The Complex Erection of Angkor Wat Project

Dr. UDAY DOKRAS

Phd Stockholm
The Complex Erection Project of Angkor Wat
Dr Uday Dokras, Ph D Stockholm SWEDEN

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 CHAPTER I
SYMBOLISM of ANGKOR & Other Temples

Everywhere you look, the Angkor temples are teeming with Indic symbolism. Thanks
to the master artists who constructed and carved the temples, the vivid imagery is
bound to captivate even those with little knowledge of its deeper meanings.
Familiarizing yourself with the deities, mythological beings and basic concepts of
Angkorian religion, however, one can make explore the temples so much more
engrossing.that there was once a lot more imagery in the form of various statues. Most
of these, of course, are now kept safely at museums..

MAIN HINDU DEITIES

As the Khmer Empire was a Hindu kingdom for most of its history, the temples are
abound with depictions of major Hindu deities. In Hindu mythology, the major male
deities have female consorts as well as a vahana, or animal vehicle. Therefore, there
have always been number of different ways to symbolize each deity.

While not a complete list, let’s go over some of the most common gods and goddesses
of Angkor.

Shiva

A.bearded Shiva with many arms RIGHT A SJiva lings from Ohnom Bakheng

Shiva is the most prominent god worshipped during Angkor’s Hindu era. He is known
as the “destroyer,” but this could also be interpreted as the destruction of ignorance.
He is symbolized in some shape or form at nearly all Angkor temples – even at the
later Buddhist ones.In Angkor art, Shiva is often depicted as a bearded old man, or
sometimes as a multi-armed being. More often, however, he was represented by other,
more abstract symbols.Shiva was typically worshiped in the form of a shiva linga,

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which is typically placed on a yoni. The linga is a phallic symbol representing
masculine energy, while the yoni symbolizes the feminine. Shiva’s consort is Parvati.
His vahana, or animal vehicle, is the bull Nandi. Especially at the early Angkorian
temples, bull statues were a common sight, often sat facing the prasat that had a
shiva linga inside.

A
multi-armed, more youthful looking Shiva
Nandi the bull

Shiva and Parvati on top of Nandi… 18 th Century. Now he has a moustache

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The famous eight-armed Vishnu statue at Angkor Wat's Western Gate

Vishnu is nicknamed the “preserver.” However, he often carries out acts of both
creation and destruction to maintain proper balance and harmony in the world. He
usually does so by coming down to earth in human form. As will be detailed below,
these are called his avatars and they’re the protagonists of many of the famous Hindu
legends.

At Angkor, Vishnu is depicted as a four-armed being, though sometimes he has eight

arms. His consort is Lakshmi and his vahana is Garuda, who’s half man, half eagle.
And Vishnu is also the star of many lintel carvings in the form of Krishna.

While most Angkorian Hindu temples were primarily dedicated to Shiva, a major
exception was Angkor Wat. Its builder, Suryavarman II, was a Vishnu devotee and
therefore Vishnu-related imagery is everywhere.Shiva and Vishnu are the same.
Semantic difference. Depictions of Vishnu and his other incarnations at the 10th-
century Prasat Kravan

Four-armed Vishnu on top of Garuda//Lakshmi in between two elephants and above

Garuda

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 A carving of Vishnu's heavenly court at Angkor Wat// INDRA
Brahma

A
carving of Brahma at Kbal Spean
Depictions of Brahma are quite rare, as few Hindus worship him directly. Brahma is
the four-faced “creator god.” However, as will be detailed below, he himself was
actually created by Vishnu. This origin story is depicted numerous times at the
mysterious river carvings of Kbal Spean.There were a number of sculptures made of
him, but you’ll no longer find these at the temples. The face towers of the Bayon were
originally assumed to represent Brahma, but they likely depict a divinity from
Mahayana Buddhism instead (more below).

Indra
Indra is “king of the gods” and is one of the most prominently featured deities in many
myths and legends. Accordingly, he is also one of the most widely represented gods at
Angkor. Indra is most easily recognized by his vahana, the three-headed elephant

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named Airavata.Indra riding Airavata was especially popular in lintel carvings at pretty
much all Angkorian Hindu temples. Arguably the best depictions of him can be seen at
Banteay Srei.

Indra, while a benevolent god at heart, is also known for his jealousy and hubris.
Therefore, in many Hindu myths, he actually takes on the role of the antagonist.
However, he usually gets humbled by the more powerful Vishnu, after which he learns
to change his ways.

Yama

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Yama at Angkor Wat
Yama is the god of the underworld. Depictions of him at Angkor are not all that
common, but he’s almost always seen riding a buffalo.

One of the most vivid depictions of him, in his multi-armed form, is at the bas-relief
carvings of Angkor Wat. This section of the reliefs shows the 32 levels of hell and the
37 levels of heaven. Yama is the judge, deciding where the deceased souls will end up.

Varuna RIGHT
Varuna is the god of the oceans, and can sometimes be seen sitting on his vahana, the
goose Hamsa. Overall, depictions of him at Angkor are quite rare.

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 BERA
Agni
Agni is the god of fire and his vahana is a rhino. Depictions of him are not very
common overall, though he was probably the center of many ancient rituals, taking on
the form of fire itself. 
Kubera
Kubera, the god of wealth, is a common character in many famous myths, but he
doesn’t appear too often at Angkor. However, the famous ‘leper king’ statue at Angkor
Thom may actually be of Kubera and not of a former king, as was once widely
believed.
OTHER BEINGS

Nagas
Nagas are mythical serpents which represent water and the underworld. Appearing in
many myths and legends, they’re highly significant in both Hinduism and Buddhism.
The Khmer, in particular, revered them, as they believed themselves to be descendants
of a distant naga ancestor.

Asuras
Asuras are celestial demons and the counterpart to the devas, or gods. The devas and
asuras are often at war with one another. Not all asuras are bad, however, and
sometimes they aid the heroes of popular myths and legends.

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Rishis
Rishis are vedic sages. In mythological stories, they are typically wise old men who can
sometimes travel through different realms and even see into the future. Carvings of
rishis are common at Angkor, though Shiva himself is often depicted as one. It’s not
always easy to tell which is which.

Kalas
Kala is a representation of time itself. Without time, there’s no decay or death, which
is probably why kalas are portrayed as such ferocious creatures. One of the most
common sights at Angkor, you’ll find them all over door lintels and elsewhere, often
with a god riding on top.

Apsaras
In Hindu mythology, apsaras are celestial dancers who occupy the higher realms
of devaloka. They are also among the most common sights at Angkor. There are
thousands of them at Angkor Wat, and the Hall of Dancers structures at later temples
are entirely dedicated to apsara carvings.

Dvarapalas(RIGHT PIC)
Dvarapalas are male guardians, and are typically seen in pairs on either side of a
temple sanctuary. They’re staples of the earliest Angkor temples all the way to the
13th-century temples of Jayavarman VII.

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HINDU MYTHS & LEGENDS
At many of the major Angkor temples, mythological scenes from Hinduism are
depicted in detail. While pretty to look at regardless of your background, a basic
understanding of some of these stories can really enhance your experience at the
temples. Let’s go over several of the most common ones.

The Ramayana

Sugriva fighting Valin

(Banteay Srei)

The Ramayana is an Indian epic poem about the adventures of Rama, one of Vishnu’s
avatars. Though Rama was next in line to rule the throne, the mother of one of his
half-brothers convinced the king to let her son rule and send Rama into exile.

Rama left his capital city of Ayodhya with his wife Sita and his other brother
Lakshmana. While in exile, they rescued a number of villages
from rakshasa monsters, thus angering the king of all rakshasas, Ravana.
This evil king, who ruled the island of Lanka (Sri Lanka), traveled north, where he
tricked Rama’s family and abducted Sita. The rest of the epic details Rama trying to
figure out where Sita was taken. And when he eventually does, a great war ensues at
Lanka.

While Rama is a very powerful archer, he doesn’t act alone. He makes friends with the
monkey king Sugriva by helping him take back the throne from his brother, Valin.
Sugriva’s subordinate Hanuman then becomes one of Rama’s closest friends and
allies, and he also plays a major role in bringing Sita back.

Pretty much any time you come across depictions of monkeys at Angkor, it’s very
likely to symbolize scenes or characters from the Ramayana.

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Sita's abduction RIGHT PIC Sita in Captivity of Ravana with Hanuman who comes to meet her

Monkey
statues at Banteay Srei
The Battle of Lanka
One entire section of the Angkor Wat bas-reliefs depicts the Battle of Lanka on a
massive scale. In addition to the huge army of monkeys, don’t miss Ravana with his
many heads and arms.

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The modern translation by Linda Egenes is an entertaining and accessible introduction
to the classic tale. It’s even recommended by David Lynch!
The Mahabharata

A popular scene from the Mahabharata is depicted at Banteay Srei: Krishna and Arjuna attempt to burn
down the Kandhava forest, which was home to all sorts of evil creatures.SITA and RAM at RIGHT pic at
Ta Prohm

Abduction of Sita - ancient bas-relief at the facade of Banteay Srey Temple in Angkor Area, Cambodia.
Banteay Srey is a 10th century Cambodian temple dedicated to the God Shiva. 

MAHABHARATA
A popular scene from the Mahabharata is depicted at Banteay Srei: Krishna
and Arjuna attempt to burn down the Kandhava forest, which was home to all

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sorts of evil creatures. But Indra, the protector of the forest, sends down heavy
rains to put out the fire. Arjuna, the world’s most skilled archer, then shoots a
barrage of arrows in the sky to prevent any rain from hitting the ground. Afterward,
Arjuna holds his own in a battle against Indra, who, despite being a god, is actually
Arjuna’s biological father!

Mahabharata battle scenes at Baphuon temple

The Mahabharata is India’s other grand epic, and is believed by some to take place a
few thousand years after the Ramayana. One of the main characters of the story is
another avatar of Vishnu, Krishna. However, the main focus of the epic is really the
group of five Pandava brothers, who also happen to be Krishna’s maternal cousins.

The main conflict of the story is between the sons of Pandu (the Pandavas) and the
sons of Pandu’s brother, the blind king Dhritarashtra. The final war that takes place
between the two sides is foreshadowed from the very beginning, but there’s a lot that
happens along the way. In fact, the Mahabharata is the longest epic poem ever
written!
While we know who the ‘good’ and ‘bad’ sides are, everyone in the Mahabharata shows
both positive and negative traits. There are elements of humor, romance, suspense
and plenty of violence. Reading it today, it feels surprisingly contemporary, but it’s
clear that the ancient Khmers were big fans as well.

