Day

School 1-B

Dr. Wasana Jayawadena

What is the lowest portion of the atmosphere, which we live and breathe?

Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)

• The troposphere can be divided into two parts.

• A boundary layer (1 km depth) and the free atmosphere above it
Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)
 Boundary Layer Characteristics
• The boundary layer is the bottom layer of the atmosphere.

•The atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is formed as a consequence of the interactions between the
atmosphere and the surface of earth.

•Heat, moisture, momentum, aerosols, and gases are exchanged between the free atmosphere and
the surface through the ABL.

ABL/ PBL
The layer of air influenced by surface friction is called the planetary or atmospheric
boundary layer.

• It is a part of the troposphere that is directly influenced by the presence of the earth’s
surface, and responds to surface forcings with a timescale of ~ 1 hr or less.
 Boundary Layer Characteristics Free atmosphere Characteristics

1. Affected strongly by surface friction 1. The free atmosphere is unaffected by surface

2. ABL has a strong diurnal cycle due to solar
radiation.
3. ABL depth :
• varies diurnally between approximately 1000 m
(1 km) by day to a few hundred metres at night.
• varies from 10s of meters over tropical oceans
to several km over hot, dry continents but the
typical height is about 1 km.
friction.
2. It occupies most of the tropical troposphere
and is marked by mostly large-scale
subsidence, with upward motion in intermittent
deep cumulus and cumulonimbus.
3. Its motions and associated processes have a
broad range of time and spatial scales in this
layer

4. More Turbulent :The boundary layer is marked

by small-scale turbulent motion and a rapid
response to changes in the surface conditions.

5. Rapid dispersion of air pollutants

 Significance of ABL
• Pollution is trapped in the ABL
• Crops are subject to the ABL
• Weather is changed and maintained in the ABL
• Turbulent transport and advection move water and oxygen to and from plants
• Cloud condensation nuclei are transported up from the surface by boundary layer
processes.
• Thunderstorms and cyclones are fed by the inflow of moist ABL.
• Fog occurs in the boundary layer
• Boundary layer processes act to transmit, the primary energy source, solar
radiation which is absorbed by the surface to the rest of the atmosphere.
• You spend the majority of your life in it
Applications and Relevance of Boundary Layer
Meteorology

1. Climate simulation and Numerical Weather Prediction

2. Air Pollution and Urban Meteorology
3. Agricultural meteorology
4. Aviation
5. Remote Sensing
6. Military
 So how do things get around in the boundary layer?

Wind – 3 components
• (a) Mean wind
• (b) Waves
• (c) Turbulence

• Each can exist on their own or in the presence of the others

• Mean wind dominates horizontal transport
• Turbulence dominates vertical transport
 Turbulence
• Eddy - Gusts, swirls of wind in the
vertical plane caused by turbulence

• Carry heat, momentum, water vapor,

carbon dioxide, etc.

• Range from as small as few

molecules to as large as the
boundary layer.
 Turbulence

Turbulent transport consists of swirling motions called eddies.

 Turbulence in the Boundary Layer
Mechanical turbulence Thermal Turbulence
Due to Frictional drag and obstacles Due to solar heating
Eddy motions created by wind shear are commonly referred Thermal turbulence is essentially rising thermals of air in
to as mechanical turbulence the boundary layer generated by surface heating
Shear occurs
• Near the surface due to frictional drag Thermal turbulence is maximum during maximum surface
• In wakes behind obstacles heating – at mid afternoon
Laminar and turbulent flow in the boundary layer

velocity is zero at the surface.

Comparison of boundary layer and free atmosphere characteristics.

Property Boundary Layer Free Atmosphere

Temperature Responds to changes in ground Responds to changes in ground
temperatures over a period of less temperatures over longer period
than an hour

Turbulence Nearly continuously turbulent over Mostly Laminar. Turbulence exist in

its whole depth some systems like convective
clouds

Vertical Transport Turbulence dominates Mean wind dominates (slow

vertical transport)

Friction Strong drag against the earth's Small viscous dissipation.

surface. Large energy dissipation
 Boundary layer structure over Ocean

• There is less diurnal change of sea surface temperature due to the mixing and high
heat capacity of water.

