Contents

1.0. Aims and Objectives........................................................................................................................2

1.1. Aim..............................................................................................................................................2

1.2. Objectives....................................................................................................................................2

2.0. Theory.............................................................................................................................................2

3.0. Anticipated results...........................................................................................................................5

4.0. Methodology....................................................................................................................................5

4.1. Apparatus used............................................................................................................................5

4.2. Procedures...................................................................................................................................6

5.0. Results and analysis.........................................................................................................................8

5.1. Data collection.............................................................................................................................8

5.2. Data analysis..............................................................................................................................11

6.0. Discussion......................................................................................................................................15

7.0. Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................16

8.0. Critique..........................................................................................................................................16

9.0. Contribution of team members......................................................................................................17

10.0. References.................................................................................................................................17

11.0. Appendices................................................................................................................................18

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1.0. Aims and Objectives
1.1. Aim
The aim of the experiment is to check the validity and the extent to which the Bernoulli’s equation is true.

1.2. Objectives
The objectives of this experiment were:

 To maintain a steady flow rate in the piezometer tubes.

 To find the volume of water and the time taken to collect that amount of water for the of flow
rate.
 To measure the dimensions and calculate the area of the measuring tank.
 To record the scale readings of the water levels in each of the piezometer.
 To plot graphs of P/W, V2/2g and (P/W + V2/2g) against the distance from the entrance of the
passage base.
 To check into thoroughly the validity of the Bernoulli equation.

2.0. Theory
Bernoulli’s principle is a physical principle which states that with increase in the flow velocity of an
incompressible fluid in a duct, the static pressure decreases which is produced by the fluid and vice versa.
The main application of the Bernoulli principle is for the determination of flow speed of a fluid.

Bernoulli’s principle can be verified by the Bernoulli’s equation. This equation is am assertion of the
principle of conservation of energy along a streamline. Streamlines are lines joining point of equal
velocity. The terms in the Bernoulli equation represent energy per unit unit and approximates to as shown
below:

Pressure energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy = total constant energy = constant
per unit weight per unit weight per unit weight per unit weight

Hence,

P v2
+ + z=H =constant
ρg 2 g

Where(in SI units),
P – pressure of the flowing fluid ( N/m2)
⍴ - density of the flowing fluid ( kg/m3)

g – acceleration due to gravity ( m/s2)

v – velocity of the flowing fluid (m/s)
H – Potential head (m)

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The terms in the Bernoulli’s equation are referred as :
P
– Pressure head
ρg
v2
– velocity head
2g

Derivation of the Bernoulli’s Equation

The Bernoullli’s Equation is derived based under the following assumptions:
 The fluid in incompressible.
 The flow of the fluid is steady.
 Frictional losses are negligible.
 The liquid in non-viscous.
Consider the following diagram,

B Cross sectional area, a

A D

Z C

mg

Figure 1 Schematic diagram to derive Bernoulli’s equation

The elemental possesses potential energy due to its height, Z and also has kinetic energy due to its
velocity, v. The element has weight mg as shown on the figure.

Potential energy = mgZ

Potential energy per unit weight = Z

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 1 2
Kinetic energy = mv
2

v2
Kinetic energy per unit point =
2g

As the fluid flows, work is being done. If the pressure at cross section AB which generates a force is P,
then

Force on AB = P×a

Due to the mass mg when passing AB, the cross section AB will moved to CD. Hence,

mg m
Volume passing AB = =
⍴g ρ

m
Hence, diatance AC = ρ m
=
a ρa

Work done = Force × Distance AC

m
= P ×a ×
ρa

P
Work done per unit weight =
ρg

Adding all theses energy per unit weight terms, we get

Pressure energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy = total energy

per unit weight per unit weight per unit weight per unit weight

Hence,

P v2
+ + z=H
ρg 2 g

Using principle of conservation of energy, the total energy within the system does not change and the
Bernoulli Equation can be modified to

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P v2
+ + z=H =constant
ρg 2 g
In this experiment, we are considering that the centerline of all the cross sections lie on the same
horizontal plane and hence the value of Z is zero so that the Bernoulli’s Equation reduces to

P v2
+ =H=constant
ρg 2 g

3.0. Anticipated results

As the apparatus consists of a uniformly converging tube with water flowing from the larger area to
the smaller one and according to the Bernoulli Equation, we would expect an increase in velocity
(this is due to the decreasing area of the tube) and hence kinetic energy will increase which in turn
will cause a decrease in pressure. This will make the height of the water in each of the seven
piezometer tubes to decrease.

