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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Marijuana Use, Socioeconomic Status, and Cognitive Function

Aimee Starr

Psychology 351, Fall 2020

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Marijuana Use, Socioeconomic Status, and Cognitive Function

As marijuana use becomes more widespread, scientists and psychologist are continuously

discovering the short- and long-term effects of marijuana use. Over the years, research has

shown the human brain is not fully developed until the mid-twenties. Because of this, it is

believed that the use of marijuana has short-term negative effects on the developing brain (CDC,

2017). These negative effects include, but are not limited to, difficulty thinking and problem

solving, problems with memory and learning, impaired coordination, and difficulty maintaining

attention. Previous research has demonstrated that young adults who have higher socioeconomic

statuses are more likely to use marijuana (Martin, 2019). Yet, the relationship between marijuana

use, socioeconomic status (SES), and overall cognitive function is still unclear. The current study

aims to understand the short- and long-term effects of marijuana use on cognitive function for

college students of high SES, middle SES, and low SES.

Literature Review

Studies on Marijuana Use and Cognitive Function

Dahlgren et al. (2015) assessed the impacts of marijuana use on executive function with

44 chronic, heavy marijuana users and 32 healthy, nonsmoking control participants. The

participants completed the Stroop Color and Word Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.

Based off of the participants’ scores, it was found that marijuana smokers had poorer executive

function. This demonstrates how marijuana use impairs cognitive function, specifically

information processing and attention.

Although young adults may enjoy using substances recreationally and to destress, these

substances may be hurting them more than they are helping them. Similar to the previous study,

Battisti and colleagues (2010) compared the cognitive function and information processing skills
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of marijuana users and nonusers using the Stroop Color and Word Test. They found significant

differences for the color-incongruent trails where participants were asked to read the word and

ignore the color of the text. For example, participants may see the word “red” written in blue ink

and they would have to say “red” to get the answer correct. It was also found, in all conditions,

that marijuana users had slower response times. This suggests that marijuana users may struggle

with conflict resolution and have slower information processing skills.

Studies on Marijuana Use and Socioeconomic Status

As early as the 1980s, many researchers reported that people of higher SES were using

marijuana less frequently compared to people of lower SES (Kerr, 1987). At that time, people

believed there was a strong relationship between low SES and marijuana use because of biases.

For example, people assumed that just because a person had lower SES, they were more likely to

use marijuana than a person of higher SES. However, recent studies have shown that young

adults who come from higher SES backgrounds are more likely to use marijuana. Martin (2019)

studied the use of drugs and alcohol amongst affluent U.S. college students, defining a person’s

SES with a composite score that included a measure of parental educational attainment and self-

report data on the family’s financial situation growing up. High SES students were more likely

than their peers to use marijuana recreationally as well as to cope with stress (Martin, 2019). This

recent study contradicts past studies because it shows the correlation between high

socioeconomic status and marijuana use. This demonstrates that low SES is not necessarily

linked to drug use, despite prior assumptions and biases.

Over the years, past studies and recent studies have had conflicting results regarding if

there was a relationship between a person’s SES and how likely they were to use drugs, like

marijuana. Patrick and colleagues (2012) used data from the National Panel Study of Income
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Dynamics to show the association between young adults using marijuana and their high SES

background. Based off of people’s average household income, average household wealth, and

parental education, it was clear that young adults of higher SES were more susceptible to

marijuana use (Patrick et al., 2012). A variety of factors, such as money and personal views on

college, may explain why people of higher SES have higher recorded uses of marijuana. Martin

(2019) explains how researchers have found higher rates of substance use among adolescents in

affluent households because marijuana consumption is sensitive to affordability. People of higher

SES have access to more resources, which allows for them to purchase marijuana in greater

quantities as well as more frequently. For example, college students of higher SES may view

college as a time to party, whereas college students of lower SES may view college as a way to

gain upward mobility (Martin, 2019). Previous research shows that adults of higher SES are

prone to use marijuana more frequently, demonstrating how family SES determines who is at

risk for greater levels of substance use in young adulthood.

Studies on Socioeconomic Status and Cognitive Function

Numerous studies continue to investigate the relationship between socioeconomic status

and cognitive function. Lyu and Burr (2016) examined the relationship between life course

socioeconomic status and cognitive function in a sample of older adults from the Health and

Retirement Study over a 12-year period. Childhood SES was determined by the father’s

education, the mother’s education, the father’s occupation, and the family’s financial well-being

during childhood. Adult SES was based on participant’s education and annual household income.