• Thus, slowly varying sea surface temperature means a slowly varying forcing in to the
boundary layer.

• The boundary layer depth varies slowly over ocean in space and time.
Boundary layer structure near high pressure and low pressure region

Over both land and oceans;

•, the boundary layer tends to be shallower near

the center of high pressure regions.
•due to the associated subsidence and
divergence.

• In the low-pressure region, ABL tend to be

deeper.
•due to ascending motion.

There, it is difficult to define a boundary-layer top

and often use cloud base as an arbitrary cut-off.
Boundary layer structure over land
 Boundary layer structure over land
Over land, the boundary layer structure is well defined ………..As its relation to surface variability.

During a clear day, (without strong convection), there are three major components in this structure.
1. mixed layer
2. the residual layer
3. stable boundary layer

When clouds are present in the mixed layer, the mixed layer is further subdivided into a
1. cloud layer
2. sub-cloud layer.
During day time: During night:

At and shortly after sunrise, surface heating At the sunset, the deep surface cooling creates a
generates thermals - turbulent eddies to stable (nocturnal) boundary layer, above which
develop, producing a mixed layer whose depth is a residual layer, basically the leftover part of
grows to a maximum depth in late morning. the daytime mixed layer
 Surface layer

All the time, near the surface, at 20 to 100 m of

the ABL (about 0.1 of the ABL height),

intense small scale turbulence generated

due to surface roughness and convection

 Entrainment zone (EZ) Capping Inversion(CI)

Entrainment Zone:
• less turbulent air (air at free atmosphere) is
(incorporated) entrained into turbulent air
(mixed layer).

Capping Inversion (CI)

• At night turbulence in the EZ ceases,
• non-turbulent, stable layer -capping inversion
(CI) left.
• An extension of day-time EZ.
• still strongly statically stable

• Cloud formation from the lower layer is

"capped" by this inversion layer.

• If CI layer " is too strong (too close to the

surface), it will prevent thunderstorms from,
resulting foggy conditions.
Pollutants in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Downtown Los Angeles, USA

ABL /PBL top

1000 to 10000 die annually in LA from heart disease resulting from SMOG.
 Pollutants in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Pollutants trapped in the

mixed layer cannot
escape through the EZ,
although cleaner, drier
free atmosphere air is
entrained into the mixed
layer.

There is a temperature inversion in the Boundary layer which acts as a “lid” by

inhibiting exchange of air with the free troposphere.

It traps pollution, heat,….etc.

 Key points to learn
•The troposphere is divided into the boundary layer and the free troposphere.

•The planetary boundary layer (PBL) or atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is the lower part of the
atmosphere in which the flow is strongly influenced by interactions with the earth's surface. Above
the PBL is the free atmosphere

•Air flow in the boundary layer can be divided into mean wind, waves and turbulence

•Over both land and oceans, the general nature of the boundary layer is to be thinner in high-
pressure regions than in low-pressure regions.

•Daytime: boundary layer is thick (up to 1km), dominated by convective plumes rising from hot
ground (turbulent).

•Night-time: boundary layer collapses to a few hundred meters (stably stratified).

The central processes of the boundary layer are

• wind stirring (mechanical turbulence)
• diurnal convection (thermal turbulence)
 Wind
What causes winds?
Variation/ differences of horizontal air pressure causes Wind.

What changes air pressure? • Differences in air pressure are caused by differences in
temperature (Unequal heating of air)

• Warm air mass = less dense = low air pressure

• Cool air mass = more dense = high air pressure
Wind is ……….. the horizontal movement of air in the atmospheric system

………………………..The horizontal movement of air from an area of high pressure to an

area of lower pressure
Isobar Maps
Isobar Maps show air pressure changes over an area
.
• The closer the isobars = higher the wind speeds.
• The farther the isobars = slower the wind speeds.

