Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory Handbook: School of Engineering University of Portland
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory Handbook: School of Engineering University of Portland
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory Handbook: School of Engineering University of Portland
Laboratory Handbook
School of Engineering
University of Portland
II – Standards 4
A. Standardized testing
B. Measurement standards
C. Calibration and certification
D. Organizations
V - References 21
A. Introduction
Experimentation and testing are at the root of modern engineering practice. While
computer modeling allows significant analysis and design to be completed prior to
hardware testing, the need for proper testing and experimentation is as great as it has ever
been. Laboratory work is vital for improving and developing products and processes,
validating designs and for gaining fundamental understanding of how materials, parts,
components or systems will behave under a variety of conditions. As such it is essential
that mechanical engineering students be able to work productively in this setting.
While all aspects of this booklet are relevant and important in any laboratory, certain
aspects will be emphasized and taught more formally in specific course. In future
courses, it will be assumed you are knowledgeable of the things you learn in the first labs.
This booklet does not attempt to cover any subject to any great depth, so the reader is
referred to various sources where a greater knowledge may be acquired. This booklet is
mandatory for all laboratory courses in Mechanical Engineering at the University of
Portland. It is provided free of charge in EGR270, but will not be handed out to students
in other courses. Therefore, students are responsible for keeping their own copy.
As part of professionalism, students must demonstrate proper respect for the School’s
laboratories, tools, and equipment. Common sense dictates:
Do not borrow something without first asking permission. This includes
laboratories themselves, tools and equipment. Before removing something from a
laboratory, instructor permission must first be received and you must sign for the
item (there is a sign out sheet in each laboratory). If there is no sign out sheet,
contact the instructor.
Do not use equipment, tools, or chemicals that you are unfamiliar with – this can
lead to damage or injury.
If you use the laboratories, make sure they are clean when you are finished. Return
all used items to their proper place. Leave them in the same condition, or better,
than you found them in.
If you break or lose something, inform the appropriate faculty or staff.
If tools are worn out or damaged, inform the appropriate faculty or staff.
NEVER work alone! Even if you are not working with dangerous equipment,
never work in the labs by yourself! Strange accidents can happen. Medical
emergencies can happen. If you are caught working alone you may lose the
privilege of using any lab.
When completed using the labs for projects, all materials not belonging to the
School must be removed.
F. Safety
Obviously, safety is of paramount importance and must never be compromised. Safety is
the responsibility of the School as well as the students. Students must be aware of
potential hazards and must never work in an area without first receiving proper training.
Students must NEVER work alone in any laboratory or workshop, and before working
they must receive permission from faculty or staff. Other than direct use in a laboratory
course, both the student and faculty must sign the Work Space Permission form located in
each laboratory.
Proper attire is mandatory in laboratory and workshop settings. Closed toed shoes and
long pants should be worn to all laboratories. Some labs may require additional safety
items such as earplugs and safety glasses. These will be provided in the laboratory. Do
not work without proper safety equipment – contact faculty or staff immediately if proper
equipment is missing or damaged.
By federal law (Occupational Safety and Health Act, OSHA), employers are required to
provide employees easy access to MSDS’s for all chemicals found in the workplace. If
you work with or around chemicals in school or on the job be sure to review the
appropriate MSDS so that you understand potential hazards. Be sure to use all
recommended personal protection devices and safety measures.
A. Standardized testing
The word “standard” can be defined as “something established as a rule or basis of
comparison in measuring or judging capacity” (Webster’s New World Dictionary).
Engineering standards allow for uniformity throughout the engineering community.
Their use is so ubiquitous that they go almost unnoticed and are taken for granted.
Everything from phone jacks, to raw materials, to test procedures, to bolts and nuts
conform to engineering standards. It is no exaggeration to say that it would not be
possible for our economy to exist with out the use of standardized parts and testing.
B. Measurement standards
Unlike testing standards, which are primarily documents describing test specimens,
conditions and procedures, measurement standards are physical entities and define basic
units of measure. Measurement standards are an essential part of commerce and
engineering. So much so that Article I, Section 8, of the U. S. Constitution grants power
to congress “To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the
Standard of Weights and Measures”. Without measurement standards, a pound of
hamburger purchased from Safeway might actually weigh more than a pound of
hamburger purchased from another store – what is a pound? How long is one foot? How
cold is 10ºC? We need to define what we mean by the various units of measure, and
standards do just that.