4.0. Methodology
4.1. Apparatus used

 Perspex tube – It allowed flow of water through the pipe which is connected to a tap.

Figure 2 Perspex tube

 Seven piezometers – The seven piezometer are of standard diameter and has a uniform
separation of 50mm. It is used to measure the pressure of the liquid by measuring the
height of the liquid in the piezometer.

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 Figure 3 Seven piezometers

 Outlet valve – This valve is adjusted to maintain the level of water in the piezometers
constant.
 Graduated collecting vessel – It is used to collect the water running out and is also used
to measure the height of water collected in a specific time for the calculation of flow rate.
 Stopwatch – It is used to record the time taken for the volume of water in graduated
collecting vessel to increase by a height h.
 Graph paper – It is placed behind the piezometers and is used to measure the level of
water in the piezometer.
 Measuring tape – It is used to measure the dimensions of the graduated collecting for the
calculation of the area of the vessel.
4.2. Procedures
 First of all, the length and width of the graduated collecting vessel was measured using a
measuring tape and its cross sectional area was calculated.

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 Figure 4 measuring the dimensions of the collecting vessel

 The distance from the entrance of the passage of the passage base to the each of the
piezometer positions (center of the piezometer) were measured.

Figure 5 measuring the separation from the entrance to the piezometer

 The tap was opened to supply water to the Perspex tube through the pipe connected to the
tap.
 The outlet valve was opened to have flow of the water through the piezometers and the
level of the water should be the nearest highest head.
 Then, the outlet valve was regulated until the water level in the piezometers was steady.
Once steady condition was reached, the draining valve was closed.

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 Figure 6 Adjusting the outlet valve

 Using a pencil, the height of the water level in each of the piezometers was marked on the
graph paper and the values of the height were noted.

Figure 7 Marking on the graph paper

 Within the interval whereby steady condition was reached, another experimenter
recorded the time taken in seconds to collect water for a rise h in the graduated collecting
vessel and the value was noted.
 The above procedures were repeated 10 times with decreasing value of the head of water.

5.0. Results and analysis

5.1. Data collection
The apparatus consisted of seven Piezometers from which the pressure head was determined. The cross-
sectional areas at the various Piezometers are shown in the table below.

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 Table 1 Area of piezometer tubes

Piezometer No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Area (mm2) 300 275 250 225 200 175 150

The dimensions of the measuring tank were also recorded so as to calculate the flow rates. The
dimensions are shown in the table below.

Table 2 Area of the measuring tank

Length (mm) Width (mm) Area (mm2)

303 303 91809

The distances between the

Piezometer 1 piezometers
Piezometer are
Piezometer
2 3 shown
Piezometer 4 in thePiezometer
Piezometer
line diagram
5
below.
Piezometer
6 7

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 mm

Figure 8 Distance between the piezometers

Pressure energy

Different flow rates were applied and the head at each of the Piezometers were recorded for each flow
rate to investigate the pressure energy. The pressure head varies with the velocity of flow. The data
collected is shown in the table below.

Table 3 Head at each piezometers

Experimen Pressure head (mm)

t No. h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7

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 1 42.6 42.6 42.4 42.2 41.8 41.4 40.6
2 37.0 36.8 36.8 36.4 36.0 36.0 34.8
3 25.8 25.6 25.4 25.0 24.6 23.8 22.8
4 20.2 20.0 19.8 19.2 18.8 18.2 17.4
5 11.0 10.8 10.6 10.2 9.8 9.4 8.6

Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy depends upon velocity which is unknown at this stage. To determine the velocity of flow,
the equation of continuity was used.

Q = Av

Where,

Q = volume flow rate (mm3/s)

A = area of cross-section at the point where velocity is to be determined (mm 2)

v = Velocity of flow (mm/s)

In order to calculate the velocity of flow, firstly the volume flow rate is calculated. This is achieved by
timing a certain amount of water coming into the measuring tank for a certain time, t and height, H. This
is only done after assuring that the flow in constant. Then knowing the area of the tank, the volume of
water flowing into the tank in the elapsed time measured in calculated using:

V=AxH

Where,

V = volume of water (mm3)

A = area of measuring tank (mm2)

H = height of water collected in tank during time, t (mm)

The flow rate is then calculated using the formula:

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 V
Q=
t

Where,

Q = volume flow rate (mm3/s)

V = volume of water collected during time, t (mm 3)

t = time (s)

Using the flow rate and the respective cross-sectional areas given, the velocity of flow at each of the
seven points are calculated using the equation of continuity mentioned above.