The famous religious text known as the Baghavad Gita is actually just one small
section of the Mahabharata, and it’s comprised of a conversation between Krishna and
Arjuna (one of the Pandavas) just before the great war begins.

The Battle of Kurukshetra- Mahabharatha

At the Angkor Wat bas-reliefs, one of the other major scenes depicted is the Battle of
Kurukshetra. As the story goes, the battle took place over the course of 18 days,

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during which armies of millions were reduced to mere dozens. The battle also marked
the dawn of our current era according to Hinduism, the Kali Yuga.

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 Vishnu, Ananta & The Cosmic Ocean
Vishnu is the center of Hinduism’s popular creation myth. At the beginning of time, or
rather, in between cycles of destruction and creation, Vishnu sleeps on a serpent

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named Ananta. This serpent is of infinite length, and he lays upon the primordial
waters of the cosmic ocean.

Upon awakening, a lotus flower sprouts from Vishnu’s naval, on top of which sits the
four-faced Brahma. Brahma is then tasked with creating the world anew.

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The scene is a popular one at Angkor. It’s carved several times at the river of Kbal
Spean, and it also appears in temple lintel carvings. Vishnu’s consort, Lakshmi, is also
often shown massaging Vishnu’s feet as he reclines.

The Churning of the Ocean of Milk

‘The Churning of the Ocean of Milk’ was a favorite story of many Khmer artists and
kings. It begins with the devas, or gods, being cursed by a powerful sage, leaving them
as easy targets for their arch-rivals, the asuras (see above). They soon learned,
however, that amrita, or the elixir of immortality, lie at the bottom of a milky ocean.
As the ocean needed to be churned to obtain it, the devas and asuras had no choice
but to cooperate with each other to get it out. The ocean was so big that the peak of
Mt. Mandara was used as the churning rod. For stabilization, Vishnu transformed
himself into a turtle named Kurma, on top of whom the peak was placed.

And to spin the mountain peak, the devas and asuras used the naga king Vasuki as a
churning rope. He wrapped himself around the peak as the two teams each took one
side of his long body and began to pull.

As they started to churn, dangerous poison spewed out of Vasuki’s mouth, but Shiva
came to save the day by drinking it. Afterward, many miraculous treasures popped out
from the ocean, though Vishnu had reminded the devas to stay calm until the object of
their desire, the amrita, finally emerged. (One of these treasures was actually Vishnu’s
future consort, Lakshmi.)

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Finally, a being called Dhanvantari (the mythical founder of Ayurveda) emerged with
the amrita. After fighting between the devas and asuras ensued, Vishnu’s eagle mount
Garuda came to lift it up in the air. Later, Vishnu transformed himself into a beautiful
woman to distract the asuras, and the amrita was then distributed amongst the devas.

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Vishnu as Kurma the turtle
The story is represented throughout Angkor in both three-dimensional and two-
dimensional forms. Outside the South Gate to Angkor Thom, visitors are greeted with
large statues of the two teams on either side of the road. You can find similar statues
at the Angkor Thom North Gate, outside Preah Khan temple and also at Banteay
Chhmar, all creations of Jayavarman VII.
Suryavarman II, the creator of Angkor Wat, was also very fond of the story, as an
entire bas-relief section is dedicated to it.

The Significance of 108

The story also contains significant numerological symbolism. The two teams consisted
of 54 devas and 54 asuras. The number 108 is highly important in Hinduism. All
Hindu eras, or yugas, are comprised of large numbers divisible by 108, while mantras
are often repeated 108 times. The number is considered as a ‘building block’ of the
universe.
Thanks to modern-day science, we know that the sun is 108 times the diameter of the
Earth, while the moon’s diameter times 108 is the distance between the moon and the
Earth.

At Angkor, the early mountain temple of Phnom Bakheng had its central sanctuary
surrounded by 108 smaller ones.

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 Phnom Bakheng
Shiva, Ravana & Mt. Kailasa
This popular story is sort of a prequel to the Ramayana, but it’s also commonly told as
a standalone tale. While Shiva and Parvati were enjoying some alone time in their
abode of Mt. Kailasa, the demon Ravana was passing through the area. But when
Nandi the bull informed him that he couldn’t proceed, Ravana insulted Shiva and his
entire crew.

Nandi then put a curse on Ravana which meant he would eventually meet his demise
at the hands of monkeys. Ravana got so angry that he lifted up the entire mountain,
shaking it violently.

The scene at Banteay Srei

Shiva easily squashed Ravana by simply putting down his big toe. Ravana couldn’t
move, and figured that the only way to escape would be to sing Shiva’s praises, which

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he did for 1,000 years straight. Eventually, Shiva not only released him but blessed
him with a special shiva linga.

A
depiction at Angkor Wat

Various Krishna Legends

Though Krishna is a major character of the Mahabharata, most of the stories from his
youth are part of a text called the Bhagavata Purana. Stories from this work are
depicted at temples all over Angkor, even the ones dedicated primarily to Shiva or
Buddha.

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In this scene, Krishna in the form of a demon kills a demon in the form of a prince!

Krishn
a lifting Mt. Govardhana

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Krishna splitting Kaliya
Various lintels show Krishna slaying demons. A popular one is of him splitting the
venomous snake Kaliya in two, while another common scene shows him killing a
horse which was really a demon in disguise. Krishna is also often shown holding up a
mountain, which represents Mt. Govardhana. In the story, Krishna does so to protect
his village from Indra’s torrential rains.

Many of Krishna’s adventures are detailed in the Bhagavata Purana. This massive text
also contains full versions of many other legends, like the Churning of the Ocean of Milk.

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However, you should only consider reading it if you’ve already read the two major epics
first.
Kama Reduced to Ashes
Another popular scene depicted numerous times throughout Angkor is that of the god
Kama being reduced to ashes. Kama, the god of love, was asked by the other devas to
awaken Shiva from his deep meditation. Shiva was in mourning after the death of his
consort, Sati.

Sati had been reborn as Parvati, but Shiva was so deep in his meditation that he
neglected her. And it wasn’t only Parvati whom he neglected – his failure to tend to the
universe set things off balance. The other gods requested for Kama to shoot an arrow
at Shiva in an attempt to get him to fall for Parvati.

Shiva deep in meditation

Kama, the god of love, readying his

arrow (Angkor Wat)

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 The story
depicted at Banteay Srei
Kama succeeded, and Shiva ended up falling for Parvati. After realizing he’d been
manipulated, however, Shiva shot a beam out of his ‘third eye,’ turning Kama into a
pile of ashes. But once his rage finally subsided, he promised Kama’s widow, Rata,
that Kama would one day be reincarnated as Krishna’s son, sometime well in the
future.

The next part of the story takes place during Krishna’s time. Rati herself had died and
reincarnated as a woman named Mayavati. She was the maidservant of a demon
named Shambara, and this demon was aware of a rumor that a future son of Krishna
was fated to slay him.

When the baby, Kama’s reincarnation, was born, Shambara threw him into the sea in
an effort to kill him. But the baby was devoured by a large fish, which was then
caught by a fisherman who sold it to Shambara’s own cook!

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 The
fish being presented to Shambara (Bayon bas-reliefs)
The baby was discovered inside, and ended up being raised by Mayavati (Rata, Kama’s
former wife). The young child grew up confused as to why Mayavati treated him more
as a romantic interest than as a child. But Mayavati explained to him who they really
were, and that anyway, his biological mother was Krishna’s wife Rukmini.

MAHAYANA BUDDHIST DIVINITIES

Jayavarman VII's Buddhist triad

Despite the Mahayana Buddhist temples of Jayavarman VII being so great in number,
depictions of Buddha, Avalokiteshvara or Prajnaparamita are surprisingly rare to come

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by. The reason is that sometime after his reign, most of the Buddhist iconography
around Angkor was destroyed by 13th-century vandals.

Many of the Buddha carvings were either chiseled out altogether, or converted into
Shiva imagery.

To get a better idea of how Jayavarman VII’s temples originally looked, at least as far
as symbolism is concerned, you’ll need to travel to former outpost temples such
as Banteay Chhmar. The temples outside of Angkor survived this iconoclastic period
unscathed. Phimai in Thailand is also another place to see a Khmer Buddhist temple
that was untouched by vandals.
Buddha

A rare surviving Buddha at

Preah Palilay
The Buddha was a historical person
named Siddhartha Gautama, who
developed a method to reach
enlightenment and avoid an endless
cycle of death and rebirth. Current-
day Cambodia is majority Theravada
Buddhist, which places a major
emphasis on the life of Siddhartha
Gautama and his teachings.

The Mahayana Buddhism of

Jayavarman VII, on the other hand,
reveres the Buddha but places equal
importance on Bodhisattvas (see
below) of the past and future.
Siddhartha Gautama is considered
to be just one of many Buddhas
throughout history.

As mentioned, unscathed original

carvings and statues of Buddha are
fairly rare at Angkor. Many of the
Buddha images seen at temples
today were placed there later by
Theravada Buddhists.

Avalokiteshvara

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 A well-preserved (but two-armed) carving
at Ta Som
Avalokiteshvara, also known as
Lokeshvara, is the Bodhisattva of
Compassion revered by Jayavarman VII.
Bodhisattvas are not quite gods, but being
who were able to attain enlightenment but
elected to wait in order to help humanity
along the same path.

Avalokiteshvara was usually carved with

four arms, though most of his carvings
were altered during the iconoclastic
period. Many carvings of him still survive
but only with two arms. Perhaps the
zealots thought this made him look more
like Shiva.

This Bodhisattva is male, but is generally

considered to be a different version
of Guan Yin, the Godess of Compassion
revered by Mahayana Buddhist sects
of China.

Prince Vessantara
According to legend, the Buddha’s
previous incarnation before he was to
become the Buddha was as a wealthy
prince named Vessantara. An
extremely generous prince, he gave
away a white elephant, which had the
power to bring rain, to a neighboring
kingdom. This greatly angered his
father who sent him into exile.

While in exile, the prince even gave

away his own two children to a
Brahmin priest. Fortunately, the priest
was really Indra in disguise, and he
returned the children to Vessantara.
Eventually, the prince gets invited
back to his kingdom to the joy of all.