H L
Fast Winds Slow Winds

H
Forces that Affect Atmospheric Motion
Driving Forces Behind Wind

1. Pressure Gradient force (Pg) - Air flows from high to low pressure (“downhill”)

2. Coriolis force (Co) -Caused by the rotation of the earth, wind deflects to the right in the northern
hemisphere and vice versa.

3. Friction (Fr) -Air moving along the Earth’s surface is slowed by friction

4. Centrifugal force (Ce) - Present when winds are in rotation (traveling in a circle). behaves as if it is
experiencing an outward force.
Gravity (G) also causes…….vertical pressure differences
Gravity we feel is the sum of gravity pointed toward Earth’s center (g*) and the outward
centrifugal force (2RA ),,,,,effective gravity

Effective gravity(g):

For a rotating planet such as Earth

the resultant of the force (per unit
mass) due to gravity and the
centrifugal force.

g = g* + 2RA.
 Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
• When there is a difference in horizontal air pressure, there is net force acting on the air. This force
is called as Pressure gradient force (PGF).

• When there is pressure gradient force due to horizontal pressure variation, it initiates movement of
atmospheric mass ……..creating winds.

Difference in pressure
Preasure Gradient =
Distance

The effects of the pressure gradients are usually

expressed in terms of acceleration, instead of force.
force 1 dP
ax = =− ,
mass  dx
1 𝑑𝑃 1 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝑥 = − = − 𝜌𝑔 = −𝑔
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Using hydrostatic dP
The pressure gradient points toward low = − g
equation dz
pressure and away from high pressure.
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)

Considering to the map, the horizontal components of

pressure-gradient force are
𝐹𝑃𝑔 ∆𝑧
𝑥
=−𝑔
𝑚 ∆𝑥
𝐹𝑃𝑔 ∆𝑧
𝑦
=−𝑔
𝑚 ∆𝑦
Magnitude of pressure-gradient force is
𝐹𝑃𝑔 1 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑧
= . = 𝑔.
𝑚 𝜌 ∆𝑑 ∆𝑑

Δd is distance between height contours

 Coriolis force (Co)
If the Earth did not turn, a wind from the north would
move along a straight path to the south.

Because the Earth turns, a wind from the north

appears to veer to the right as it moves south.

In the Northern
Hemisphere winds veer
to the right,
This is called the Coriolis
In the Southern Effect. It is caused by the
Hemisphere to the left. Earth's rotation and curvature.
 Coriolis force (Co)
The magnitude of Coriolis force depends on
1. The rotation of the Earth
2.The speed of the moving object
3.Its latitudinal location.

The Coriolis acceleration (aco) 𝑎𝐶𝑜 = −2 Ω × 𝑐

The Coriolis force (Fco) 𝐹𝐶𝑜 = −2𝑚 Ω × 𝑐

experienced by an object of mass m that moving with velocity c in the plane perpendicular to the
axis of rotation.

The stronger the speed (wind speed), the stronger the Coriolis force.
The higher the latitude, the stronger the Coriolis force.
The Corioils force largest at poles and zero at the equator.
Coriolis force is one major factor that determine weather pattern.
 Coriolis force (Co)
When the forces and the motions are represented
in a spherical coordinate system,

the horizontal component of the Coriolis force

(𝐹𝐶𝑜 ) arising from the horizontal motion with wind
speed U is
𝐹𝐶𝑜
= −𝑓(𝐤 × 𝐔)
𝑚
f = Coriolis parameter = 2 sin λ
λ= latitude
k is the local vertical unit vector k =(0, 0, 1)
If U=(u,v,0)
Horizontal components of Coriolis force are
(𝐹𝐶𝑜 )𝑦
= −𝑓𝑢 = −2Ω𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑚
(𝐹𝐶𝑜 )𝑥
= 𝑓𝑣 = 2Ω𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑚
 Centrifugal force (Ce)
Centripetal force: the inward force exerted on an object to keep it moving in a curved path.
Centrifugal force: the outward force exerted on the object that makes it want to fly off into space.