The velocity of flows are calculated and tabulated below.

Table 4 Calculation of the velocity of flows

Expt. no. Hinitial (mm) Hfinal (mm) H (mm) t (s) V (mm3) Q (mm3/s)
1 160 200 40 44.44 3672360 82636
2 320 360 40 44.18 3672360 83123
3 320 340 20 16.82 1836180 109166
4 330 350 20 18.66 1836180 98402
5 360 380 20 18.67 1836180 98349

The velocity at each section was then calculated using the flow rates obtained and the given cross-
sectional areas at the respective points in the Piezometers. The results are tabulated below.

Table 5 Velocity of Flow

Piezometer X-sectional Velocity of flow (mm/s)

No. area (mm2) 1 2 3 4 5
1 300 275.52 277.13 363.91 328.03 327.82
2 275 300.51 302.32 397.01 357.82 357.62
3 250 330.52 332.53 436.73 393.61 393.41
4 225 367.32 369.43 485.22 437.31 437.13
5 200 413.23 415.61 545.83 492.02 491.72
6 175 472.21 475.02 623.81 562.31 562.01
7 150 550.91 554.22 727.82 656.03 655.72

5.2. Data analysis

The summation of energy is then calculated using the above computed pressure energy and kinetic
energy. The results are tabulated below.

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 Table 6 Tabulation of the results

Section No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Experiment 1 (upper head)
Piezometer Reading (mm) 42.6 42.6 42.4 42.2 41.8 41.4 40.6
V (mm/s) 275.52 300.51 330.52 367.32 413.23 472.21 550.91
V2/2g (mm) 3.87 4.60 5.57 6.88 8.70 11.37 15.47
P/W + V2/2g (mm) 46.47 47.27 47.97 49.08 50.50 52.77 56.07
Experiment 2 (upper head)
Piezometer Reading (mm) 37.0 36.8 36.8 36.4 36.0 36.0 34.8
V (mm/s) 277.13 302.32 332.53 369.43 415.61 475.02 554.22
V2/2g (mm) 3.91 4.66 5.64 6.96 8.80 11.50 15.66
P/W + V2/2g (mm) 40.91 41.46 42.44 43.36 44.8 47.5 50.46
Experiment 3
Piezometer Reading (mm) 25.8 25.6 25.4 25.0 24.6 23.8 22.8
V (mm/s) 363.91 397.01 436.73 485.22 545.83 623.81 727.82
V2/2g (mm) 6.75 8.03 9.72 12.00 15.19 19.83 27.00
P/W + V2/2g (mm) 32.55 33.63 35.12 37.00 39.79 43.63 49.8
Experiment 4 (lower head)
Piezometer Reading (mm) 20.2 20.0 19.8 19.2 18.8 18.2 17.4
V (mm/s) 328.03 357.82 393.61 437.31 492.02 562.31 656.03
V2/2g (mm) 5.48 6.53 7.90 9.75 12.34 16.12 21.94
P/W + V2/2g (mm) 25.68 26.53 27.70 28.95 31.14 34.32 39.34
Experiment 5 (lower head)

Piezometer Reading (mm) 11.0 10.8 10.6 10.2 9.8 9.4 8.6
V (mm/s) 327.82 357.62 393.41 437.13 491.72 562.01 655.72
V2/2g (mm) 5.48 6.52 7.89 9.74 12.32 16.10 21.91
P/W + V2/2g (mm) 16.48 17.32 18.49 19.94 22.12 25.50 30.51

Graphs of P/W, V2/2g and (P/W + V2/2g) versus the distance from the entrance of the passage base taken
form the apparatus are plotted below for two upper head values and the two lower head values.

Graph 1: P/W against distance from the entrance of the passage base taken from the apparatus.

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 Figure 9 Graph of pressure head against distance

Comment: As the distance from the entrance of the base taken from the apparatus increases, the cross-
sectional area of the piezometers decreases. From the graph it can therefore be noticed that as the cross
sectional area of the piezometer decreases, the pressure head (height of water) in the piezometer
decreases.