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POPULAR BUDDHIST TALES

Buddha Subdues Nalagiri

The Buddha was the target of a
number of assassination
attempts at the hands of his
jealous cousin Devadatta. One
time, Devadatta sent a fierce
elephant named Nalagiri to run
through the streets and charge at
the Buddha. 

As the elephant got closer,

however, he immediately grew
calm in the Buddha’s presence.
Nalagiri bowed down to the
Buddha and the Buddha blessed
him.

The Great Departure

The Buddha in his final
incarnation (Siddhartha
Gautama) was again born as a
prince. But he already had a wife
and son when he decided to
embark on his quest for truth. 

According to legend, gods arrived

to help lift up his horse so that
nobody would awaken when he
left in the middle of the night.

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 A
prasat sanctuary at Thommanon temple RIGHT This scene at Ta Prohm remains in
good condition, except for Buddha who's been etched out entirely
Buddha Subdues Mara
One of the most famous stories in Buddhism takes place just before Siddhartha
Gautama attains enlightenment. As he meditated under the Bodhi tree, a demon
called Mara did all he could to distract the Buddha from achieving his goal.

Mara sent minions to attack the Buddha, as well as his beautiful daughters to try and
seduce him. But the Buddha remained resilient. Mara then challenged the Buddha to
call upon a witness to decide which of them was more powerful.

The Buddha touched his right hand to the ground, signaling for the earth itself to act
as a witness. In both Hinduism and Buddhism, the earth goddess is known as Bhumi,
who soon arrived at the scene.

Bhumi then wrung out her hair, out of which the world’s waters flowed and washed
Mara and his minions away. Shortly afterward, Siddhartha Gautama achieved
enlightenment and became the Buddha.

ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLISM AT ANGKOR

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As noted in a previous article, the layout and structure of the temples themselves were
highly symbolic. The state ‘mountain temples’ built by each major Angkorian king, for
example, were meant to symbolize Mt. Meru.
Also referred to as the ‘abode the gods,’ Mt. Meru is the most significant mountain of
both Hindu and Buddhist mythology. The mountain is described as having one main
peak surrounded by four smaller ones. This explains the popular quincunx layout of
many Khmer temples, which consist of a tall prasat sanctuary surrounded by four
smaller ones.

Mt. Meru is also associated with the concept of the three worlds: the heavens, the
earth and the underworld. To symbolize the underworld, major temples such
as Angkor Wat and the Bayon even had pits descending from the base of the central
prasat all the way down to the ground. Meanwhile, most temples were surrounded by
moats, which represented the cosmic ocean.
Individual sanctuaries, as well as entire temple complexes, were derived from Hindu
mandalas. And both temple and city constructions were often based off of Hindu
architectural treatises which specified the exact proportions to be utilized in
construction.

Furthermore, kings commonly consulted with priests and astrologists before

embarking on major construction endeavors. Needless to say, temple and city layouts
were considered highly important. They could be likened to special ‘codes’ necessary
for fortifying the link between the human and godly realms.

Just like at many other ancient archaeological temples around the world, many

Angkor temples were built in alignment with astronomical occurrences, like solstices
and equinoxes. And according to some researchers, they may have even mirrored
constellations in the sky above.

Michel Petrotchenko’s ‘Focusing on the Angkor Temples: The Guidebook.’ (Ignore the
price on Amazon –

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 CHAPTER II
Cambodia: What are some mysteries about Angkor
Wat?

 In Khmer, the Cambodian language, Angkor means “City” and Wat

means “Temples” therefore Angkor Wat means “City of Temples” in
Khmer Language. The original name was Parama Vishnulokha or Vrah
Vishnuloka. The temple is constructed in a 400 acres of land. It is
UNESCO heritage place.
 Angkor had complex water transportation and irrigation system
unparalleled during those days. It is often described as Hydraulic City.
 It is believed that Khmer engineers would have diverted the Siem
Reap river to construct the master piece. The Siem Reap River runs
25ft below its original course even today and believed that flooding may
have destroyed the city’s infrastructure.

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 In 1500’s, strong monsoons and intense flooding may have caused
destabilization of the city forcing its people to abandon the place and
be overtaken by trees until discovered by French explorer Henri
Mouhot in mid 19th century.
 The temple was constructed in 12th Century by Khmer King
SuryaVarman II in 12the century and made its Capital Temple. He was
a Hindu King and devotee of Vishnu breaking the trend of previous
Shiva Kings.

 Temple construction consumed almost 5 millions stones from a

mountain 50Kms away that was ferried down the canal built around
Angkor for carving sculptures and entire work took only 32 years to
completion without use to machinery.

Image - Churning of Sea of Milk from Hindu Mythology.

 The temple was initially dedicated to Lord Vishnu but became a
Buddhist temple in 14th Century

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  The temple is West facing which is unusual as temples will are East
facing and provides beautiful site for sunset view.
 Approximately, 1 million people lived in Angkor Wat before the
collapse of Khmer Rule.

 Temple depicts unique storytelling of numerous episodes from

Ramayana and Mahabharata especially Battle of Lanka and
Kurukshetra Wars. Angkor has a huge collections of Hindu Devatas,
Apsaras with almost 1796 depictions in its present inventory.
 Sun rises exactly above the main temple at the Equinox twice a year
when Sun crosses the plane of earth’s equator. It is astonishing to
learn how the ancient people were able to build such things with
precise calculations.
 Nearby to Angkor Wat, an entire sprawling cities underneath the
tropical forest was found in 2015 with the help of latest laser
technology “Lidar” (Light Detection and Radar) funded by EU. It’s been
said these cities might be magnificent than Cambodia’s capital Phnom
Penh revealing the lifestyle and different perspectives about the Angkor
Civilization and its people.

36
Khmer civilization has created a stunning masterpiece. A mammoth monument
with spectacular workmanship that offers splendid insights into how rich the
Khmer Civilization and culture thrived during those days ultimately
capitulating to nature.

Angkor wat was built by KingSuryavarman 2 ( Khmer's king)

37
The King was built many temples around the country to show his power, The
temples was established in many countries: Vietnam, Thailand, Laos and
Cambodia.
Because during Angkor period most countries been one Kingdom, Angkor wat
built in middle or heart of Country, Siem Reap is Capital of Angkor. This
temple built to for mother that passed away and worshiped place for God
Vishnu and Siva, Every night King visited temple for praying and Celebrated for
God, Wishing Country in peacefully.
Some people said that difficult to step up, But I wanted you know ,Temple built
for only king visited and Celebrated religious, Not for all people walking
through, don't confused, Now it opened for tourists, You can visit around and
inside temple.

Steepestt stairs in Angkor wat temple.

Angkor wat temple is in Cambodia and built by Suriyavarman II( Tamil king)

38
These steps are nearly 70% inclined stairs.
It is claimed the steps were made to be so steep to remind people that heaven
was hard to reach.

Though you might make the same argument about Earth as you try not to
tumble on the way down.
Look at the size of the Stairs, I think Our ancestors used it's often without any
struggle. But nowadays it's takes time and difficult to climb it.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia is ancient site with massive stone constructions made
in 12th Century. When they had minimal facility to transport material, how did
the ancient people transport thousands of tonnes of rock to the temple site?
Not to forget there is no rock quarry in less than 50 kilometers.
When they had no machines, how did they achieve such grand architecture
with 30 years of manual effort?
The big mystery is Angkor, which was once habited by more than a million
people was deserted completely in 19th Century. Where did such a big
civilization disappear?

The Khmer empire, which in its heyday extended across the whole of present-
day Cambodia as far west as Burma and north into Laos, flourished for at least
five hundred years. During that time, the many thousands of temples and
shrines built to glorify mainly Hindu gods, but also Buddhism, were carved
with intricate stone reliefs of immense size, complexity and artistry. In these
pediments, lintels and many miles of walls were portrayed the lives of legends
of the Hindu gods, adopted and transformed by the Khmer from Indian
sources, and Buddhist themes, particularly from the reign of the great
Jayavarman VII.

39
 CHAPTER III
Snake Dieties of Khmer Culture

While visiting Cambodia, and specially the "Angkor Archaeological Park", you
will certainly see many five, seven or nine-headed "Nagas", depicted as
guardian statues, carved on balaustrades and causeways at many temples and
monuments. At "Phimeanakas" temple, for instance, an old Khmer legend tells
that at its top, known as the "Golden Tower", lived a nine-headed "Naga". Every
night, it would appear in the form of a beautiful woman and the King should
sleep with her, before seeing his wives and concubines. If he failed to do so, a
great disaster would occur. But if the "Naga/Woman" did not show up, the
King would die soon. Amazing legends of the Khmer culture.

"Nagas" are divine or semi-divine deities of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

They are half-human half-serpent beings that live in the nether worlds and
can, eventually, take a human form.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia - November 17, 2017: Tourists enter to Angkor Wat temple passing by nagas, snakes,
monuments. It is the largest religious complex in the world and was built in early 12th century.

40
 Naga Queen of Cambodia
At the beginning of the Common Era (circa 0 CE), people from the subcontinent
of India began migrating into Southeast Asia. The first wave of Indian
immigrants intermarried with the local tribes. This gave birth to the Khmer
race of the historical era. The local population continued speaking the Khmer
language, but now had mixed genetics, Indian and the indigenous culture.
Gaudes, R. (1993). Kauṇḍinya, Preah Thaong, and the “Nāgī Somā”: Some Aspects of a
Cambodian (Legend. Asian Folklore Studies, 52(2), 333–358. https://doi.org/10.2307/1178160 ) says
that this genetic mixture of the indigenous population with the Indians is
reflected in their mythology. According to legend, the Khmer are offspring of
Kaundinya, a Hindu warrior-prince, and a Naga princess named Soma. The
Hindu prince, a semi-historical character, had a dream that he was supposed
to leave India with a merchant ship and his bow and arrow. When he arrived,
he found Soma in charge. Rather than fight, he married her and became king.
The Khmer are their children. They are of mixed parentage - the Indians who
came to trade and the indigenous population. Neither one nor the other - but
both.

41
 A Naga princess named Soma? The mythical Naga serpent guards the
Buddha at Thailand's northern temples in Chiang Mai. Nine headed Nagas also
guard the temples of Angkor. Does the mythology suggest that Kaundinya, the
Hindu prince, married a snake to give birth to the Khmer race? If not, what is
the connection?