Cumulative SES accounted for both childhood and adult SES by measuring childhood SES

variables with participant’s education and household income. Cognitive function was measured

using a self-report questionnaire that assessed immediate free recall, delayed free recall, serial 7s,
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

backward counting, naming the day of the week and the date, naming two objects, and naming

the current U.S. president and vice president. Lyu and Barr (2016) found that overall participants

with higher cumulative SES demonstrated an advantage in cognitive function. Specifically,

children of low SES in childhood had lower cognitive functioning. It was also found that adult

SES mediated the relationship between childhood SES and cognitive function. Overall, this

shows that people of higher SES have better cognitive abilities. This is important because SES is

a predictor of one’s cognitive ability. This innate disadvantage based on SES needs to be

accounted for.

The Legalization of Recreational Marijuana

Data from the Monitoring the Future survey (2018) showed a historic increase in

marijuana use amongst college students (NIDA, 2019). Marijuana has become the most common

and frequently used drug for college students, especially since it is easily accessible.

Recreational use of marijuana is becoming more popular amongst college students, especially as

more states start to legalize the recreational use of marijuana. Kerr, Bae, and Koval (2018)

determined that the rate of recreational marijuana use by college students increased in Oregon

from 2008 to 2016, noting that Oregon legalized the use of recreational marijuana in 2015. These

reported marijuana use rates were higher for college students in Oregon than for college students

in states where recreation marijuana was not legalized (Kerr et al., 2018). This relates to the

current study because in 2018 the state where this study will take place legalized the use of

recreational marijuana for people who are over the age of twenty-one.

Gaps in the Literature

Previous studies focus on the relationship between socioeconomic status and marijuana

use, showing how people who belong to higher SES are more likely to use marijuana
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recreationally. Studies also examine the correlation between marijuana use and cognitive

function, which determined that people who use marijuana are likely to have impaired cognitive

function. There is also a clear positive relationship between SES and cognitive function, showing

that high SES predicts better cognitive function.

Past studies on the effects of marijuana use and cognitive ability are mostly longitudinal

studies, which does not account for the short-term, immediate effects of marijuana use. These

studies also usually measure the cognitive ability of marijuana users when there is no marijuana

in their systems, which does not show the immediate effects on cognitive function. Past studies

have also failed to observe how differences in socioeconomic status moderate the effect that

marijuana use has on cognitive ability. Additionally, past studies usually classify marijuana use

as smoking marijuana. There are not many studies that examine the effects of consuming

marijuana through edibles and how these effects may differ.

The Current Study – Experimental Design

Overall, research has shown that marijuana use has negative effects on a person’s

memory, problem solving skills, and attention span. The current study examines how the

differences in socioeconomic statuses of college students alter the immediate effects that

recreational marijuana use has on cognitive function. This study includes 240 of students, 120

males and 120 females, who are 21+ and attend a large midwestern university. Of these 240

participants, 80 have low SES, 80 have middle SES, and 80 have high SES. It is hypothesized

that participants of all socioeconomic statuses who consume edibles before taking the Stroop

Color and Word Test are likely to take longer to complete the cognitive task, compared to the

participants who consume placebo edibles. In particular, it is hypothesized that the use of edibles
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will have the greatest negative effect on the cognitive function of people who belong to the lower

SES group.

The Current Study – Correlational Design

Research has shown that recreational marijuana use is becoming more popular among

college aged students. The current study examines how long-term marijuana use affects a

person’s cognitive abilities. This study includes 200 participants, 100 males and 100 females,

who are 21+ and attend two large midwestern universities. Because past researcher has found

that people of higher SES are more likely to use marijuana, this study only includes people of

higher SES. It is hypothesized that over a 4-week period people of high SES who are weekly

marijuana users will consistently take longer to complete the Stroop Color and Word Test.

Methods – Experimental Design

Participants

The participants of this study will include 240 students at a large midwestern university

who are over the age of 21. Participants for this study will be recruited through posts in the Class

of 2021 and Class of 2022 Facebook groups of this university, flyers posted around campus, and

mass emails to students enrolled in this college. The participants of this study must be over the

age of 21 because they will be consuming edibles that contain cannabis. The legal age to

purchase marijuana for recreational use in this state is 21 years of age. Recreational use of

marijuana is becoming increasingly popular amongst college students, especially as more states

begin to legalize the use of recreational marijuana. Past evidence shows that short-term effects of

marijuana cause impaired functions of attention, memory, learning, and decision-making. There

is increasing evidence that the brain does not mature until around age 25 (University of
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Rochester Medical Center, 2020). Because of this evidence, recreational marijuana use may have

more effects on the brains of people over the age of 21 than past research predicted.