Measurement standards define the unit of measure. Table 1 is a list of the definitions of
the primary standards. The standards define the variable. For example, the distance light
travels in 1/299,792,458 seconds in a vacuum is by definition one meter. Inversely, the
speed of light is now defined as 299,792,458 meters per second.
*Temperature isn’t so easy to define, but rather must be defined at discrete points:
Triple point: the temperature at which solid, liquid and gas phases coexist.
Measurement standards must have global availability (so they can be used where they are
needed), they must be stable (so they don’t change with time), and they must be traceable
(so validity can be assured).
The standard for mass is a “fixed” object (artifact) kept in a vault at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. This artifact is by definition 1 kilogram. In
Standards are essential in calibrating measurement devices. The only way to know that
the micrometer used in a laboratory to measure the diameter of a bar is “accurate” is to
compare its measurement to a standard. Since it is not practical to have all micrometers
calibrated based on the definition of a meter, secondary standards are used. Secondary
standards are typically a physical artifact and are relatively easy to use for calibration.
Gage blocks are the secondary standards for length. These are pieces of metal whose
length is known precisely. Standards exist at various hierarchies:
Each level or hierarchy must be traceable to a higher level, up through to the primary
standards. So the local standard used to calibrate micrometers must have been compared
to either inter-laboratory transfer standards or directly to a primary standard. “Error” or
uncertainty increases with each step away from the primary standards.
Not having calibration does not mean inaccuracy, and calibration does not guarantee
accuracy. Just because the measurement device is calibrated, it does not mean that it
D. Organizations
Professional societies and other organizations play a very significant role in establishing
and maintaining codes and standards. Anyone who has changed the oil in a car is
familiar with SAE oil weights such as SAE 10-40. These are viscosity standards created
by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Engineers should be familiar with the
societies and organizations in their field and be sure to understand the relevant codes and
standards (codes are standards that have been adopted by a government agency or
business contract and are enforceable by law). The following are a few of the more
prominent organizations related to standards:
NIST – National Institute of Standards and Technology. NIST was formerly the
National Bureau of Standards created by US Congress in 1901 (prior to this,
standards were controlled by the US Treasury). NIST is not a professional
society, rather it is the government agency mandated by the US Constitution
responsible for assuring fairness in weights and measures. It is responsible for
defining and providing measurement standards in the United States. All
measurement standards in the US must be traceable to NIST. NIST
Laboratories, located in both Gaithersburg, Maryland, and Boulder, Colorado,
conduct research in a wide variety of physical and engineering sciences. The
labs respond to industry needs for measurement methods, tools, data, and
technology.
ISO - The ISO is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies organized to
promote the development of standardization and related activities in the world
with a view to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services, and
to developing cooperation in the spheres of intellectual, scientific, technological
and economic activity.
BIPM - International Bureau of Weights and Measures is the English name of the
Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM). It is one of the three
organizations established to maintain the International System of Units (SI)
under the terms of the Convention du Mètre (Metre Convention). It is based at
the Pavillon de Breteuil in Sevres, France. The task of the BIPM is to ensure
world-wide uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the
International System of Units (SI). The other organizations which maintain the
SI system are:
• CGPM - The General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM,
Conférence générale des poids et mesures).
• CIPM - The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM,
Comité international des poids et mesures).
The “true” value is the value one would obtain with a perfect measurement. Since there
is no such thing as a perfect measurement, the true value can never be known (with the
exception of measuring the original artifact – for example the 1 kg mass in France).
Since the true value can never be known, the error can never be known exactly – it can
only be estimated using statistical analysis. Error or uncertainty is inherent in every
measuring device; there is no such thing as a perfect measurement.
Errors are not only inherent in measuring devices, but due to extraneous circumstances,
uncertainty (error) exists in experiments and tests themselves. These are referred to as
experimental errors. In any experiment, two types of error can exist: systematic and
random.