Queen Soma was the ruler of the Kingdom of Funan and widely claimed as

the first monarch of Cambodia (reigned c. 1st century). She was also the first
female leader of Cambodia. She was the consort of Kaundinya I (also known as
"Huntien" and "Preah Thong"). She is known as Soma (Indian), Liǔyè (Chinese)
and Neang Neak (Khmer).

According to Khmer legend, Queen Soma and her husband, Kaundinya I, are
known in Khmer legend as "Preah Thong (Kaundinya) and Neang Neak (Soma)".
According to reports by two Chinese envoys, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying, the state
of Funan was established by an Indian Brahmin merchant from
ancient Kalinga named Kaundinya.

As per the legends, an Indian merchant ship was attacked by the pirates led by
Soma, daughter of the chieftain of the local Nāga clan. The merchants led by
Kaundinya fought back and fended off the attackers but the ship had been
damaged and was beached for repairs. The Indians were wary of a second
attack but Princess Soma was impressed by Kaundinya's bravery and proposed
marriage which was accepted. The union led to the foundation of the House
that became the royal dynasty of Funan which would rule the region for many
generations and the royal legitimacy was also acquired through the female line
in the kingdom. The founding myth also explains the reason why the serpent
(naga) became an important part of Khmer iconography as is seen thousand
years later when this mystical union remained an important part of the court
ceremonies at Angkor during the era of the Khmer Empire.

In another version, it is said that King Preah Thorng married the daughter of
the Naga, Princess Neang Neak. Through their marraige, the Khmer people are
descended from the Naga. Nagas represent prosperity and the spirit of the land
and water of the Khmer.

It is not surprising based on the story that nagas are a common decoration on
Cambodian temples. They tend to appear on bridges or as seven-headed
statues.

The naga symbol is an important one to the Cambodians. When

Cambodia hosted the GMS Summit 2002, they chose a seven-headed
naga to symbolise the Khmer culture and the cooperation between the
countries at the summit. The word Naga comes from the Sanskrit, and

42
nag is still the word for snake, especially the cobra. In myths, legends,
scripture and folklore, the category naga comprises all kinds of
serpentine beings.  

Under this rubric are snakes, usually of the python kind (despite the
fact that naga is usually taken literally to refer to a cobra,) deities of
the primal ocean and of mountain springs; also spirits of earth and the
realm beneath it, and finally, dragons.

In a Cambodian legend, the naga were a reptilian race of beings who

possessed a large empire or kingdom in the Pacific Ocean region. The
Naga King's daughter married the king of Ancient Cambodia, and thus
gave rise to the Cambodian people. This is why, still, today,
Cambodians say that they are "Born from the Naga.

The Seven-Headed Naga serpents depicted as statues on Cambodian temples,

such as Angkor Wat, apparently represent the seven races within Naga society,
which has a mythological, or symbolic, association with "the seven colours of
the rainbow". Furthermore, Cambodian Naga possess numerological symbolism
in the number of their heads. Odd-headed Naga symbolise the Male Energy,
Infinity, Timelessness, and Immortality. This is because, numerological, all odd
numbers come from One. Even-headed Naga are said to be "Female,
representing Physicality, Mortality, Temporality, and the Earth." 

The Nagas at the entrance of Angkor Wat

  
The Nāga  नाग or Nagi  are divine, semi-divine deities, or a semi-divine race of
half-human half-serpent beings that reside in the netherworld (Patala) and can

43
occasionally take human form. Rituals devoted to these supernatural beings
have been taking place throughout south Asia for at least two thousand
years. They are principally depicted in three forms: wholly human with snakes
on the heads and necks, common serpents, or as half-human half-snake
beings in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. A female naga is a "Nagi",
"Nagin", or "Nagini". Nagaraja is seen as the king of nāgas and nāginis. They
are common and hold cultural significance in the mythological traditions of
many South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. They are the children of the
Rishi Kashyapa and Kadru.
 (Naja naja). A synonym for nāgá is phaṇin (फणिन्). There are several words for
"snake" in general, and one of the very commonly used ones is sarpá (सर्प).
Sometimes the word nāgá is also used generically to mean "snake". [5] The word
is cognate with English 'snake', Germanic: *snēk-a-, Proto-IE: *(s)nēg-o- (with s-
mobile).

Vasuki the snake used

in churning of the ocean. Carvings from Angkor

Patanjali as Śeṣa

The mythological serpent race that took form as cobras can often be found in
Hindu iconography. The nāgas are described as the powerful, splendid,
wonderful and proud semidivine race that can assume their physical form
either as human, partial human-serpent or the whole serpent. Their domain is
in the enchanted underworld, the underground realm filled with gems, gold
and other earthly treasures called Naga-loka or Patala-loka. They are also often
associated with bodies of waters — including rivers, lakes, seas, and wells —
and are guardians of treasure. Their power and venom made them potentially
dangerous to humans. However, they often took beneficial protagonist role in
Hindu mythology; in Samudra manthan folklore, Vasuki, a nāgarāja who
abides on Shiva's neck, became the churning rope for churning of the Ocean of
Milk. Their eternal mortal enemies are the Garudas, the legendary semidivine
birdlike-deities.

44
Vishnu is originally portrayed in the form sheltered by Śeṣanāga or reclining on
Śeṣa, but the iconography has been extended to other deities as well. The
serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many
forms: around the neck use as a sacred
thread (Sanskrit: yajñyopavīta) wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in
a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Shiva is often shown garlanded
with a snake Maehle (2006: p. 297) states that "Patanjali is thought to be a
manifestation of the serpent of eternity".
Literature
The Mahabharata epic is the first text that introduces nāgas, describes them in
detail and narrates their stories. The cosmic snake Shesha,
the nāgarajas (nāga kings) Vasuki, Takshaka, Airavata and Karkotaka and the
princess Ulupi are all depicted in the Mahabharata.

BUDDHISM

Mucalinda sheltering Gautama Buddha (Buddha in Naga Prok attitude) at Wat Phra That Doi Suthep in Chiang Mai,

Thailand/Crowned golden Naga woodcarving at Keraton Yogyakarta, Java ///Crowned Naga flanked the stairs entrance

of Pura Jagatkarta

In Javanese and Balinese culture, Indonesia, a naga is depicted as a

crowned, giant, magical serpent, sometimes winged. It is similarly derived from
the Shiva-Hinduism tradition, merged with Javanese animism. Naga in
Indonesia mainly derived and influenced by Indic tradition, combined with the
native animism tradition of sacred serpents. In Sanskrit the term naga literally
means snake, but in Java it normally refer to serpent deity, associated with
water and fertility. In Borobudur, the nagas are depicted in their human form,
but elsewhere they are depicted in animal shape.
Early depictions of circa-9th-century Central Java closely resembled Indic Naga
which was based on cobra imagery. During this period, naga serpents were

45
depicted as giant cobras supporting the waterspout of yoni-lingam. The
examples of naga sculpture can be found in several Javanese candis,
including Prambanan, Sambisari, Ijo, and Jawi. In East Java,
the Penataran temple complex contain a Candi Naga, an unusual naga temple
with its Hindu-Javanese caryatids holding corpulent nagas aloft.

Dungeons & Dragons Yuan-ti Art Forgotten Realms Monster Manual, Medicine Buddha Sutra, legendary
Creature, dragon png

As in Hinduism, the Buddhist nāga generally has sometimes portrayed as a

human being with a snake or dragon extending over his head. [15] One nāga, in
human form, attempted to become a monk; and when telling it that such
ordination was impossible, the Buddha told it how to ensure that it would be
reborn a human, and so able to become a monk.
The nāgas are believed to both live on Nagaloka, among the other minor deities,
and in various parts of the human-inhabited earth. Some of them are water-
dwellers, living in streams or the ocean; others are earth-dwellers, living in
caverns.
The nāgas are the followers of Virūpākṣa (Pāli: Virūpakkha), one of the Four
Heavenly Kings who guards the western direction. They act as a guard upon

46
Mount Sumeru, protecting the dēvas of Trāyastriṃśa from attack by
the asuras.
Among the notable nāgas of Buddhist tradition is Mucalinda, Nāgarāja and
protector of the Buddha. In the Vinaya Sutra (I, 3), shortly after his
enlightenment, the Buddha is meditating in a forest when a great storm arises,
but graciously, King Mucalinda gives shelter to the Buddha from the storm by
covering the Buddha's head with his seven snake heads. Then the king takes
the form of a young Brahmin and renders the Buddha homage.
In the Vajrayāna and Mahāsiddha traditions, nāgas in their half-human form
are depicted holding a nāgas-jewel, kumbhas of amrita, or a terma that had
been elementally encoded by adepts.
The two chief disciples of the Buddha, Sariputta and Moggallāna are both
referred to as Mahānāga or "Great nāga". Some of the most important figures
in Buddhist history symbolize nāgas in their names such
as Dignāga, Nāgāsēna, and, although other etymons are assigned to his
name, Nāgārjuna.