r = the distance from the axis of rotation

V= (u, v) = the horizontal wind velocity of the object

𝐹𝐶𝑒 =the magnitude of the centrifugal force, 𝐶𝑒

2
𝑚 𝑉
𝐹𝐶𝑒 = 𝑚 𝛺2 𝑟 =
𝑟
2
𝐹𝐶𝑒 𝑉
= 𝛺2 𝑟 =
𝑚 𝑟

Magnitude
– depends upon the radius of curvature of the curved path taken by the air parcel
– depends upon the (speed)2 of the air parcel
Direction
– at right angles to the direction of movement
 Centrifugal force (Ce)

Due to the rotation of Earth, the centrifugal force act

on every object in the Earth and it is always directed
away from the axis of rotation. Greater centrifugal force at the equator
causes an equatorial bulge of 42.77 km
Therefore, the centrifugal force act opposite to the
earth’s gravitational force, reducing the weight of an
object .
weight (equator) <weight( poles).
 Frictional force (Fr)
Friction is important near Earth’s surface
Frictional drag near the Earth’s surface slows wind down –

Magnitude

• Depends upon the speed of the air parcel

• Depends upon the roughness of the terrain

Direction

• Always acts in the direction opposite to the movement of the air parcel

Important in the lowest ~1500 m, the planetary boundary layer.

 Frictional force (Fr)
Friction force: A drag force acting in a direction opposite the motion of the air and hence,
reducing the wind speed.

• The drag on the air occur by the features of earth's surface

o greatest near ground and rapidly decreases with height (within lowest 1 km).
o small over frozen lakes and large in forests.

• occur due to the mixing of air parcels moving at different speeds.

• This mixing =turbulence.
1 𝜕𝜏
frictional force (per unit mass) 𝐹=
𝜌 𝜕𝑧
𝜏 represents the vertical component of the shear stress
(due to the presence of smaller, unresolved scales of motion)
𝜕𝑽
𝜏=𝝁
𝜕𝑧
μ =dynamic viscosity coefficient
 Frictional force (Fr)

sources of turbulence

1.Mechanical turbulence:
when air encounters surface roughness (obstructions on the surface).
2.Thermal turbulence:
when air near Earth’s surface get heated and rises mixing the air above.
3.Shear induced turbulence:
when the wind speed changes rapidly over a short distance.
 Horizontal Winds
Vertical motion:
Acceleration = vertical PGF + gravitational force

Horizontal Motion:

Horizontal motion above the boundary layer:

Acceleration = horizontal PGF + CF

Horizontal motion within the boundary layer:

Acceleration = horizontal PGF + CF + frictional force
 Geostrophic Balance

Geostrophic balance is the most fundamental horizontal force balance when,

Equation of motion for
pressure gradient force (PGF) = Coriolis force (CF) horizontal motions

𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡
= (𝑃𝐺𝐹)𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙+𝐶𝐹
 Geostrophic wind
• Air moves from H to L. - due to pressure gradient force (PGF).
• When the air is stationary, CF=zero
• With PGF the air begins to accelerate directly towards low pressure
area.
• As air starts to move, the CF starts and deflects that pattern.
• The deflection is to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the
left in the southern hemisphere.
• Magnitude of the CF is proportional to wind speed.
• As CF increases, the resulting deflection increases.

The “Geostrophic wind” is flow, where the

When forces are exactly balance.------- pressure gradient force balances the
the air flow doesn’t flow from high to low pressure, Coriolis force.

moves along an isobar ………. geostrophic flow. Geostrophic winds flow

1. in relatively straight paths,
2. parallel to the isobars,
3. with velocities proportional to the
pressure gradient force.
 Geostrophic wind
• In the northern hemisphere, low-pressure systems (or cyclones) spin counterclockwise
• In high-pressure systems (or anticyclones) spin clockwise,
• the opposite happens in the southern hemisphere.