This study will include 120 male participants and 120 female participants so that there is

an even amount of male and female participants in the study. Marijuana use has been shown to

affect the cognitive abilities of both males and females, so it is important for both genders to be

included. This study is also focusing on the differences between people of different

socioeconomic statuses by comparing the effects of marijuana use on cognitive abilities for

people of low SES, middle SES, and high SES. There will be 80 participants in each of the SES

groups, so that there are even amounts of participants in each SES group. In addition to these

demographics, there will also be a variety of races included in this study. This study will have

120 Caucasian participants (50%), 60 Black participants (25%), 36 Latino participants (15%),

and 24 Other participants (10%) who do not fit into any of these racial categories.

There will be a total of six groups for this study, with three of these groups being

treatment groups and three being control groups. The treatment group will receive a 10 mg edible

and the control group will receive a placebo edible with 0 mg of cannabis in it. Each group will

contain 40 participants, with 20 female participants and 20 male participants. Group 1 is a

treatment group for low SES participants and Group 2 is a placebo group for low SES

participants. Group 3 is a treatment group for middle SES participants and Group 4 is a placebo

group for middle SES participants. Group 5 is a treatment group for high SES participants and

Group 6 is a placebo group for high SES participants.

Procedure

Before the experiment can be conducted, the researchers will recruit participants who

match the criteria for the study. Since the participants will potentially be consuming cannabis
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products, this study uses a self-selection convenience sample at a large midwestern university to

avoid ethical issues. Participants can volunteer for this study by commenting on the Facebook

posts, messaging the researchers, or responding to the mass emails. Once people volunteer to

participate, they will have to complete the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (see

Appendix A). This ensures that the sample properly reflects the population of interest by having

an even distribution of participants for each SES group. This will allow the researchers to ensure

that there are even number of participants in the low, middle, and high SES groups. Once there

are 80 participants in each SES group, 40 of the participants, 20 males and 20 females, will be

randomly assigned the treatment group and the remaining 40 participants, 20 males and 20

females, will be placed in the control/placebo group.

This study will last for one day and be conducted in a lab at a large midwestern

university. This study will be conducted in a lab setting to eliminate potential confounding

variables and outside influences. Upon arrival to the lab, participants will be given a mouth swab

drug test. This drug test will identify if the participant has used marijuana in the past 24 hours.

The participants’ drug test must come back negative in order for the experiment to be properly

conducted. This eliminates the risk that past drug use that is still in their system affects their

cognitive abilities. After receiving a negative drug test, participants in Groups 1, 3, and 5 will

consume a 10 mg edible. Participants in Groups 2, 4, and 6 will consume a placebo edible that is

0 mg. The participants will not be aware that they are receiving a placebo edible. The research

assistants will provide these participants with the correct edible for the group and watch them

consume it. Before completing any cognitive tasks, the participant will watch a 60-minute film.

One hour after consumption, the participants will complete the Stroop Color and Word Test to

assess the immediate effects of marijuana use on cognitive abilities. As participants complete this
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test, their time will be recorded by research assistants using a stopwatch. After the participants

complete all of the sections of the Stroop Color and Word Test, the researchers and research

assistants will analyze the data and compute the average times for each group. Based off of this,

the researchers will be able to analyze the short-term effects of marijuana use on cognitive

abilities and see how this may differ by SES.

Measures

In the context of this study, marijuana use is defined as milligrams of the

edible consumed by the participant. This variable is a categorical variable with two levels as

participants are either consuming a 10 mg edible or a 0 mg placebo edible. The dosage of 10 mg

was established because the state’s law defines one serving of recreational marijuana-infused

product as 10 mg (MRA, 2020).

Using the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (see Appendix A), three SES

groups are created: low, middle, and high. This questionnaire is a categorical variable with three

levels. Participants will complete this scale by placing an X on the rung of the ladder that best

represents where they stand in terms of socioeconomic status. The low SES group will contain

participants who scored between 1-3, the middle SES group will be participants who scored

between 4-6, and the high SES group will be those who scored between 7-10.

Cognitive ability will be assessed using the Stroop Color and Word Test (see Appendix

C). The scores of the participants in each group will be averaged to represent the group’s

cognitive abilities. Participants whose scores are more than 2 standard deviations away from the

mean will be considered outliers and excluded from this study. Previous studies that use the

Stroop test have been replicated and found similar, significant results, showing the reliability of

this test to assess cognitive function.