Graph 2: V2/2g against distance from the entrance of the passage base taken from the apparatus.

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Figure 10 Graph of velocity head against distance

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Comment: It can be observed from the graph that as the cross-sectional area of the piezometers decreases,
the velocity head increases.

Graph 3: (P/W + V2/2g) against distance from the entrance of the passage base taken from the
apparatus.

Figure 11 Graph of total head against distance along piezometer

Comment: It can be observed from the graph that the total energy increases with increasing distance along
the piezometer.

6.0. Discussion
From the graphs of variations of energy plotted, a net decrease in pressure head is observed with
increasing distance along the piezometer and a net increase in kinetic energy can be observed. This is in
accordance with the Bernoulli’s equation which states that increase in velocity due to decreasing cross
sectional area of tube according to continuity equation increases also the kinetic energy but decreases the
pressure energy.

The theorem also says that the total head i.e. total energy across the system should be constant. In this
practical, we have observed from the graph of total head that the latter increases with increasing distance
from the entrance of the base taken from the apparatus. This increase in total head should not have arisen
as it is assumed that viscous forces are neglected Sources of errors to explain this increase can be random

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errors, an unsteady flow rate or faulty apparatus. Random errors were eliminated as far as possible and the
apparatus did not have any fault. As the pressure head was fluctuating, a small increase in total head
would be caused. However in our case, there is a big increase in total head and after consulting the
causes, it was found that it was due to the supply of water to the apparatus being empty. This was because
students performing the V-notch experiment ended up in emptying the reservoir. Since the pump was not
strong enough to pump water at a high rate and we were using water to perform our experiment from the
same source, we ended up in recording erroneous values. This explains the big increase in the total head
in our experiment.

7.0. Conclusion
We were very disappointed that we could not have accurate results due to the unexpected issues that
happened. However we did conclude that to what extent is the validity of the Bernoulli’s equation and we
noticed that with increasing heads, the total head differs a lot.

8.0. Critique
Some errors that might occur during the course of the experiment include:

 Parallax error might occur when reading the height of the volume of water collected in a specific
time in the graduated collecting vessel as we had to kneel down to taken the value.

 The divisions on the graduated collecting vessel was not that visible and the precision was only 5
mm.

 The water levels in the fourth to seventh piezometer were quite difficult to read as the graduated
scale was far from them.

 The inner surface of the pipe was not completely frictionless. This might produce a frictional
resistance between the pipe and fluid.

Some improvements that could be made to circumvent the errors include:

 The graduated collecting vessel could be placed to convenient so that the experimenter could
record the value with much ease and to avoid parallax error, the eye position of the experimenter
must be parallel when taking the reading.

 A newer graduated collecting vessel could be provided with the divisions clearly visible and with
higher precision.

 A graduated scale could be placed near each of the piezometer.

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  The problem of frictional resistance could be reduced by shortening the distance from the inlet.

9.0. Contribution of team members

Table 7 Duties and responsibilities during practical

Team member I.D. Duties and responsibilities

Geshav RAMSAGUR 1513630 Timing the collection of water in collecting vessel,
removing water from the collecting vessel.
Sailesh GUNGA 1516888 Measurement of piezometers, noting down the values,
regulating the outlet valve.
It was ensured that all the tasks were interchanged
between each members of the group.

Table 8 Duties and responsibilities during report

Team member I.D. Duties and responsibilities

Geshav RAMSAGUR 1513630 Objectives, theory, Anticipated results, Apparatus used,
Procedure, Critique, References.
Sailesh GUNGA 1516888 Results, Discussion, Conclusion, Title page, Table of
contents, Compiling, Appendix.

10.0. References
 Mishra, G. (2010) VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM. Available at:
http://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/verification-of-bernoullis-theorem/2049/
(Accessed: 4 December 2016).
 Inc, S. (2016) Bernoulli’s principle demonstration. Available at:
https://www.scribd.com/doc/246653261/Bernoulli-s-Principle-Demonstration-Lab-
Report (Accessed: 4 December 2016).
 Experimental verification of Bernoulli equation (prof. M. Kostic) (1990) Available at:
http://www.kostic.niu.edu/bernoulli.html (Accessed: 4 December 2016).
 Lab sheet provided by the laboratory, Faculty Of Engineering, University Of Mauritius.

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11.0. Appendices

Figure 12 Original data sheet

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Figure 13 Lab sheet

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Figure 14 Original data sheet

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