At region of low pressure

produces a pressure force directed from the outside towards the low.
Air starting to move in response to this force is also deflected to the right,……………….
rotating counter-clockwise
 Geostrophic wind
The resulting steady-state wind…….the geostrophic wind, has velocity components (Ug, Vg ).
For this special case, the equation of motion becomes
𝑑𝑉
= 𝑃𝐺𝐹 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝐶𝐹 = 0
𝑑𝑡
Substituting terms for PGF and CF forces,
1 ∆𝑃
0= . + 𝑓𝑣
𝜌 ∆𝑥
1 ∆𝑃
0= . − 𝑓𝑢
𝜌 ∆𝑦

Define u ≡ Ug and v ≡ Vg in the equations above, and then solve for these wind components:

1 ∆𝑃
𝑈𝑔 = − .
𝜌𝑓 ∆𝑦
1 ∆𝑃
𝑉𝑔 = + .
𝜌𝑓 ∆𝑥
f = the Coriolis parameter.
𝜌 = air density
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
and are the horizontal pressure gradients.
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
 Geostrophic wind
Above the atmospheric boundary layer
isobars or height contours are relatively straight
Real winds nearly geostrophic

The magnitude G of the geostrophic wind = 𝐺 = 𝑈𝑔 2 + 𝑉𝑔 2

If Δd is the distance between two isobars

(in the direction of greatest pressure change and perpendicular to the isobars),
then the magnitude of the geostrophic wind is:

1 ∆𝑃 𝑔 ∆𝑧
The magnitude G of the geostrophic wind is: 𝐺= . = .
𝜌𝑓 ∆𝑑 𝑓 ∆𝑑
 Gradient winds
• Geostrophic winds exist in locations…… where there are no frictional forces……….. and the isobars are straight.
• However, such locations are quite rare.
• Isobars are almost always curved ……..and ……..very rarely evenly spaced.
• Thus geostrophic winds changes……………… Now no longer geostrophic…………… but in gradient wind balance.
• They still blow parallel to the isobars, but are no longer balanced by only the pressure gradient and Coriolis
forces,………….. and …………………………..do not have the same velocity as geostrophic winds.

• The “Gradient Wind” is flow around a

curved path where there are three forces
involved in the balance:
• 1. Pressure Gradient Force
• 2. Coriolis Force
• 3. Centrifugal Force

• Important in regions of strong curvature

(near high or low pressure centers)

Gradient winds - balanced motion around a (a) Low pressure and a (b) High
pressure systems in the northern hemisphere.
 Geostrophic Wind Plus Friction
Near the surface, the wind speed is decreased by friction.... where terrain and vegetation provide friction

……….. so the Coriolis force is weaker & does not quite balance the pressure gradient force

…………Force imbalance (PGF > CF) pulls wind in toward low pressure

Wind doesn't’t blow parallel to the isobars, but is deflected toward lower pressure;
 The Atmospheric Circulations

This hierarchy of atmospheric motion - based on their physical size and duration
Sea and Land Breeze
Mountain and valley Breeze
 Chinook and Katabatic Winds
Chinook (Foehn Winds):
• Warm Dry air moving down the leeside
slopes of mountains.
• Lee side air is heated by compression.

in the Rockies -Chinook wind

in the Alps -called Foehn winds.
At California – Santa Ana winds

• Katabatic (Fall) Winds

Originate when cold air, situated over a highland area (like
an ice sheet) is set in motion.
• Gravity carries the cold air over the rim like a waterfall.
• The air is heated like a Chinook, but because it starts so cold
it stays cold.
• Same as Mountain Breeze but stronger.
In Adriatic coast -bora
In French Alps -mistral Strong
In Greenland and Antarctica - downslope off the icecaps
 General Circulation of the Atmosphere
General circulation of the atmosphere
refers to the
……..average global circulation over
considerable time period
……..to neglect variations produced by
weather systems
……… but short enough to capture seasonal
and monthly variability.

What drives global-scale general

circulation of winds?

• Differential heating, between warm

equatorial air and cold polar air.