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Data Analysis and Expected Results – Experimental Design

Overall Design

The overall research question for both the experimental and correlational studies is: How

do the differences in socioeconomic status for college students affect the impact that marijuana

use has on cognitive performance? In the experimental study, participants will either consume a

0 mg edible or a 10 mg edible. After consuming the edible, participants will watch a 60-minute

film. After the film, participants will complete the Stroop Color and Word Test. For the

experimental design, it is predicted that low, middle, and high SES participants in Groups 1, 3,

and 5 who consume a 10 mg edible will take longer to complete the Stroop Color and Word Test,

demonstrating an overall worse cognitive performance compared to groups 2, 4, and 6 who

consume a 0 mg edible. Specifically, it is predicted that the low SES participants in Group 1 who

consume a 10 mg edible will take the most time to complete this cognitive task. This is

hypothesized because past studies have shown that marijuana use impairs cognitive function

(Battisti et al., 2010; Dahlgreen et al., 2015). In addition to these studies, marijuana use is linked

to difficulty with thinking, paying attention, and learning (CDC, 2017). In this design, marijuana

use is a categorical variable with two levels, 0 mg versus 10 mg. Participants will be randomly

assigned to the level of marijuana use. SES is also a categorical variable with three levels, low,

middle, and high. SES is determined based on the MacArthur Scale of Subjective SES, which is

a 10-point scale where participants place an X on the rung that best represents where they think

they stand (see Appendix A). The low SES group will score between 1-3, the middle SES group

between 4-6, and the high SES group between 7-10. Cognitive function is a continuous variable

based on version 1 of the Stroop Color and Word Test (see Appendix C). This ANOVA will help
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determine what group differences exist between the participants who consume a 10 mg edible

and those who consume a 0 mg edible and how this differs by SES.

Expected Results

It is expected that participants who consume a 10 mg edible, groups 1, 3, and 5, will take

longer to complete the Stroop Color and Word Test, with the low SES participants of Group 1

taking the most time. There will be no outliers in this study, meaning the results will include all

original participants. As seen in Table 1 and Figure 1, participants in Groups 1, 3, and 5, which

includes participants of low, middle, and high SES who consume 10 mg edibles, will take the

longest to complete the Stroop Color and Word Test.

It is predicted that the mean time will be 70.23 seconds for Group 1, 65.86 for Group 3,

and 62.94 for Group 5 (see Table 1). On average, it will take participants in the treatment groups,

Groups 1, 3, and 5, around 36 seconds longer to complete the Stroop Test than participants in the

placebo groups, Groups, 2, 4, and 5 (See Table 1). Overall, participants in Group 1 will take the

longest to complete the Stroop Test (M = 70.23 seconds). Based on Table 1 and Figure 1, the

expected results will align with the researchers’ predictions. Regardless of SES, the participants

who consumed a 10 mg edible will need more time to complete the Stroop Color and Word Test.

This will demonstrate the negative short-term effects of marijuana use on cognitive function.

Within the treatment groups, those who belong to the low SES group (Group 1) will take the

longest to complete the Stroop Test. This will exhibit how, in the short-term, marijuana use most

greatly affects the cognitive function of people of low SES.

Methods – Correlational Design

Participants
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This study will include 200 participants who are over the age of 21 from two large

midwestern universities of similar size and composition. Participants for this study will be

recruited through posts in the Class of 2021 and Class of 2022 Facebook groups at these

universities, flyers posted around campus, and mass emails to students enrolled in these colleges.

The selected participants must be over the age of 21 because to the legal age to purchase

recreational marijuana in the state where this study will be conducted is 21. The researchers are

interested in studying this age group because past studies have shown differences between the

cognitive abilities of marijuana users and non-users (Battisti et al., 2010). Because these

participants’ brains are still developing, this study examines how marijuana use affects their

cognitive abilities over a four-week period.

There will be 100 males and 100 females in this study, in order to account for the effects

of marijuana on both genders. This study will include 80 Caucasian participants (40%), 60 Black

participants (30%), 40 Latino participants (20%), and 20 Other participants (10%) who do not fit

into the other racial categories or represent more than one.

Past studies have shown that people who have higher SES are more likely to use

marijuana products (Martin, 2019). Because of this past research, this study will only include

participants who have higher socioeconomic status. Participants will complete the MacArthur

Scale of Subjective SES (see Appendix A) and report their annual household income (see

Appendix B) before they are selected to participate in this study.