A granite nagaraja guardstone from Sri

Lanka///Nāga at the steps of a building in the Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok

The Nāga Saṃyutta of the Pali Canon consists of suttas specifically devoted to

explaining nature of the nāgas.
Lotus Sutra: In the "Devadatta" chapter of the Lotus Sutra, the daughter of the
dragon king, an eight year old longnü , nāgakanyā), after listening
to Mañjuśrī preach the Lotus Sutra, transforms into a male Bodhisattva and
immediately reaches full enlightenment. Some say this tale appears to reinforce
the viewpoint prevalent in Mahayana scriptures that a male body is required
for Buddhahood, even if a being is so advanced in realization that they can
47
magically transform their body at will and demonstrate the emptiness of the
physical form itself. However many schools of Buddhism and classical, seminal
Chinese exegeses interpret the story to repudiate this viewpoint, stating the
story demonstrates that women can attain Buddhahood in their current form.
According to tradition, the Prajñapāramita sutras had been given by the
Buddha to a great nāga who guarded them in the sea, and were conferred upon
Nāgārjuna later. In Thailand and Java, the nāga is a wealthy underworld deity.
For Malay sailors, nāgas are a type of dragon with many heads. In Laos they
are beaked water serpents.
Sri Lanka
The Naga people were believed to be an ancient tribe and origins of Sri Lanka.
There are references to them in several ancient text such
as Mahavamsa, Manimekalai and also in other Sanskrit and Pali literature.
They are generally being represented as a class of superhumans taking the
form of serpents who inhabit a subterranean world. Texts such as Manimekalai
represent them as persons in human form.
Cambodia

Cambodian seven-headed naga at the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh///Neak Pean

Stories of Nāgas have existed for thousands of years in the Khmer society

since the Funan era. According to reports by two Chinese envoys, Kang Tai and
Zhu Ying, the state of Funan was established in the 1st century CE by an
Indian prince named Kaundinya I, who married a Nāga princess
named Soma. They are symbolized in the story of Preah Thong and Neang
Neak. Kaundinya was given instruction in a dream to take a magic bow from a
temple and defeat a Nāga princess named Soma, the daughter of the Nāga
king. They fell in love during the battle and later married, their lineage
becoming the royal dynasty of Funan. Kaundinya later built a

48
capital, Vyadhapura, and the kingdom came to be known
as Kambojadeśa or Cambodia .The love story is the source of many standard
practices in modern-day Khmer culture, including wedding ceremonies and
other rituals. The Khmer people believe they are the descendants of the Nāgas.
Many Khmer people still believe they exist, and will one day reappear, coming
back home bringing prosperity for their people.
Although many temples from the Funan Era had been destroyed through
wars, nature and time, Nāgas can still be seen in ancient temples from
the Chenla Era and the Angkor Era. For example, like the temple modern day
named "The Coiled Nāgas Temple" (Prasat Neak Pean) was once called,
"Emperor's Wealth Temple" (Prasat Reakcha Srey).
Nāga in the Khmer culture represent rain, or a bridge between the mortal
realm and the realm of devas (Heaven, and they can transform into half human
or fully human. They act as protectors from invisible forces, deities, or other
humans with malicious intention. Furthermore, Cambodian Nāga possess
numerological symbolism in the middle of their heads. Odd-headed Nāga
symbolize masculinity, infinity, timelessness, and immortality. This is because,
numerologically, all odd numbers come from the number one (១). Even-headed
Nāga are said to be representing femininity, physicality, mortality, temporality,
and the Earth. Odd headed Nāgas are believed to represent immortality and are
carved and used throughout Cambodia.
Neak Pean (or Neak Poan)  ("The entwined serpents") at Angkor, Cambodia is
an artificial island with a Buddhist temple on a circular island
in Jayatataka Baray, which was associated with Preah Khan temple, built
during the reign of King Jayavarman VII. It is the "Mebon" of the Preah Khan
baray (the "Jayatataka" of the inscription).
Some historians believe that Neak Pean represents Anavatapta, a mythical lake
in the Himalayas whose waters are thought to cure all illness. The name is
derived from the sculptures of snakes (Nāga) running around the base of the
temple structure, neak being the Khmer rendering of the Sanskrit naga. "They
are Nanda and Upananda, two nagas traditionally associated with
Lake Anavatapta.
Neak Pean was originally designed for medical purposes (the ancients believed
that going into these pools would balance the elements in the bather, thus
curing disease); it is one of the many hospitals that Jayavarman VII built. It is
based on the ancient Hindu belief of balance. Four connected pools represent
Water, Earth, Fire and Wind. Each is connected to the central water source,
the main tank, by a stone conduit "presided over by one of Four Great Animals
(maha ajaneya pasu) namely Elephant, Bull, Horse, and Lion, corresponding to
the north, east, south, and west quarters....The stone conduits in the little
pavilions are fashioned to represent the heads of the Four Great Animals...the
only exception being that on the east, which represents a human head instead
of a bull's”. Originally, four sculptures stood on the floor of the lake. The only

49
remaining statue is that of the horse Balaha, a form of the
bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, saving sailors from the ogresses of Tamradvipa.
The temple on the lake was originally dedicated to Avalokitesvara. Willetts
believed that "this is Jayavarman as he would have wished to have appeared to
his people.”
Zhou Daguan refers to Neak Pean in his visit to Angkor in the late 13th
century.

 
 

Odd-Headed Nāga (Name, origin, and connotations):

-1 Headed Nāga: mostly seen in modern days; carved on objects as protection,
temples, monastery, King’s residence, residence of a deity .ymbolizes, that even
if everything in this world is gone, there’s still this Nāga left bringing victory
and happiness to all
-3 Kalyak: born between the mortal realm and devas' realm, they live at the
bottom of the ocean and is the guardian of wealth, often depicted as evil
(nothing to do with the symbolism)
Symbolizes the Trimurti; (left Vishnu, middle Shiva and right Brahma) but also
the three realm [heaven (devas' realm), earth (mortal realm) and hell (norok
realm)]. In Buddhism, the central head represents Buddha, the right head
represents Dharma and the left one represents the monks.

50
-5 Anontak/Sesak: born out of the elemental elements on Earth, they're
immortals
Symbolizes the directions; East, West, North, South and Middle
(Ganges river, Indus river, Yamuna river, Brahmaputra river (Brahma's Son
River), Sarasvati river). In Buddhism, the dragon heads represent the 5
Buddhas: Kadabak, Kunsontho, Koneakumno, Samnak Koudom Gautama
Buddha and Seare Metrey.
-7 Muchlentak: originated from the bottom of the Himalayas, they bring peace
and prosperity to humans, they're deities who control the seven oceans and
seven mountains called ‘Seytontaraksatakboriphorn.' They are also the Nāga
that sheltered Gautama Buddha for 7 days and 7 nights (Mucalinda). Often
depicted as guardian statues, carved as balustrades on causeways leading to
main Khmer temples, such as those found in Angkor Wat. They also represent
the seven races within Naga society, which has a mythological, or symbolic,
association with “the seven colors of the rainbow.”
Symbolizes the Sun, the Moon and five other planets; ចន្ទ (Moon)[also Monday]
(Mars)[Tuesday] (Mercury)[Wednesday (Jupiter)[Thursday] (Venus)[Friday] សៅរ ៍
(Saturn)[Saturday] (Sun)[Sunday]
-9 Vasukak: Is the king who rules the Earth (Vasuki). For this Nāga, when
carved on both sides, the front heads represent reincarnation and the behind
represent death.
Symbolizes power of the nine immortals of the universe; power of the lighting
and thunder of the East), power of the fire of the Southeast power of the law
and order of the South power of the spirits and demonic creatures of the
Southwest, power of the rain of the West power of the wind of the Northwest,
power of the wealth and aesthetic of the North power of destruction of the
Northeast of Brahma (creation and preservation) in the middle

In Brahmanism and Buddhism, there are four different Nāga race:

1) Primitive Dragons such as the European dragon who can spit fire.
2) The Spiritual Dragons who are the guardians of wealth, they protect treasure
in the ocean. They can take on a half human form.
3) The Divine Nāgas, who can travel to heaven, they came from Lord Indra’s
realm (the divine realm), they can take on a full human form.
4) The Supreme and Divine Nāgas, like Vasuki the guardian of Lord Vishnu,
who alone can fight all the Garuda race.
All of them have great powers and can set off storms, rain, tempest and create
lands from the sea.

51
Indonesia
naga, (Sanskrit: “serpent”) in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, a member of
a class of mythical semidivine beings, half human and half cobra. They are a
strong, handsome species who can assume either wholly human or wholly
serpentine form and are potentially dangerous but often beneficial to humans.
They live in an underground kingdom called Naga-loka, or Patala-loka, which is
filled with resplendent palaces, beautifully ornamented with precious gems.
The creator deity Brahma relegated the nagas to the nether regions when they
became too populous on earth and commanded them to bite only the truly evil
or those destined to die prematurely. They are also associated with waters—
rivers, lakes, seas, and wells—and are guardians of treasure.

naga

Naga and nagi, stone statue from Bihar Sharif, Bihar, India, 9th century; in
the Indian Museum, Kolkata.

Three notable nagas are Shesha (or Ananta), who in the Hindu myth of

creation supports Narayana (Vishnu) as he lies on the cosmic ocean and on
whom the created world rests; Vasuki, who was used as a churning rope
to churn the cosmic ocean of milk; and Takshaka, the tribal chief of the
snakes. In modern Hinduism the birth of the serpents is celebrated on Naga-
panchami in the month of Shravana (July–August).

The female nagas (naginis or nagis) are serpent princesses of striking beauty.

The dynasties of Manipur in northeastern India, the Pallavas in southern
India, and the ruling family of Funan (ancient Indochina) each claimed an
origin in the union of a human being and a nagi.

In Buddhism, nagas are often represented as door guardians or, as in

Tibet, as minor deities. The naga king Muchalinda, who sheltered
the Buddha from rain for seven days while he was deep in meditation, is
beautifully depicted in the 9th–13th century Mon-Khmer Buddhas of what are
now Thailand and Cambodia. In Jainism

52
the Tirthankara (saviour) Parshvanatha is always shown with a canopy
of naga hoods above his head.

Naga  sculptures flanking the entrance to Wat Hua Wiang, Mae Hong Son, Thailand.

In art, nagas are represented in a fully zoomorphic form, as hooded cobras

having one to seven or more heads; as human beings with a many-hooded
snake canopy over their heads; or as half human, with the lower part of the
body below the navel coiled like a snake and a canopy of hoods over the heads.
Often they are shown in postures of adoration, as one of the major gods or
heroes is shown accomplishing some miraculous feat before their eyes.

53
Brass receptacle from Krui, Sumatra, in the shape of a naga (mythical serpent); in the
Royal Tropical Institute Museum, Amsterdam. Height 5 cm.Courtesy of the Royal
Tropical Institute, Amsterdam

Mucalinda, Muchalinda or Mucilinda is the name of a nāga, a snake-like

being, who protected the Gautama Buddha from the elements after
his enlightenment.
It is said that six weeks after Gautama Buddha began meditating under
the Bodhi Tree, the heavens darkened for seven days, and a prodigious rain
descended. However, the mighty King of Serpents, Mucalinda, came from
beneath the earth and protected with his hood the one who is the source of all
protection. When the great storm had cleared, the serpent king assumed his
human form, bowed before the Buddha, and returned in joy to his palace.
The subject of Buddha meditating under the protection of Mucalinda is very
common in Lao Buddhist art. A particularly striking gigantic modern rendition
is present in Bunleua Sulilat's sculpture park Sala Keoku.
The webcomic Sinfest featured a version of this in a sunday strip in 2010.

