Influence of soil physical properties (or soil water profiles) on plant growth

1.0 Introduction

Soil is defined as an unconsolidated material comprising of inorganic and organic components

that forms on the uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020 defines
soil as biologically active, porous, able to store water and nutrients besides playing a role in
the carbon cycle.

It is formed from the weathering of the parent material, a process of gradual disintegration (Yu
& Hunt, 2018) that either forms material similar to the parent material, or something entirely
different. The type or characteristics of the soil formed is largely determined by five types of
soil formation factors, namely, parent material, topography, climate, organisms and time
(Jenny, 1941, Sposito, 2020).

The parent material, can be described as “the initial state of the solid matter making up a soil”
(Sposito, 2020) or “the initial state of the soil system” (Paz & Rodríguez, 2008). Parent material
affects the type of soil formed by their existing inorganic composition, texture and also soil
horizons (Sposito, 2020). Wilson, 2019 mentioned that parent material is the most influential
when it comes to soil formation, as it is the basis of which the soil is formed.

When it comes to topography, it encompasses mainly the position and shape of the slope.
This in turn affects the stability and duration of solid materials at certain positions (Paz &
Rodríguez, 2008), in which solids that are at a higher or steeper position will tend to be
transported downwards due to gravitational forces. These solids may also be subjected to
effects of rain water, whereby the materials are translocated or transported along with the
movement of water in a process known as surface runoff (Sposito, 2020).

Climate on the other hand is usually associated with the average temperature and precipitation
happening over a period of time. Soil is affected mainly by the action of water as soils often
loses its components through the effect of leaching (Paz & Rodríguez, 2008). Water is also
an agent in altering the physical and chemical of soils (Sposito, 2020).

Next, organisms or biotic factor also affects the types soil being formed, especially when it
comes to plants and vegetation. It determines the type of organic matter forms and also the
microfauna inhabitants found in that particular area. Sposito, 2020 mentioned that there were
differences in soil properties that was not caused by other soil factor, but of the type of plant
that grew on the soil.
The final factor of soil formation is time, which exerts no additional input to the soil. It is
considered as an abstract factor and functions mainly as “a marker of the evolution of soil
characteristics” (Sposito, 2020). In other words, the soil properties will gradually change over
time, even if there is little effect from the other four factors mentioned above.

Moving on, the importance of soil is often overlooked by many; however, they play a major
role in many biological processes in an ecosystem. Soil serves as the medium for plant growth
and since plants are the primary producers in any food chain, hence, soil is an integral part in
an ecosystem.

Although there are many types of soil, not all soils are fertile or suitable for plant growth. All
these depends on many factors, especially the physical properties of the soil itself. These
physical properties include texture, structure, bulk density, porosity and colour of the soil.

Plant growth can be either positive or negative, and it is often governed by a few intrinsic
factors, which are water, sunlight, nutrients. Soil physical properties influences or control two
of these factors, which is the retention and availability of water and nutrients.

Therefore, this essay aims to answer how soil physical properties is able to influence plant
growth.

2.0 Soil Physical Properties

2.1 Soil Texture

The first factor that will be discussed is how soil texture will influence plant growth. A simple
way of describing soil texture is the relative composition or percentage of sand, silt, and clay
particles found in the soil. Different soils will have varying amounts of sand, silt and clay
content in them.

Generally, the sizes of the particle decrease in the order of sand, silt and clay, with clay being
the smallest. According to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 1987 sand
particles are found in the range of 0.05 - 2.0 mm in diameter, while silt is in the range of 0.002
to 0.05 mm and clay is anything less than 0.002mm. For particles that are greater than 2.0mm,
they are considered as stones. (Refer Appendix 1).
2.1.1 Sand Particles

Sand particles are primarily composed of silicon dioxide, SiO2. Some of the common
characteristics they have are a course-texture, large particle size, and the particles generally
do not stick together (Eagle, 2016).

Sand or sandy soils have poor water holding capacity (Martínez-Fernández et al., 2021) and
nutrient retention abilities due to the large particle size it possesses. Water tends to drain
quickly through it, along with soluble nutrients such as sodium and potassium (Eagle, 2016).