Systematic errors
Systematic errors are caused by underlying factors (extraneous variables) which
affect the results in a “consistent/reproducible” and sometime “knowable” way –
they are not random. For example, measuring the length of a bar at various times of
the day may result in errors due to temperature changes.
A danger with systematic errors is that they can lead to false conclusions! It is
important to not confuse correlation with causation. For example, let’s say you
wanted to know which of two different brands of electrical switches have longer
life. You receive 10 samples of each brand for testing. You can only test one
switch at a time and you choose to test all 10 of brand A’s switches before testing
brand B. The test shows brand A’s lasted 50% longer on average. So you conclude
brand A is better. Then someone points out to you that the ambient temperature
during the testing of brand A was generally much cooler than when brand B was
tested. Did brand A last longer because they were better or because it was cooler?
Since lower temperature may have improved the life of the switch, it may have
caused systematic error in this experiment. Based on this experiment you can not
know why brand A lasted longer. This experiment was a total waste of time and
resources! It was worthless. A better experiment would have involved
randomizing the order the switches were tested. Even alternating between brand A
and brand B (test A, then B, then A, then B…) could introduce systematic error.
Randomizing the order of test conditions is the best way to avoid reaching false
conclusions due to systematic errors.
Random errors
Random errors show no reproducible pattern – they are random.
Random errors are sometimes referred to as “noise.”
Random errors are usually assumed to have normal distribution (bell shaped);
therefore, averaging several readings can reduce random errors.
Due to its importance and lack of familiarity amongst many students, one particular
statistical tool is worth a very brief review. Let’s look at our switch example from above.
Assuming it was properly randomized so systematic errors are not introduced, if brand
A’s last an average of 20% longer than brand B, is brand A truly better? Comparing the
averages is NOT sufficient to answer that question! The best way to answer this sort of
question is with hypothesis testing (the t-test). The t-test incorporates both the standard
deviation of the data as well as the means to estimate a probability that one set of data is
different than another set (A is better than B). Further explanation of the t-test is beyond
the scope of this document, but it is assumed that students have the ability to refresh their
memories.
Testing
o Often evaluates performance of something (for example a test could determine the
strength of a new material).
o Often has a “pass/fail” criteria (for example, it may answer the question does a
product meet the strength requirements).
o Often is performed per an existing standard, method, or procedure.
Experiments
o Requires changing one or more variables to determine its effect on one or more
dependent variables.
o Not associated with pass/fail, but rather evaluate “better/worse”
o Conducted to learn how things work or perform under differing conditions
o Conditions may be included where the outcome is known to be “bad”
B. Variables
Variables are physical quantities that may or may not affect the results of an experiment
or test. There are several types of variables associated with any test and experiment.
Controlled – these are variables whose level (magnitude, setting, value) are
controlled. They may be held constant or intentionally varied. For example,
temperature may be held constant (so that unintentional effects of temperature
variation are not introduced) or it may be intentionally set to various levels
(40°F and 60°F for example) in order to study the effect of temperature
change.
Extraneous – variables that are not controlled and are considered to have no effect on
the experiment or test are considered to be extraneous. For example, in an
No test or experiment should ever be conducted without a well thought out plan. The
plan should include most or all of the following:
1) A clear description of the purpose (why is this being done).
2) Background information - explanation as to why the test or experiment is being
conducted, what are similar test or experiments (including standardized tests) and
any other information to “set the seen” for the experiment or test. Don’t forget to
cite references! See the School of Engineering’s Writing for Engineers for
description of backgrounds in general.
3) Description of all test variables (dependent, independent, extraneous, etc.) and
their levels (magnitudes, values – whether fixed or varied).
4) Explanation of the experiment’s design (what will be done to reduce systematic
and random errors, what will be done to ensure valid results). The level of testing
should be justified or explained (for example, is this a “low cost” experiment
because spending more resources is not justified? Explain). Briefly discuss any
standardized tests to be used.
5) Detailed description or list of required resources:
a) Materials and test specimens (be sure to include extra materials and specimens
for pre-test trials and mistakes that may occur during testing that may “ruin”
the specimens).
b) Personnel and expertise
c) Instrumentation, transducers and measurement tools
d) Equipment and fixtures
6) Estimated cost and schedule
When designing an experiment, students are encouraged to avoid the “one variable at a
time” approach. Such experiments rarely produce meaningful trustworthy results.