Mucalinda, the nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite motif for
Cambodian Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated between 1150 and 1175
CE/ RIGHT This multi-headed nāga is part of a decorative lintel from the end of the 9th century.
EXTREME RIGHT Naga Prok attitude Buddha statue in the ubosot of Wat Shvetachatra Woravihara, Bangkok

Naga Prok attitude : pang nak prok, translated as "sheltered-by-the-naga

Buddha",is an attitude of Buddha in Burmese, Khmer, Lao and Thai art of
which the seated Buddha in either the meditation attitude, or maravijaya
attitude, is sheltered by or covered with a multi-headed nāga. The naga, whose
name is Mucalinda, usually has seven or nine heads and appeared to coil the
base of the Buddha statue.

54
The attitude refers to the episode after reaching the enlightenment. He travelled
to various kingdoms to teach and spend the rest of his time meditating. One
night, a heavy storm raged on the forest where he was meditating. A nāga by
the name of Mucalinda (มุจลินท์; Mujalind) saw him meditating under such
harsh weather. The Mucalinda decided to coil around his āsana (seat) and use
himself as the shield to protect the Guatama from raindrops.
The attitude is assumed to be pioneering since the early Khmer art.

Naga-enthroned Buddha. Bronze, about 1100 AD. Banteay Chhmar, Cambodia

The Buddha represents the union of compassion and wisdom. The naga represents the Khmer
people of Cambodia.
The Buddha enthroned on the naga was often a representation of the king. But this Buddha is
crowned and bejeweled. In his hands, he holds a conical mound of rice. This indicates that this is
more than a representation of a king; this is a Buddha who will ensure the prosperity of the land.

55
RIGHT  Sand stone Khmer-style Buddha statue from 11th century CE, found at Wat Na
Phra Men (วัดหน ้าพระเมรุ), Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province

Mucalinda sheltering Gautama Buddha (Naga Prok attitude); 12th century Khmer Sandstone with traces of
pigment and gold, Honolulu Academy of Arts

Pillar with Naga Mucalinda protecting the throne of the Buddha. Railing pillar from Jagannath
Tekri, Pauni (Bhandara District). 2nd-1st century BCE. National Museum of India.

56
57
The Naga people were believed to be an ancient tribe who once inhabited Sri
Lanka and various parts of Southern India. There are references to them in
several ancient texts such as Mahavamsa, Manimekalai and also in
other Sanskrit and Pali literature. They are generally being represented as a
class of superhumans taking the form of serpents who inhabit a subterranean
world.
Certain places such as Nagadeepa in Jaffna and Kalyani in Gampaha are
mentioned as their abodes.[3] The names of some Naga kings in Sri Lankan
legends such as Mani Akkhitha (Mani Naga) and Mahodara are also found in
Sanskrit literature among superhuman Nagas and the cult of Mani Naga
prevailed in India up to medieval times.
The Jaffna Peninsula was mentioned in Tamil literature as Naka Nadu, in Pali
literature as Nagadeepa and in Greek gazetteer as Nagadiba or Nagadibois. The
name Nagabhumi was also found on an ancient coin
from Uduthurai, Jaffna and in a Tamil inscription from Pudukkottai referring
to the Jaffna peninsula.
The word "Naga" literally means "snake" or "serpent" in Sanskrit, Pali.
Origin: According to Manogaran, some scholars also "have postulated that the
Yakshas and Nagas [...] are the aboriginal tribes of Sri Lanka".Scholars like K.
Indrapala regard them as an ancient tribe who started to assimilate to Tamil
culture and language from the 3rd century BCE According to him, in the end of
. the 9th century or probably very long before that time, the Nagas assimilated
into the two major ethnic groups of the island.
According to V. Kanakasabhai, The Oliyar, Parathavar, Maravar and Eyinar
who were widespread across South India and North-East Sri Lanka are all
Naga tribes. According to several authors they may have been a . Many Tamil
poets who contributed to the Sangam literature attached Naga prefixes and
suffixes to their names to indicate their Naga descent

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Buddha's visit to Nagadeepa. Detail from Kelaniya Raja Maha Vihara

Mahavamsa
The chronicle states that the Buddha, during his second visit to the island,
pacified a dispute between two Naga Kings of Nagadeepa, Chulodara and
Mahodara over the possession of a gem-studded throne. This throne was finally
offered to the Buddha by the grateful Naga kings who left it in Nagadeepa
under a Rajayathana tree (Kiri Palu) as an object of worship. Since then the
place became one of the holiest shrines of Buddhists in the island for many
centuries. The references to Nagadeepa in Mahawamsa as well as
other Pali writings, coupled with archaeological and epigraphical evidences,
have established that Nagadeepa of the Mahawamsa is the present Jaffna
Peninsula.
The chronicle further states that in the eighth year after the Enlightenment,
the Buddha visited the island for the third time, on an invitation of
Maniakkhita, the Naga king of Kalyani (Modern day Kelaniya) who is the uncle
of the Naga king of Nagadeepa.
Manimekalai
In the Tamil epic Manimekalai, the heroine is miraculously transported to a
small island called Manipallavam where there was a seat or foot stool
associated to the Buddha. The seat in Manipallavam is said to have been used
by the Buddha when he preached and reconciled the two kings of Naga land,
and that it was placed in Manipallavam by the king of gods, Indra. The legend
speaks of the great Naga king Valai Vanan and his queen Vasamayilai who
ruled over Manipallavam in the Jaffna Peninsula. Their daughter, the
princess Pilli Valai had a liaison at the islet with the
early Chola king Killivalavan; out of this union was the prince Tondai Eelam

59
Thiraiyar born, who historians note was the early progenitor of the Pallava
Dynasty. He went on to rule Tondai Nadu from Kanchipuram. Nainativu was
referred to as Manipallavam in ancient Tamil literature following this union.
Royals of the Chola-Naga lineage would go on to rule other territory of the
island, Nagapattinam and Tondai Nadu of Tamilakam.
By the time Buddhism had reached Tamilakam, the twin epics of ancient Tamil
Nadu Silappatikaram (5–6th century CE) and Manimekalai (6th century CE)
were written, speaking of Naga Nadu across the sea
from Kaveripoompuharpattinam. The island according to the Tamil epic was
divided into two territory, Naga Nadu and Ilankaitheevam Naga Nadu, or the
whole island was also known as Cherantheevu, derived from Dravidian
words Cheran (meaning Naga) and theevu (meaning island).
Identifying Manipallavam
The similarity of the legend about the Buddha's seat given in the Mahavamsa
to that in the Manimekalai has led certain scholars to identify the
Manipallavam with Nagadeepa (currently Nainativu), which has caused the
history to be extracted out of the legend.
Cīttalai Cāttanār, the author of the Manimekalai, reflected the perception at the
time that Naga Nadu was an autonomous administrative entity, kingdom
or nadu stretching across coastal districts, distinguished from the rest of the
island also ruled intermittently by Naga kings.
The Naga king Valai Vanan was stated in the Manimekalai to be the king
of Naga Nadu, one of the two territories in Sri Lanka, the other being
IlankaitheevamSeveral scholars identify Naga Nadu with the Jaffna Peninsula,
and Manipallavam with Nainativu. Other scholars identify Karaitivu as
Manipallavam.
Senarath Paranavithana rejects the identification of Manipallavam with
Nainativu and the Jaffna Peninsula, because Manimekalai states the island to
have been uninhabited, whereas the Jaffna Peninsula have been inhabited
centuries before the date of the epic. He also notes that Manimekalai does not
mention that the two Naga kings had their abode in Manipallavam as stated in
the Mahavamsa, nor did it mention that the holy seat was placed there
by Gautama Buddha, but by Indra. Further states Canto IX, II. 13–22 that an
earthquake destroyed a city in Gandhara which in turn affteced 100 yojanas of
Naga Nadu, thus rejecting the identification of Naga Nadu with Jaffna
Peninsula.
Ramayana
In the Indian epic Ramayana, the mythological island Lanka has been often
identified with Sri Lanka. The inhabitants of Lanka were mentioned as non-
humans, mainly referring to the Rakshasas and Yakshas, but also mentioning
the Nagas. Indrajit, the son of Ravana was married to Sulochana, a Naga
princess

60
Buddha Snake Animal Serpent Reptile Thailand Wild

Others
Ptolemy in his 1st century map of Taprobane mentions Nagadibois. Ptolemy
mentions in 150 CE that King Sornagos, a descendant of this lineage, ruled
from the early Chola capital of Uraiyur during this time
Irrigation
It is also believed they were great irrigation engineers who built water storages.
The Giant's Tank dam and reservoir system in Mannar, Sri Lanka is
considered by some (Such as Author, Mudaliyar C. Rajanayagam) to have been
built by the Nagas based on the extensive ruins and the presence of villages
with surrounding the port with Naga name (e.g. Nagarkulam, Nagathazhvu and
Sirunagarkulam).
Snake worship
Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus since ancient times have regarded the cobra as a
divine being by the passing down of Naga traditions and beliefs. Further, a
cobra can be found entwining itself round the neck of the Hindu god Shiva as
the serpent-king Vasuki. Cobras can also be found in images of god Vishnu.

61
Religion
There is substantial evidence to say that Nagas were Buddhist followers after
the 4th century B.C . One such example is Buddha's second visit Sri Lanka
mentioned in both the Manimekalai and Mahavamsa
Naga Kingdom of Angkor Wat

The Naga Kingdomf of Angkor Wat is a Naga state in Southeast Asia.

The Naga Kingdom of Angkor Wat is a nation which was established in the area around the
Khmer ruins of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. With the assistance of various types of paranormal
creatures, tourism around the ruins were all but stamped out. A coalition of the Naga and many
intelligent paracritters established a national government and created a safe haven for their kind
away from metahumanity.