Procedures

This study includes 200 participants who use marijuana on a weekly basis. Because of

this specificity and ethical concerns, this study will use a self-selection convenience sample of

students who attend two large midwestern universities. In order to make sure that this sample
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reflects the population of interest, the participants will take the MacArthur Scale of Subjective

Socioeconomic Status (see Appendix A) to determine if they meet the criteria of higher

socioeconomic status. The participants will also report their annual household income, with the

minimum being $400,000 to participate (see Appendix B). The potential participants will also

complete an adapted version of the Chronic Marijuana Use Measure (see Appendix D) to assess

their marijuana use in the past 30 days, 6 months, and lifetime. The original version of the

Chronic Marijuana Use Measure can be seen in Appendix E. This will ensure that all 200 of the

participants use marijuana on a weekly basis.

This study will be conducted in both the lab and the field. Participants must consume any

amount of marijuana at least once a week. These participants will complete a weekly

questionnaire regarding marijuana use to ensure that they are smoking marijuana at least once a

week (see Appendix D). Once a week, for four weeks, participants will come into a lab at a large

midwestern university to take the Stroop Color and Word Test (see Appendix C). By the end of

the study, the participants will have taken the Stroop Test four different times, completing it

every Sunday for one month. Each time the participants take the Stroop Test they will complete a

different version. The scores for these tests will be recorded using a stopwatch. The participants

will be asked to not consume any cannabis on the days that they take the Stroop Test. Upon

arrival at the lab, all participants will receive a mouth swab drug test to ensure that there is no

cannabis is their system, since the goal of this study is to assess the effects of cannabis use over

time rather than the immediate effects. After each time the participants complete the Stroop Test,

the researchers will compute the average scores to determine the relationship between marijuana

use and cognitive function over time.

Measures
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Based on the adapted version of the Chronic Marijuana Use Measure (see Appendix D),

participants will be selected. For the purpose of this study, marijuana users can be defined as

using any amount of marijuana at least once a week during the study.

The MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (see Appendix A) will be used to ensure

that all participants have higher socioeconomic status. On this questionnaire, participants will

place an X on the rung that corresponds to their perceived socioeconomic status. In order to be

included in this study, participants must place their X in the top 4 rings on the ladder.

Participants will also report their annual household income (see Appendix B) to ensure that is a

minimum of $400,000.

The Stroop Color and Word Test (see Appendix C) will be used to assess the

participants’ cognitive abilities over time. The researchers will time the participants during this

test. After each week of completing the Stroop Test, the researchers will compute the average

scores from each round to assess if there are any changes in the participants’ cognitive abilities

throughout the study. Participants whose scores are more than 2 standard deviations away from

the mean will be considered outliers and excluded from this study.

Data Analysis and Expected Results – Correlational Design

Overall Design

The correlational study uses a longitudinal design. For 4 weeks, once a week, weekly

marijuana users of high SES will come into the lab to complete different versions of the Stroop

Color and Word Test. For the correlational design, it is it is predicted that the time to complete

the Stroop Color and Word Test will increase for all participants from Time 1 to Time 4.

Marijuana use is a continuous variable that can be defined as weekly use of marijuana. Once a

week, participants will self-report their total weekly use of marijuana using an adapted version of
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the Chronic Marijuana Use Measure (see Appendix D). SES is a continuous variable based on

participants’ scores on the MacArthur Scale of Subjective SES (see Appendix A) and their

annual household income (see Appendix B). Cognitive function is a continuous variable

determined by the time taken to complete Versions 1-4 of the Stroop Color and Word Test (see

Appendix C). Because this correlational design uses 2 or more continuous variables, a

correlation test will be used. The alpha level will be at p < .05 in order to determine the statistical

significance between the two variables of interest.

Expected Results

It is expected these participants of high SES who are weekly marijuana users will take

longer to complete the Stroop Test from Week 1 to 4, showing the long-term effects of marijuana

use on cognitive function. It is anticipated that there will be no outliers, so all participants will be

included in these results. As seen in Table 2, there will be a significant correlation between high

SES weekly marijuana users and cognitive function (r = .80). Table 3 displays the mean total

time that it will take participants to complete the Stroop Color and Word Test on Week 1, Week

2, Week 3, and Week 4. The alpha level will be at p < .05 in order to determine the statistical

significance between the two variables of interest (see Table 2).