Again, discussion of alternatives is outside the scope of this document, but students are
encouraged to seek advice on experimental designs before investing significant resources
on a worthless experiment. Statistical Design of Experiments (DOE) is a powerful tool to
optimize limited resources.
Data Sheets
Laboratory data sheets are used to record critical information prior to and during
laboratory work. They are created during the planning stages of an experiment (pre-lab
work). They should be sufficiently detailed so as to record all critical information
including hardware to be used and the data recorded. They should include the following
where applicable:
- Name of the experiment
- The name of the participants.
- The name of the person recording the data.
- The date(s) that the laboratory was conducted.
- Description of test equipment and fixtures (including model and identification
numbers).
- Description of measuring instruments and transducers (including model and
identification numbers and calibration dates).
- To assist with data taking, a sketch of the laboratory setup including location of
the transducers may be required.
- A table or list with blank places to record the data. It must be clear in this table
what the test conditions are for each set of data. The blanks should appear in the
order they are to be filled in. The data may include extraneous, dependent, and
independent variables. If data is recorded electronically, a printout of the data
should be attached to the data sheet at the completion of the laboratory.
Background:
Holes in parts are known to cause stress concentrations (localized increase in stress).
For the sake of designing an aircraft part with such a stress concentration, it is desired
to know if a linear relation exists between the applied axial load and stress near the
hole.
Test Variables:
Extraneous
Ambient temperature
Ambient humidity (will not be recorded)
Material variability of test specimen (not evaluated or measured)
Surface finish of the hole (will not be measured)
Controlled variables
Magnitude of applied force
Load rate
Specimen geometry and material specification
Location and orientation of strain gages
Dependent variables
Strain at three locations near the hole (see Figure 1)
Experiment Design
A simple relation between load and stress is desired to aid with design. A high
degree of accuracy is not required for this experiment, and therefore only one
specimen will be used. Uncertainty created by lot-to-lot variability of the material,
strain gage orientation and positions, and other similar variables are assumed to be
negligible. The run order of the applied force will be randomize to reduce systematic
errors, and the experiment will be repeated once to assure the effects of plastic
deformation potentially introduced by the experiment are evaluated.
Required Resources
Equipment and materials required for preparation
One specimen (see Figure 1)
Strain gage application materials and tools (wire, adhesive, solder, soldering iron)
Three uniaxial single strain gages (Vishay, p/n 015LA).
Pre-experiment Procedures
1) Obtain or manufacture test specimen
2) Apply strain gages to the specimen
3) Wire the strain gages
Experiment Procedures:
1) Measure and record the specimens width, thickness, hole diameter, edge margin,
and strain gage locations.
2) Load specimen in SATEC clamping fixtures making sure the axis of the specimen
is aligned with the SATEC axis.
3) Attach the strain gage wires to the Digital Strain Indicator and Switch and
Balance Unit.
4) Check the continuity of the strain gages to ensure they are functioning.
5) Prior to applying load, null the load cell and strain gages.
6) Apply five loads of various magnitudes according to the data sheet, unload before
reloading.
7) Record the strain levels on each of the three gages.
3.25
1.00 dia.(centered)
1.80 5
30
20.0
Grips
Analysis Plan
The stress values from the three gages will be plotted on an x-y scatter plot and the
linear regression will be calculated to determine if a linear relation between force and
strain is produced. Stress is calculated as:
σ = E*ε
Where σ is the axial stress, ε is the axial strain measured by the strain gages, and E is
Young’s modulus (30Mpsi for steel).
Date(s) conducted
Equipment:
Description Model Serial number Calibration due date
Calipers
Thermometer
Strain gage meter
SATEC load frame
(with clamp grips)
Gage B
Gage C
Gage A
SAE Publications
SAE J1455 Joint SAE/TMC Recommended Environmental Practices For Electronic
Equipment Design (Heavy-Duty Trucks)
ASTM Publications
ASTM B117 Standard Practice for Operating Salt Spray (Fog) Apparatus