In the 2060s, the Naga revealed themselves as a sapient species and officially declared the
founding of the Naga Kingdom of Angkor Wat. Due to the cultural reverence held for the Naga in
the Far East which had developed during the half century since their discovery, the founding of
the kingdom did not result in any war, blockade, embargo, or sanctions by the neighboring
states. https://shadowrun.fandom.com/wiki/Naga_Kingdom_of_Angkor_Wat

62
Head on a Naga Bridge in Angkor

The 7-Headed Naga at Angkor Wat temple, Cambodia. Built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in
the early 12th century. A detailed Chakra in the middle of the naga, symbolising Bhagwan vishnu's
most powerful weapon

Angkor Wat: Detail, broken fragment of a naga balustrade/Pediment carved with Naga Tower(right pic)
POWER AS AMRIT in the Eternal Struggle between Hinduism and
Buddhism in Cambodia Dr Uday Dokras

Angkor Wat: an ancient city hidden in the jungle for over 400 years, abandoned by its
people, overtaken by trees. Imagine. A Hindu civilization that dominated Southeast Asia
for over 600 years, that built the largest religious temple in the world. Later on became
Buddhist. Gone>

Now, when the first tourists arrive at the wondrous temples of Angkor, and the
20 musicians — amputees, blind, scarred, all destitute — hope that by dusk

63
their playing will have earned them enough to sustain their families for another
day. Together, they support more than 100 children and wives.
The musicians' lives mirror Cambodia's agony: 3 million dead in three decades
of a savage war, American bombing, the Khmer Rouge reign of terror, a civil
conflict and now coping in a country where a third of the people earn less than
one dollar a day.

Several members of Ankor's two orchestras confess that they had teetered on
the verge of suicide before finding hope by banding together to play the music
of their ancestors.

The Khmer people were originally Hindu.  Surprising - given that Cambodia
is over 3,000 kilometres from India. Monsoon rains carried India traders to
Cambodia, along with their religion, art and architecture. The temple itself was
constructed by the Khmer king for the Hindu god Vishnu and converted to a
Buddhist temple in the 14th century, over 200 years later. Tenets of Buddhism
were already permeating the region by the end of the 12th century.  New
monuments featured Buddha and bodhisattvas. Old monuments were subtly
converted to Buddhist shrines, though Hindu imagery was left in place.

Resurgence: A brief resurgence of Hinduism came with one Khmer leader in

the 13th century, before it lapsed back into Buddhism a century later.
Religious upheaval in Angkor Wat is considered an important factor leading to
the collapse of this great civilization.

Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which

is devotion to the god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is generally
regarded as a polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually henotheistic,
meaning there is only one god with many different aspects. In a henotheistic
belief system, a single god is considered too immense to be grasped by the
human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of personalities all of which focus
on a single different aspect of human life.

In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in his
form as Vishnu he preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and rewards
humans for their toil with death, which then continues the cycle of rebirth or
leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat reflects the course of life, death,
and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as the supreme god
and replacing him with Vishnu.

Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries as

avatars - like the popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct people.
The most famous example of this comes from the religious text Bhagavad-
Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of

64
Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's purpose in life. The
temple of Angkor Wat is designed to fulfill this same purpose through its
ornamentation which tells the story of the human condition, the immanence of
the gods, and how one is to best live one's life.

SURYAVARMAN II ELEVATED THE POSITION OF THE COMMON PEOPLE,

USING RELIGION, BY DECREEING THE WORSHIP OF VISHNU, A DEITY
WHO WAS A PROTECTOR OF ALL.

The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts

between the Khmers and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-
1050 CE) extended the frontiers of his realm into Thailand during his reign and
came into conflict with the cities of the Champa. The Champa's religion
was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which was viewed
with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith. Vishnu, as a
protector-god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the backlash
against Buddhism.

By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known

as Brahmanism, which favored the elite, was growing more popular in the
region and Buddhism had also gained more adherents. Suryavarman II
elevated the position of the common people, using religion, by decreeing the
worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme creator
aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human beings and
the divine who had also proven himself a benevolent guardian.
One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the
interests of human beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The
Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in which he tricks the demons into surrendering
the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods immortal and preserve eternal
order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at Angkor Wat
and supports the claim that the building was originally conceived of as a
temple of worship rather than a funerary site.
Stories in Stone

Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and physical
nexus in Hinduism which is the center of all reality. The five peaks of Mount
Meru are represented by the five spires of the temple. Brahma and the Devas
(demigods) were thought to live on Mount Meru and it is famously referenced
in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and his brothers travel to the gates of
heaven. One by one the brothers die until only Yudhishthira and his faithful
dog are left. When they reach the border of heaven, the gatekeeper tells
Yudhishthira that he may enter for the worthy life he lived but that dogs are
not allowed in heaven. Yudhishthira rejects any paradise which does not
include dogs and turns away, but the gatekeeper stops him and reveals himself

65
as Vishnu who was only testing him one last time before allowing him
entrance.
1
The devas and asuras still exist in the form of gigantic sculptures of the
former Khmer Empire in Siem Reap province, Cambodia. They stand,
enormous legs braced on the ground, as they pull the serpent Vasuki as a
rope, and churn away at the Ocean of milk. They live in an eternal tug-of-
war in the temples of Angkor Wat, Banteay Samre, Bayon , the causeway
to Preah Khan. At Angkor Wat the depiction of the combat goes back to a
thousand years. It stretches on a wall 49 metres in length of this temple,
the largest religious site in the world, and a famed example of cultural
transfer. the huge image of the eight armed Vishnu — with the head
replaced by that of the Buddha after the country became Buddhist — is
still worshipped.

1. Gods and demons

Cambodia's Hinduism can be traced back to the Funan Kingdom which ruled

between 100BC and 500AD. During this period, kings worshiped Vishnu and
Shiva. When the Khmer Empire came to power, Hinduism remained the
dominating religion until Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181-1218).

How did Buddhism affect the Khmer empire? Well, in

Kampuchea, Buddhism became the transmitter of Khmer language and
culture. With the rise of Siam in the west and Vietnam in the east, the classical
Angkor empire disappeared and the beginning of present-day Cambodia began.
Cambodia became from this time forward a Theravada Buddhist nation. So did
Sanskrit Language the main official language in which all governmental and
religious activity was done. The maximum number of Sanskrit inscriptions is to
be seen in Cambodia rather than here. Siva linga pratishta (worship) is seen in

66
almost every village. A 500-year old inscription shows how the same
astronomical calculation practised in India was also practised in the Khmer
empire (Cambodia). In Khmer, they consecrated the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata — and the chapters were recited daily in the temples.

For us, Hindus, for the visitors to Angkor as well as for many others, the piece
de resistance at the Angkor Wat temple comprises the twin bas reliefs,
hundreds of metres long, depicting sculpted scenes from the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata. The chisel appears to have magically turned into a brush
that painted simian movements representing all the fury and the excitement of
the vanaras as they threw themselves into the great battle to help Rama. On
another wall, we are taken straight into the Kurukshetra war.

Scene Of Hell. Asuras Hitting People With Asuda/The other hell,handicap orchestra

Jayavarman was an indefatigable builder and the Bayon temple built by

him is grand and unique. More than 200 colossal heads, said to be of the
Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara, the compassionate one, crown the towers on
all sides making sure the temple is never forgotten by anyone who sets
eyes on it. It is thought the heads were fashioned to resemble the ruler.
Bayon’s sculpted walls portray scenes of war and daily life and serve as
valuable records of the history of the empire. It was from the Elephant
Terrace outside Bayon that Jayavarman VII would watch his military
parades; there are huge elephants carved on the walls and their trunks act
as supporting pillars to the structure. A few metres’ walk bring us to the
apparently simple looking Terrace of the Leper King. But once you enter
the structure, it is like a maze with beautiful carvings of women, marine
life, and the gods on the walls. The leper king is believed to be

67
Yasovarman, who was afflicted by the disease. But some scholars think the
moss eroded figure of Yama, the God of Death, has given rise to this belief.

France, whose colony Cambodia was till 1953, has helped bring many of
these ancient temples to light, rescuing them from the forest like
wilderness. Numerous other countries have contributed to their
restoration, among them India, China, Japan, Poland and Germany.

Mural from
the museum of the white elephant at Phnom Phen
For, as we stand by the pond at Ankor Wat t
Seated outside many of the temples are musicians playing softly on their
instruments. They are all disabled landmine victims, bringing home to us the
harsh realities of the people who have survived war and a ruthless regime, the
Khmer Rouge. This is a land that forges a special bond with us Hindus. emple and
see its magnificence reflected in the water, we feel our own history, faith and
beliefs are reflected in it.

BUDDHISM; After the 14th century, the land turned to Buddhism owing to the
influence of Sri Lanka. Somewhere around the 13th to 14th century, some
Brahmanas went from Rameswaram to Cambodia. They took the Thevaram, Divya
Prabhandam and Pooja Vedas from here to Cambodia — some people say that
they came from Chidambaram. In Cambodia there are still such priests.

Hanuman is regarded as a god in Cambodia and the Hanuman dance is spellbinding.

There is so much evidence of our cultural impact in Cambodia that we need to study it
in great detail.Side by side with the Buddhas, the

Hindu scriptures live in an eternal tug-of-war in the temples of Angkor Wat, Vishnu

— with the head replaced by that of the Buddha after the country turned Buddhist

68
and the Bas Relief of Churning of the Oceans or Samudra Manthan. The most
important story represented at Angkor Wat is the samudra manthan (churning of
ocean), a story about the victory of good over evil. In the story that is depicted on the
wall, 88 devas are fighting 92 asuras (demons) in order to reclaim order and power for
the gods who have lost the battle

This story of Samudra Manthan (churning of the ocean) originates from Hindu
mythology and is described in the books like Bhagvata Purana, Vishnu Purana and
Mahabharata . All these books are considered as directional in Hinduism. The books
describe how the Devas (gods) and the Asuras (demons) churned the ocean under the
aegis of Vishnu, to produce the divine elixir of immortality ( Amruta). Hinduism spread
to many countries during the ancient times. and the depiction of  Samudra Manthan
story at Angkor Wat is a testimony to that.

Thiland Airport

The southern section of the east gallery of Angkor Wat adorns the Samudra
Manthan or the Churning of the Ocean episode. This carving depicts
88 asuras (demons) on the left, and 92 devas (gods), with crested helmets,
churning up the sea to extract from it the elixir of immortality (Amruta). The
demons hold the head of the serpent Vasuki and the Gods hold its tail. At the
centre of the sea, Vasuki is coiled around Mt Mandara, which turns and
churns up the water in the tug of war between the demons and the gods.
Vishnu, incarnated as a huge turtle, lends his shell to serve as the base and
pivot of Mt Mandara. Brahma, Shiva, Hanuman (the monkey God) and
Lakshmi (the Goddess of wealth and prosperity) all feature in the carvings.
Legend behind Samudra Manthan
Once Indra – the King of Gods, while riding on an elephant came across sage
Durvasa who offered him a special garland. Indra accepted the garland but put
it on the trunk of the elephant. The elephant was irritated by the smell and it
threw the garland on the floor. This enraged the sage as the garland was a

69
dwelling of Sri (fortune) and was to be treated with respect. Durvasa Muni
cursed Indra and all devas to be bereft of all strength, energy, and fortune. Post
this incident, devas lost all the battles to asuras and the asuras gained control
of the universe.