The participants will complete Version 1 of the Stroop Test for Week 1, Version 2 for

Week 2, Version 3 for Week 3, and Version 4 for Week 4 (see Appendix C). Figure 2 shows how

participants’ times will steadily increase over time, as weekly marijuana use worsens their

cognitive abilities. Demonstrating this effect, the mean time to complete the Stroop test will

increase each week (see Table 3).

As expected, the participants will take increasingly longer to complete the Stroop Word

and Color Test, with the total mean time increasing overall and from Week 1 to Week 2, Week 2
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to Week 3, and Week 3 to Time 4 (see Table 3). Participants will take longer to complete the

Stroop Test because long-term weekly marijuana use will have a negative effect on their

cognitive abilities. This study will show the relationship between SES, marijuana use, and

cognitive function, focusing on the negative long-term effects (see Table 2).

Discussion

Broader Impacts

This study focuses on the relationship between marijuana use, SES, and cognitive

function. In particular, this study examines the short- and long-term effects of marijuana use on

cognitive function, while also separating these effects by SES. This study is relevant because

more states are beginning to legalize recreational marijuana use. Past studies have shown that a

person’s brain may continue to develop until around age 25 (University of Rochester Medical

Center, 2020). Despite this, the legal age to purchase marijuana in many states, including

Michigan, is over the age of 21. The results from this study may lead lawmakers to reassess the

legal age to purchase marijuana for recreational use. Researchers are still examining the short-

and long-term effects of marijuana use on the brain. This study will help researchers and the

public learn about how marijuana use, in the short- and long-term, impacts cognitive function.

The results from this study can also be applied to the real-world situations. The results from this

study will show that marijuana use may negatively impacts a person’s cognitive abilities.

Researchers can apply this information to an academic setting, as cognitive function is constantly

assessed in schools. For example, cognitive function affects memory, attention, decision making,

and problem solving. Schools can use this information to account for cognitive function deficits

in students who use marijuana. There are also few studies that examine how the short-term

effects of marijuana on cognitive function differ by SES. Because of this gap in the literature,
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this study can inform the public on how the effects of marijuana use may differ by SES. This

study will show the public that marijuana use will negatively affect the cognitive function of

people of low SES, more so than people of middle and high SES. This demonstrates how

marijuana disproportionately effects users, based on their SES. The experimental portion of this

study also uses edibles, which few past studies have done. Most studies conducted on marijuana

use define marijuana use as smoking marijuana, rather than consuming it. This study will classify

marijuana use as consuming an edible. This experimental study will provide new information on

how the effects of marijuana may differ by the form of marijuana used. For example, the short-

term effects of consuming edibles may be different than the short-term effects of smoking

marijuana.

Limitations

There are various limitations to this study. To start, socioeconomic status will be

measured using a self-report scale, the MacArthur Scale of Subjective SES. Even though the

correlational design will also operationalize SES with a person’s annual household income, it is

still a self-report questionnaire. This can lead to participants lying about their SES as the

researchers have no way of checking the accuracy of these self-reported measures. This is a

problem because this study examines the how the effects of marijuana use on cognitive function

differ by SES. If a person lies about their SES, the results will not accurately reflect this and they

will not be generalizable to the population of interest. This study will use self-selection sampling,

a type of convenience sampling, because of legal and ethical concerns with marijuana use. By

not using a randomly selected sample, this study will have low external validity as the sample

may not accurately represent the population as a whole. By using a posttest design instead of a

pretest/posttest design, this study may have low internal validity. For example, participants’
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cognitive function will not be assessed at the start of the study, so there is no baseline measure

for their cognitive ability. This means that some participants may do better or worse on the

Stroop Color and Word Test regardless of marijuana use because of an outside reason. Past

studies have demonstrated that cognitive function is heritable (Boogert et al., 2018). Other

studies have also shown that a person’s social environment, such as the size, patterns of

association, and interactions within them, influences their cognitive abilities (Boogert et al.,

2018).

For the experimental design, some participants will consume a 10 mg edible. The edibles

may affect these participants differently for a variety of reasons. People who are regular

marijuana users may have higher tolerances to marijuana and not be affected by a 10 mg edible.