• To balance these inequities, the

atmosphere transports warm air
poleward and cool air equatorward.
 Single-cell Model ………….Hadley Cell
The single-cell pattern -->> Hadley Cell

Assuming,
1. earth is uniformly covered with water
2. sun is directly over equator
3. no rotation

Features:
▪ excessive heating at equator

▪ thermally-driven convection cell

▪ warm air rises at the equator, cold air

sinks at the poles
 The one cell model does not work!

• It is obviously wrong: predicts northern prevailing winds everywhere in the NH

• What is wrong with the model? It is too simple!

• The rotation of the Earth will deflect the winds to the right in the Northern hemisphere
and to the left in the Southern hemisphere.
 The Three Cell Model

• Keep two of the assumptions,

relax the third:

• The Earth is covered with a

continuous ocean

• The sun is always directly

over the equator

• The Earth rotates -> Coriolis

force!
 The Three Cell Model

▪ excessive heating at equator

▪ thermally-driven convection cells

▪ deflection of winds

▪ There are three circulation cells

1. Hadley cell
2. Ferrel cell
3. Polar cell
Atmospheric Circulation Models vs Reality
Idealized winds Actual winds

The Atmosphere, 8th edition, Lutgens and Tarbuck, 8th edition, 2001
 Three cell model: the Hadley cell (0-30 deg)
• Thermally direct cell: warm air rises, cool
air sinks
• Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
• Called as equatorial doldrums
• Warm air, weak PGF, light winds, cumulus
clouds and thunderstorms
• Air rises up to the tropopause, then
laterally toward the poles
• Deflected east due to the CF
• Winds aloft in NH: from southwest

• Subtropical highs (anticyclones)

• Equatorial air cools, sinks, warms up, clear
skies -> major deserts
• Air converges (follow the meridians on a
globe) – high surface pressure
• Horse latitudes: small PG –calm winds,
weak horizontal winds -> sailors get stuck
• Surface winds in NH: from the northeast
(Trade winds)
 Three cell model: the Ferrel cell (30-60 deg)

• At the polar front the westerlies encounter cold

air moving down from the poles

• Air is forced to rise, some of it returns to the

horse latitudes, completing the Ferrel cell, the
rest heads for the pole

• Upper air winds in the Ferrel cell: from the

northeast.

• The polar front is a stormy belt that occurs in a

region with ascending air known as the subpolar
low.

• This region is the source for many of the mid- • Some of the sinking air in the horse latitudes
latitude storms (severe thunderstorms) that heads toward the pole
affect the mid-continent of North America. • Deflected east by the CF
• Surface winds in NH: from westerlies
 Three cell model: the polar cell (60-90 deg)

• At each pole, cold polar air subsides and is

known as the polar high
• These areas have clear skies, cold dry
descending air, light winds, and little
snowfall.
• Between each polar high (at 90°) and the
subpolar low (at 60°) is a belt of weak
easterly winds, called the polar easterlies.
• The Polar easterlies blow from polar high-
pressure belt towards sub-polar low
pressure belt.
 The converging/diverging regions
• ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone ) - Equator
• Low surface pressure with small PG and weak horizontal winds.
• Upward motion of warm moist air. Results in convective cloud towers
• Subtropical highs (the horse latitudes) – 30N; 30S
♦ High surface pressure
♦ The upper air is sinking, warms up and the relative
humidity is very low.
♦ Weak winds, clear sky, dry climate – large deserts
at these latitudes.

•
♦
Subpolar lows (polar front) – 60N, 60S
♦ A converging zone at the surface. Air moves up
and results in strong storms.
♦ Weak winds

• Polar highs – 90N, 90S

 Coriolis Force on global wind pattern
• It is a deflecting force which is produced by
earth rotation. The force tends to turn the flow
of air.
• Direction
• Northern hemisphere: turn right
• Southern hemisphere: turn left
• The degree of the deflecting force depend on:
• Wind speed
• Latitude

• Near equator, it has also no effect.

• Higher latitudes, it has marked effect
• It is the greatest at the poles.