As we know, adequate amount of water and nutrients is necessary for plant growth. Therefore,
since sandy soils are unable to retain much water and nutrients due to the large spaces
between their particles, they show a negative correlation with plant growth (Martínez-
Fernández et al., 2021)

Silt

Silt particles are best described as having intermediate properties between that of sand and
clay. Silt particles are smaller in size compared to sand but bigger than those of clay. With that
being said, silty soils have smaller pore spaces than sandy soils but bigger than those of
clayey soils (Eagle, 2016).

Silty soils particles are fine enough that water and nutrients can be retained, however its
particles are also just large enough that water and nutrients can be drained or supplied to the
plant. Hence, silty soils are good for plant growth as it can supply and retain water as well as
nutrients to plants.

Clay

Clay are particles with very fine texture and tend to stick together when in contact with water.
Since their particles are so small, there is very little space between their particles. This showed
that clayey soils have good water retention abilities since they are able to trap water molecules
in these spaces (Eagle, 2016). As a result, water and nutrients moves very slowly through
them, which also meant that clay soils have poor drainage.

This contrasting property meant that plants that grow on clayey soils are unlikely to suffer from
stresses from short-term drought, but might suffer from the effects of flooding after a heavy
downpour. This also applied to the fate of nutrients, as nutrients are unlikely to be leached out
from the soil, but there’s a possibility of the nutrients being washed away from the surface of
the soil.
2.2 Soil Structure

Soil structure is the result of the arrangement of soil particles such as sand, silt and clay, along
with organic matter and fertilisers into a definite, porous compound (Rai et al., 2017).
Shanstrom, 2014 described soil structure as the way soil particles form aggregates or peds,
when they are brought closely together. These aggregates are usually separated by the
formation of pores and cracks (Rai et al., 2017) and are formed owing to physical, chemical
and biological factors (Shanstrom, 2014, Or et al., 2021).

Generally, there are five different types of soil structure, namely granular, blocky, columnar,
platey and massive. (Refer Appendix 2).

These different soil structures give different properties to the soil, such as influencing the pore
structure, permeability and soil hydraulic properties (Donahue et al., 1983, Shanstrom, 2014).
Rai et al., 2017 also mentioned that the soil structure is responsible for the soil hydraulic
properties.

Take sandy soils as an example. The large-sized particles of sand do not stick together which
meant that they have lower aggregation. The structure formed by sandy particles also allow
greater amount of water to infiltrate it and at the same time, drain water quickly to avoid
scenarios of water-logging (Shanstrom, 2014, Rai et al.,2017). This makes it easier for the
root of the plants to penetrate through the soil, and provide good drainage, hence, helps in
plant growth.

A well-structured soil is able to retain water that is readily available to the plants (Rai et al.,
2017). Clayey soils with poor structure might be detrimental to plant growth as the plants are
subjected to waterlogged conditions (Rai et al., 2017). However, with proper structure, clayey
soils can increase the water holding capacity of the soil and the cation exchange capacity,
thus aiding in plant growth (Shanstrom, 2014).

Besides that, a well-structure soil which have large range of pore size distribution, is optimum
in influencing positive plant growth. This is because it has both proper drainage and water
holding capacity to provide the best conditions for plant growth.

2.3 Bulk Density

Bulk density is greatly influenced by soil compaction, (Kozlowski & Pallardy, 1997, Zoz et al.,
2021) which in return affects soil porosity, soil moisture and soil hydraulic conductivity (Li et
al., 2019). Soil compaction is mostly caused by human activities and management practices,
such as due to the heavy load from the use of agriculture machinery (Kozlowski & Pallardy,
1997, Li et al., 2019, Capowiez et al., 2021).

An increase in soil compaction results in the increase of bulk density and also the strength of
the soil. Bulk density is also associated with the number of solids found in the soil. Generally,
sandy soils are known to have the highest bulk densities, followed by silty soils and clayey
soils. This is mainly because sandy soils particles are large, they do not stick together (low
aggregation) and have a low amount of organic matter.