In addition to this, the edibles may take longer to affect some participants because of differences

in weight and food intake. There are also limitations that apply only to the correlation design of

this study. The participants will complete the Stroop Word and Color Test multiple times, on

separate occasions. From repetition, some of the participants may naturally become better at this

cognitive task. This is a threat to internal validity because participants may take less time to

complete the Stroop Test because of repetition effects. In addition to this, participants will

complete a different version of the Stroop Test each time they take it. This is another threat to

internal validity because the different versions of the test can vary in their level of difficulty,

which would then explain why participants’ times increased or decreased on each occasion. In

addition to these limitations, this correlational study will only examine the long-term effects of

marijuana use on cognitive function for people of high SES, which excludes people of low and

middle SES. This study will lack robust information regarding the correlational between SES and
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cognitive function as well as have lower external validity because it only generalizes to people of

high SES.

Future directions

Future research should focus on creating a more fully developed, comprehensive study.

For example, researchers can assess the long-term effects of marijuana use on cognitive function

for people of all SES to see if there are any significant differences. Rather than conducting a 4-

week study, future researches can follow college students and track their marijuana use

throughout college, from freshman year through senior year in order to examine the long-term

effects of marijuana use on cognitive function. Future research may also operationalize SES

differently by using a concrete, numerical value to determine a person’s socioeconomic status.

For example, researchers can define SES using a person’s yearly income or educational level,

which categorizes SES by monetary values. Researchers may also choose to assess the effects of

marijuana use on a variety of cognitive tests, rather than just using one test. Researchers can use

the Wonderlic Test, Revelian tests, or Predictive Index tests in addition to the Stroop Test to

assess cognitive ability in multiple ways. Future research can also assess the long-term effects of

different types of marijuana use such as daily users or monthly users, as this study will only

show the effects of weekly marijuana use.

One example of a future design is a study that follows daily, weekly, and monthly

marijuana users of different SES over the course of 4 years. By using a 4-year longitudinal

design, the researchers will be able to assess the long-term effects of marijuana use on cognitive

function and how it differs by marijuana use as well as SES. To categorize SES, researchers can

use the MacArthur Scale of Subjective SES, participants’ annual income, and the education level

of participants’ parents. By operationalizing SES in numerous ways, it will allow the researchers
21
MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

to create more concrete and objective SES groups. In this study, participants will complete

different cognitive tasks, such as the Wonderlic Test, Revelian tests, Predictive Index tests, and

the Stroop test to assess changes in cognitive function over time. When the participants complete

multiple, different cognitive function tasks, it will eliminate the risk of repetition effects altering

a participant’s score. By establishing the short- and long-term effects of marijuana use on

cognitive function and how it may differ by SES, researchers can work together to better

understand the negative consequences of marijuana use.

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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

References

Battisti, R. A., Roodenrys, S., Johnstone, S. J., Pesa, N., Hermens, D. F., & Solowij, N. (2010).
Chronic cannabis users show altered neurophysiological functioning on Stroop task
conflict resolution. Psychopharmacology, 212(4), 613–624. https://doi-
org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/10.1007/s00213-010-1988-3

Boogert, N. J., Madden, J. R., Morand-Ferron, J., & Thornton, A. (2018). Measuring and
understanding individual differences in cognition. Philosophical transactions of the
Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 373(1756), 20170280.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0280

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017). What You Need to Know About Marijuana
Use in Teens. https://www.cdc.gov/marijuana/factsheets/teens.htm

Dahlgren, M. K., Sagar, K. A., Racine, M. T., Dreman, M. W., & Gruber, S. A. (2016).
Marijuana use predicts cognitive performance on tasks of executive function. Journal of
Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 77(2), 298–308. https://doi-
org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/10.15288/jsad.2016.77.298

Kerr, D. C. R., Bae, H., & Koval, A. L. (2018). Oregon recreational marijuana legalization:
Changes in undergraduates’ marijuana use rates from 2008 to 2016. Psychology of
Addictive Behaviors, 32(6), 670–678. https://doi-
org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/10.1037/adb0000385.supp (Supplemental)

Kerr, P. (1987). Rich vs. Poor: Drug Patterns Are Diverging. Retrieved from
https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/30/us/rich-vs-poor-drug-patterns-are-diverging.html?
pagewanted=all

Lyu, J., & Burr, J. A. (2016). Socioeconomic status across the life course and cognitive function
among older adults: An examination of the latency, pathways, and accumulation
hypotheses. Journal of Aging and Health, 28(1), 40–67. https://doi-
org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/10.1177/0898264315585504

Martin, C. C. (2019). High socioeconomic status predicts substance use and alcohol consumption
in US undergraduates. Substance Use & Misuse, 54(6), 1035–1043. https://doi-
org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/10.1080/10826084.2018.1559193

Michigan Marijuana Regulatory Agency. (2020). Maximum THC Concentrations for Marijuana-
Infused Products.

