Contents

• Second order system response

• Steady state error
• Stability
• Experimental determination of transfer function
• Controllers
• Physical realization of controllers
• Simulation of Mechanical Control Systems
Using SIMULINK
Second order system response
• General second order system

• 𝜔n - natural frequency
• 𝜉 – damping constant

• Find natural frequency and damping

constant of
X(s)
a. , if f t = 27𝑢(𝑡), M = 3, fv =6, K=27
U(s)
36
b. G(s)= 2
s +4.2s+36
Second-order under damped response specifications
Classification of 2nd order system using damping ratio
Second-order system response specifications
underdamped
Steady state error lim 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓 ∞ = lim𝑠𝐹 𝑠
𝑡→∞ s→0

• Steady state error: error of a system as time 𝑠R(s)

• e ∞ =lim𝑠𝐸 𝑠 =lim
approaches to infinity. s→0 s→0 1+G(s)H(s)

 Determine order and type of G(s) then find steady state error for

system with

1
E(s)=R(s)-H(s)C(s) a. G(s)= , H(s)=1
s+2
C(s)=E(s)G(s)
1
b. G(s)= , H(s)=1
E(s)=R(s)-E(s)G(s)H(s) s(s+2)

• E(s)(1+G(s)H(s))=R(s)
1
c. G(s)= , H(s)=1
𝑠 2 (s+2)
R(s)
• E(s)=
1+G(s)H(s)
• For step, ramp and parabolic input
Relationship between input, system type, static
error constants and steady state errors
Stability of control system
• Stability and transient response of a system affected by location of closed loop
poles in s-plane.
• Routh-Hurwitz: tells us number of poles on the right half s-plane.
• Root-Locus: shows graphically the movement of poles on s-plane for different
parameter k.
• As the parameter changes
• If the pole goes to the right the system is becoming unstable.
• If the pole goes to the left the system is becoming more stable.
Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion
?• How can I know a pole lie on
RHP
Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion cont.…
s4 a4 a2 a0 • The necessary and sufficient condition the
s3 a3 a1 0 system to be stable is there SHOULD
NOT BE any sign change in the first
s2 b1 b2 0
column.
s1 c1 0 0
• If there is any sign change
s0 d1 0 0 • The system is unstable.
• The number of sign change shows the
number of poles in the RHP.
• If there is zero
• The system is marginally stable.
Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion cont.…

• Check stability of a system given by

12
1. G(s)= 2 and H(s)=0.3;
s +4s+2
C(s) 12
2. =
R(s) s3 +5s2+10s+2

C(s) 10
3. = 5
R(s) s +3s4+3s3 +6s2+5s+3

C(s) 10
4. = 5
R(s) s +2s +3s +6s2+5s+3
4 3
 Special cases of Routh-Hurwitz
1. Zero in the first column of row
• Check stability of the system
a. Substitute with small number ε: check for sign change for
positive and negative ε. C(s) 10
a. =
R(s) s5+2s4+3s3 +6s2+5s+3
b. Reverse coefficients: reverse coefficients of the polynomial.

2. Row of zero C(s) 10

b. = 5 4
R(s) s +7s +6s3 +42s2+8s+56
• Use coefficients of auxiliary polynomial.

• Auxiliary polynomial is derivative of the polynomial just above row

zero

• NB: In these cases the system never become stable but it can be marginally stable.
Design using Routh-Hurwitz
• Finding the range of ‘gain’ in which the given system
can be stable.

• Find value of k in which the system

𝑘
a. G(s)= and H(s)=0.2
s(1+0.5s)(1+0.5s)
𝑘
b. G(s)= and H(s)=0.3
s(1+0.6s)(1+0.4s)
i. To be stable
ii. To be marginally stable, how much is its’ frequency of
sustained oscillation
Experimental determination of transfer function
• Approximated to 1st or 2nd order system 1st order system:
𝑘
• G(s)=
• Some parameters need to be collected s+a
• Whose step response is
using sensors.
𝑘 𝑘/𝑎 𝑘/𝑎
• C(s)= = -
s(s+a) s s+a
• The collected data plotted with time to
𝑘
• C(t)= (1-𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 )
a
determine the transfer function.
𝑘
• C(ꝏ)=
a
• If we get the time constant from
experiment we can easily determine the
transfer function.
Experimental deter… cont.…

• 2nd order system:

• Percent overshoot and settling

• NB: In both cases the system should settle to
time used for determining some final value.
denominator or poles of the
transfer function.
 Controllers

• We can alter system dynamics • Commonly used industrial

(parameters) to meet the required controllers are:-

responses but sometimes this cannot • ON-OFF

• Proportional
be done because of several reasons.
• Proportional-Derivative (PD)
• At this time we need to use
• Proportional-Integral (PI)
controllers. • Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID)
Controllers cont.…
• Water level controller is used as an example in this topic.