The increased in bulk density in return exerts a negative effect on plant growth. Zoz et al.,
2021 stated that an increase in bulk density of the soil will halt root growth, and hinder the
absorption of water and nutrients by the plant.

High bulk density is also associated with low porosity, a decrease in soil aeration, and water
infiltration (Ilek et al., 2017, Zoz et al., 2021). The low porosity meant that the roots of the
plants will have a harder time growing through the soil as there are lesser pore spaces. The
decrease in water infiltration generally meant that plants would have lower amount of water
available for absorption, and also will lead to surface runoff.

2.4 Porosity

Porosity or otherwise known as pore space, is defined as the empty spaces between the solid
soil particles or soil aggregates. (Refer Appendix 3). These spaces are often occupied by
either air or water. Porosity is also sometimes defined by its ability to retain water. As
discussed above, soil porosity is affected by soil compaction and also through the action of
plants and animals found with the soil (de Oliveira et al., 2021). Indoria et al., 2020 mentioned
that porous soils functions in controlling water, air and nutrients entries into the soils.

There are three types of pore sizes, namely macrospores, mesopores and micropores, with
macropores being the largest among the group. These varying pore sizes in turn affects the
water movement and retention abilities in soil (de Oliveira et al., 2021). Macropores, or
aeration pores is responsible for soil aeration, permeability and mechanical resistance (Yu et
al., 2021), while mesopores mainly functions in storing water to be provided readily for plants
to absorb and micropores tend to bind to the water tightly.

Generally, the larger the size of the pore, the lesser the mechanical resistance, and hence it
is easier for plant root growth. Sandy soils have low porosity with little mechanical resistance
that allows plant and water to pass through fairly easily. Sandy soils are also macropores
dominated, hence have higher soil aeration as well.
On the other hand, clayey soils are known to have high soil porosity, but with low permeability.
To put it simply, porosity is the total amount of empty space, while permeability is the measure
of how readily water or materials pass through the soil. The low permeability is due to the
unconnected pore spaces, and hence water is trapped in those spaces, unable to flow
elsewhere. This is also the reason for water-logged conditions that occur frequently in clayey
soils, which is bad for plant growth.

2.5 Soil Colour

The fifth and final soil physical property that will be discussed here is soil colour. Soil colour is
mainly used in identifying and differentiating different types of soils. The colour of the soil can
tell us a lot about the physical property of a soil. It is also the most prominent and visible soil
property.

The colour of the soil is identified by making comparisons with the Munsell colour system.
(Refer Appendix 4). Generally, dark-coloured soils indicate high organic matter content, while
red-coloured soil is an indication of the presence of iron compounds (Rowe, 2005).

Darker soil colours have been observed to absorb more heat and solar radiation (Jackson,
2020). Soils that are wetter tend to warm slower that that of drier soils due to the high specific
heat property of water (Jackson, 2020).

The soil colour generally has no significant effect on plant growth. Soil colour however has
been found to slightly affect the temperature of the soil and the surrounding. Warmer soils
might be able to improve microbial nitrification, as well as influence the absorption rate of
certain minerals (Jackson, 2020). All these will have an indirect effect on plant growth.

3.0 Conclusion

In conclusion, the five physical soil properties, texture, structure, bulk density, porosity and
colour all play their own part in influencing plant growth. Generally, soils that are optimum for
plant growth are a mixture of all these soil characteristics. As much as there is variation in the
soil properties, the same can be said for plant and their growth pattern. Different types of
plants will have different requirements in order to grow optimally. Therefore, it is important to
take all of these factors into considerations for the best outcome.
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Appendix

Appendix 1

The figure below shows the relative size of soil particles, namely sand, silt and clay along

with their measurements in mm (Science Learning Hub – Pokapū Akoranga Pūtaiao, 2013).
Appendix 2

The figure below illustrates the different types of soil structure and their level of permeability.
(Shanstrom, 2014)
Appendix 3

The following figure illustrates the concept of pore spaces in different soil particles sizes
(Nelson, 2015).
Appendix 4

The figure below is an example of a Munsell Colour Chart (Munsell Colour, 2014).