NIDA. 2019, September 13. Marijuana use at historic highs among college-age adults. Retrieved
from https://www.drugabuse.gov/news-events/news-releases/2019/09/marijuana-use-at-
historic-highs-among-college-age-adults on 2020, October 12
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Patrick, M. E., Wightman, P., Schoeni, R. F., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Socioeconomic status
and substance use among young adults: A comparison across constructs and
drugs. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73(5), 772–782. https://doi-
org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/10.15288/jsad.2012.73.772

University of Rochester Medical Center. (2020). Understanding the Teen Brain. Retrieved from
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=1
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Table 1

Mean Total time on the Stroop Color and Word Test

Group Marijuana Use SES Total Time (in

seconds)

Group 1 10 mg Low 70.23

Group 2 0 mg Low 32.47
Group 3 10 mg Middle 65.86
Group 4 0 mg Middle 29.33
Group 5 10 mg High 62.94
Group 6 0 mg High 30.09
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Table 2

Correlations Between High SES Marijuana User and Cognitive Function

Variable 1 2

1. Marijuana --
Use
2. Cognitive .80* --
Function

Note. *p < .05

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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Table 3

Mean Total Time on Stroop Color and Word Test (Time 1-Time 4)

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Group Marijuan SES (in (in (in (in
a Use seconds) seconds) seconds) seconds)

Group 1 Weekly High 45.33 47.06 50.73 51.28

27
MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Figure 1

Cognitive Tasks Duration by Group

80

70

60
(Mean) Total Time (in seconds)

50

40

30

20

10

0
Low SES - 10mg Low SES - 0mg Middle SES - Middle SES - High SES - 10mg High SES - 0mg
10mg 0mg

Group
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Figure 2

Cognitive Tasks Duration Over Time of Weekly Marijuana Users

60

58

56
(Mean) Total Time (in seconds)

54

52

50

48

46

44

42

40
1 2 3 4
Week
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Appendix A

1. MacArthur Scale of Subjective Socioeconomic Status

a. At the top of the ladder are the people who have the highest standing in their

community. At the bottom are the people who have the lowest standing in their

community. Where would you place yourself on this ladder? Place an X on the

rung where you think you stand at this time of your life relative to other people in

your community.
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Appendix B

2. Annual Household Income

a. Please report the annual income for your household

i. Free response
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Appendix C

3. Stroop Color and Word Test – Version 1

a. Person has to read the words row by row (neutral)

i. Red Green Yellow Yellow Purple Black Orange Brown

ii. Blue Purple Brown Red Yellow Pink Green Black

b. Person has to read the words row by row (congruent)

i. Blue Yellow Red Green Pink Red Black Purple

ii. Green Brown Blue Yellow Green Blue Yellow Pink

c. Person has to name the words (and ignore the colors) row by row (incongruent 1)

i. Blue Pink Yellow Red Green Purple Black Orange

ii. Green Purple Yellow Orange Green Yellow Purple Red

d. Person has to name the colors (and ignore the words) row by row (incongruent 2)

i. Pink Brown Blue Orange Yellow Purple Red Green

ii. Green Yellow Blue Blue Purple Black Pink Orange

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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Appendix D

4. Adapted Version of the Chronic Marijuana Use Measure

a. How often have you used marijuana in the past 30 days?

i. Free response

b. How often have you used marijuana in the past 6 months?

i. 8-point scale response

1. 0 = no use

2. 1 = once every three months

3. 2 = once every two months

4. 3 = once every month

5. 4 = more than once a month

6. 5 = once a week

7. 6 = more than once a week

8. 7 = once per day

9. 8 = more than once per day

c. What is your lifetime use of marijuana?

i. 10-point scale response

1. 0 = never

2. 1 = 1-10 times

3. 2 = 10-20 times

4. 3 = 30-40 times

5. 4 = 40-50 times

6. 5 = 50-60 times
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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

7. 6 = 60-70 times

8. 7 = 70-80 times

9. 8 = 80-90 times

10. 9 = 90-100 times

11. 10 = 100+ times

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MARIJUANA USE, SES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION

Appendix E

1. Chronic Marijuana Use Measure

a. How often have you used marijuana in the past 30 days?

i. Free response

b. How often have you used marijuana in the past 6 months?

i. 8-point scale response

1. 0 = no use

2. 8 = more than once per day

c. What is your lifetime use of marijuana?

i. 8-point scale response

1. 0 = never

2. 8 = 100+ times