• The in flow amount controlled by a servo motor based on the set point. The

out flow is uncontrolled.

• The deviation of the water level from set point (desired level) is error signal

which is going to feed the controller.

• The controller turns the servo to open and close the tap based on the error

amount.

• The angle movement is from 0⁰(fully closed), 45⁰(half open) 90⁰ (fully open).

• Assumption: Negative error(0⁰)_Zero error(45⁰)_Positive error(90⁰)

ON-OFF controller
• This two position works as a switch,
• If the level is below set point, tap is fully open.
• If the level is on and above set point, tap is fully
closed.
• Dead band is introduced to prevent chattering
effect
• Dead band a range of values below or above set
point in which the controller take no action.

• Solenoid operated valves and relays are ON-

OFF type controllers

• Even though, these controllers are simple and

economical they are not suitable for complex
systems.
Proportional
• The control action is proportional to the present error.

• u=Kp x e

• If the error is about negative the tap turns toward 0⁰.

• If the error is about positive the tap turns toward 90⁰

• Make the system responds faster .

• The motion is continuous.

• May not eliminate steady state error.

Integral
• The control action is proportional to summation of
the past errors.

• u=Ki ‫ ׬‬ⅇ 𝑡 ⅆ𝑡

Ki
• U(s)= E(s)
s

• If the error was more positive, most likely the tap

remain open.

• If the error was more negative, most likely the tap

remain closed.

• Eliminate steady state error.

Derivative
• The control action is proportional to rate of change of the
error. Dependent on the trend of the error rather than
current condition.

ⅆⅇ
• u=Kd
ⅆ𝑡

• U(s)=sKd x E(s)

• If the error rate is positive, the tap should be more open.

• If the error is negative, the tap should be more closed.

• Derivative controller does not used alone.

• Reduce oscillation so reduces settling time

Proportional Integral (PI)

• Combination of proportional and

integral controllers.

• u = Kp ∗ ⅇ(t) + Ki ‫ ׬‬ⅇ 𝑡 ⅆ𝑡

• So make the response faster

without offset.

• There may be oscillation.

Proportional Derivative (PD)

• Proportional and derivative

controllers are combined.

ⅆⅇ(t)
• u(t)=𝐾𝑝 ∗ 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑑
ⅆ𝑡

• So the system is faster and have

less overshoot.
Proportional Integral Derivative (PID)
• Combines the three controllers
and their advantages.
• PID controller is assumed to
have faster response, no steady
state error, small overshoot, less
ⅆ𝑒(𝑡)
settling time and oscillation. u t = Kp ∗ ⅇ t + Ki නⅇ ⅆ𝑡 + 𝐾𝑑
ⅆ𝑡
Physical realization of industrial controllers using OpAmp

• Proportional
Eo R2
=−
Ei R1

• Integral
Eo 1
=−
Ei sR1C2

• Derivative
Eo R2
=− (sCR1+1)
Ei R1
PID
Eo R4 (1+sC1R1)(1+sC2R2)
• = −
Ei R3 sR1C2

Physically these controllers can be tuned by using variable resistor.

Varying the value of the resistor will alter the gain value.
 Tuning PID controller Ziegler-Nichols rule

• There are two tuning methods in Ziegler-

Nichols tuning rules.

ⅆ𝑒(𝑡)
• u t = Kp ∗ ⅇ t + Ki ‫ ׬‬ⅇ(t) ⅆ𝑡 + 𝐾𝑑
ⅆ𝑡

• Method 1: Used for a system exhibits s- Type of Controller

P
Kp

T
Ki
0
Kd
0
L
shaped response for step input. PI
0.9
T T 0.3
0.9 ∗
0
L L L
PID T T 1 0.6𝑇
1.2 1.2 ∗
L L 2L
Tuning PID controller Ziegler-Nichols rule Method 2

• First find critical gain (Kcr): Gain

at which the system exhibits
sustained oscillation with Ki and
Kd zero. Type of Controller Kp Ki Kd
P 0.5Kcr 0 0

• Critical period (Pcr): Period of the PI 0.45Kcr

3.6
Kcr
Pcr
0

PID 0.6Kcr Kcr 0.075Kcr*Pcr

system at critical gain. 1.2
Pcr
 Simulation of Mechanical Control Systems
Using SIMULINK
• Mathematical modelling
• Block diagram reduction
• Analogous ckts
• System response
• Test(input) signals and steady state
error
• Stability of system