulated
discharge, resulting in rapid and continuous discharge. The high-amplitude region (wave head)
of the newly generated signal is superimposed onto the low-amplitude oscillation (wave tail) of
the previous signal. Furthermore, the superposition of the M value increases, and the overall
continuous signal fmax declines, as shown in Figure 11.

Moreover, as can be seen from Table 1, in Dmax , the maximum value of spectrum analysis and
the parameters of each discharge model are similar, whereas the energy Dav of each discharge model
is significantly different. The four parameters proposed herein can be used to distinguish different
discharge models.

5. Conclusions
In this study, a research platform for the typical fault model of an oil-filled submarine cable was
designed and used to perform confirmative experiments on oil-filled-cable simulation equipment,
to explore the ultrasonic generation mechanism of PD, analyze the frequency spectrum of different
types of PD ultrasonic waves, and characterize local discharge signals. The conclusions of this study
are as follows:

• The test environment of PD at the end of the oil-filled marine cable was designed, and five types
of PD models were designed, considering the complexity of defects in insulating materials, which
is highly significant for the study of PD characteristics of liquid/solid composite media.
• The microscopic process of the electrical–acoustic conversion of PD in the insulating medium was
expounded, and the mechanism of local release of ultrasonic signals in the liquid/solid composite
medium was further discussed, and it was determined that the electrical–thermal–acoustic thermal
expansion and contraction effect and electrical–mechanical-energy–acoustic electrostriction
characteristics acted together to produce the ultrasonic wave.
• Upon analyzing and summarizing the collected ultrasonic signals of various discharge models,
four parameters were designed to characterize ultrasonic signals, and it was deemed that they
displayed different frequency-domain characteristics and energy characteristics, which could be
used for subsequent pattern recognition.
Energies 2019, 12, 4774 13 of 14

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.W.; data curation, L.L.; formal analysis, Y.W.; funding acquisition,
X.Z.; investigation, J.G.; methodology, L.L.; software, J.D.; writing—original draft, Y.W.; writing—review and
editing, X.Z.
Funding: This project was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51577045)
and A Project of Shandong Province Higher Educational Science and Technology Program (Grant No. J17KB135).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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