Devas sought help from Lord Vishnu who told them that the only way to get
back their power is through consuming holy nectar which lies under the ocean.
The holy nectar can be brought out only by churning the ocean. Since devas
were bereft of any power they approached the asuras to jointly churn the ocean
for the nectar of immortality. Devas, however, already had an understanding
with Lord Vishnu that the holy nectar will be handed over to them.

Samudra Manthan (Churning of the Ocean)

The churning of the milk – ocean was an elaborate process. Mount Mandara
was used as churning rod and Vasuki, the King of Serpents, became the
churning rope. Lord Vishnu himself had to intercede in so many ways to aid
the process. But as the pole entered the water it kept sliding into depths of the
ocean. To stop this, Vishnu took the form of a tortoise and placed the
mountain on his back. This image of Vishnu as the tortoise was his second
avatar called ‘Kurma.’ Once the pole was balanced, it was tied to the gigantic
snake, Vasuki, and the gods and demons started pulling it from either side. All
kinds of herbs were cast into the ocean and many creatures and objects were
produced from the ocean which were then divided between asuras and devas.

Asura , Devas participating in the Samudra Manthan (photo from Angkor Thom
city Cambodia)Vasuki , the serpent was used as the rope for Churning the
Ocean

70
 CHAPTER IV
Power as the Amrit in Angkor

Hala-hal : The Poison: During the Samudra Manthan, The churning of the
oceans by both Gods and demons to retrieve the Amrit the elixir of life, hala-
hal, a pot of lethal poison also came out of the ocean instead. It was supposed
to be so toxic that it could have wiped out the entire creation. Lord Shiva drank
the poison to save others. However, Parvati – Lord Shiva’s wife squeezed his
neck so that the poison does not get into his stomach. Thus, it stayed in his
throat neither moving up nor going down and Shiva remained unharmed.

The poison was so potent that it changed the color of Lord Shiva’s neck to blue.
For this reason, Lord Shiva is also called Neelakantha where ‘Neela’ means
blue and ‘Kantha’ means neck.Towards the end of the churning Dhanvantri
( god of medicine) appeared with the pot of holy nectar. Once the amruta was
out, the demons forcefully took it away which was followed by a war between
the devas and the asuras.

Finally, Vishnu disguised as the enchanting Mohini (danseuse) tricked the

demons and recovered the nectar pot and handed it over to the devas. This
story is known to almost everyone in India. The Samudra Manthan story at
Angkor Wat raises a lot of questions in our mind about the erstwhile
Kingdoms, relationship between India and Cambodia during ancient time,
battle for expansion and faith.

71
From The Samudra Manthan story at Angkorwat, Rashmi S  https://beyonder.travel/south-
east-asia/cambodia/the-story-of-samudra-manthan/

Why did the Khmer empire change to Buddhism?

72
In the early days of Angkor, the worship of Vishnu  or Vaishnavism was
secondary to that of Shiva. Here also there was a tug – a push and Pull
between Vishnu and Shiva. The relationship seems to have changed with the
construction of Angkor Wat by King Suryavarman II as his personal
mausoleum at the beginning of the 12th century. The central religious image of
Angkor Wat was an image of Vishnu, and an inscription identifies
Suryavarman as "Paramavishnuloka," or "he who enters the heavenly world of
Vishnu." Religious syncretism, however, remained thoroughgoing in Khmer
society: the state religion of Shaivism was not necessarily abrogated by
Suryavarman's turn to Vishnu, and the temple may well have housed a royal
lingam.
Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism did not abrogate the royal personality
cult of Angkor. by which the reigning king was identified with the deity.
According to Angkor scholar Georges Coedès, "Angkor Wat is, if you like, a
vaishnavite sanctuary, but the Vishnu venerated there was not the ancient
Hindu deity nor even one of the deity's traditional incarnations, but the king
Suryavarman II posthumously identified with Vishnu, consubstantial with him,
residing in a mausoleum decorated with the graceful figures of apsaras just
like Vishnu in his celestial palace."[62] Suryavarman proclaimed his identity
with Vishnu, just as his predecessors had claimed consubstantiation with
Shiva.

Face towers of the Bayon represent the king as the Bodhisattva Lokesvara.

Mahayana Buddhism
In the last quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII departed radically
from the tradition of his predecessors when he adopted Mahayana Buddhism
as his personal faith. Jayavarman also made Buddhism the state religion of his
kingdom when he constructed the Buddhist temple known as the Bayon at the
heart of his new capital city of Angkor Thom. In the famous face towers of the
Bayon, the king represented himself as the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara moved
by compassion for his subjects. Thus, Jayavarman was able to perpetuate the
royal personality cult of Angkor, while identifying the divine component of the
cult with the bodhisattva rather than with Shiva

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There were several obvious reasons, to start. Climatic change brought a great
drought to the area. Increased maritime trade weakened the Khmer people's
economic stronghold. Society was caught in religious upheaval as most
converted to Theravada Buddhism. The presence of Phnom Phem as a maritime
port robbed the Angkor of its importance and trade and commerce began to be
centered there, hence Angkor lost its importance and people naturally migrated
to where there was livelihood. Some historians believe that the mass
conversion to Theravada Buddhism—by undermining the Hindu and
Mahayana Buddhist institutions underpinning the state and by encouraging
through its doctrines a more-individualistic attitude among believers—
contributed to the decline and gradual abandonment of Angkor.

Increased maritime trade weakened the Khmer people’s economic stronghold.

Society was caught in religious upheaval as most converted to Theravada
Buddhism. War was raging with neighbouring countries. Today the main port
in Cambodia is Sihanoukville Autonomous Port

French: Port autonome du Sihanoukville, PAS which is a government agency and

state corporation of Cambodia and Sihanoukville that operates and governs the
country's sole deep water port. Cambodia has in total 105 ports, of which 78 are river
ports located along the Mekong, Tonle Sap, Tonle Basac and in provinces, and 27
others are sea port.
PHNOM.PENH.PORT

The initial settlement of Phnom Penh is believed to have been established since the
5th century AD, according to the discovery of ancient kiln site in Choeung Ek
commune of Dangkao district, southern part of central Phnom Penh in early 2000s.
Choeung Ek archaeological site was one of the largest kiln pottery center in Cambodia
and the earliest known kiln sites in Southeast Asia to produced the ceremonial vessels
known as kendi from 5th to 13th century. Archaeologist stated that a large community
is surrounded by a circular earthwork structure that is 740 metres in diameter and 4
metres high, built in the 11th century. In addition, there are remnants of other

74
ancient village infrastructure, irrigation system, inscription, Shiva linga as well as an
ancient brick temple foundation and its ornate remains which dated back
to Funan era.
First recorded a century after it is said to have taken place, the legend of the founding
of Phnom Penh tells of a local woman, Penh (commonly referred to as Daun
Penh ("Grandmother Penh" or "Old Lady Penh") in Khmer), living at Chaktomuk, the
future Phnom Penh. It was the late 14th century, and the Khmer capital was still at
Angkor near Siem Reap 350 km (217 mi) to the north. Gathering firewood along the
banks of the river, Lady Penh spied a floating koki tree in the river and fished it from
the water. Inside the tree she found four Buddha statues and one of Vishnu.
Phnom Penh was founded in 1434 to succeed Angkor Thom as the capital of the
Khmer nation but was abandoned several times before being reestablished in 1865 by
King Norodom. The city formerly functioned as a processing centre, with textiles,
pharmaceuticals, machine manufacturing, and rice milling. Phnom Penh depends on
access via the Mekong through the delta area of Vietnam. The Phnom Penh port is the
country's traditional river port, accessible to vessels from the South China Sea
through Vietnam.Phnom Penh port is located in-the city, on the Sap river some 3-4
km from its junction with the Mekong. It is some 330 km from the mouth of the
Mekong of which about 100 km is in Cambodia and the rest in Vietnam. The distance
from Singapore is about 1450 km. Vessels of up to 2,000 dwt-can use the route
without difficulty, and 5,000 dwt boats can pass the entrance to the Mekong (the
'Main bottleneck) on favourable tides.

The Port of Phnom Penh succeeded Angkor Thom (after Siam captured it) as the
Khmer Empire's capital in 1434, but it was abandoned many times. Japanese
immigrants moved to the outskirts of the Port of Phnom Penh in the 1600s. In 1865,
King Norodom I re-established the Port of Phnom Penh and the permanent capita

75
Encyclopedia Britannica states that ‘the decline of Angkor began after
Jayavarman’s death (about 1220), when only a few stone monuments were
erected at Angkor, and only a few inscriptions were incised. Little by little,
the Khmer empire began to contract. Jayavarman’s campaigns
neutralized Champa as a threat to Angkor, but, by the early 13th century,
vigorous new kingdoms in what is now northern Thailand—centring on the city
of Sukhothai—became powerful enough to throw off Angkorean domination, as
did some Tai principalities in the south. In the mid-13th century, Tai armies
even raided Angkor. For the next 200 years, however, Angkor remained a
glittering, crowded, and wealthy city. It impressed a Chinese visitor, Zhou
Daguan, who arrived there with a diplomatic mission in 1296. Zhou’s account
is the longest and most-detailed extant description of the Khmer capital,
supplementing the bas-reliefs of the Bayon. He left a picture of a bustling city
in which the king still went forth in great pomp and ceremony.

Zhou also saw monks of the Theravada school of Buddhism at Angkor. The

more-orthodox and austere school flourished in kingdoms to the west of
Cambodia and contrasted sharply with the lavish and elitist rituals associated
with Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism. When Zhou visited Angkor,
Theravada Buddhism was still one religion among many. Soon afterward,
however, it began to benefit from royal patronage, and the conversion of the
majority of the population probably followed the conversion of members of the
elite. Those disadvantaged by the change included the high-ranking Hindu and
Mahayana priestly families who had built and maintained the temples at
Angkor.

Some historians believe that the mass conversion to Theravada Buddhism—by

undermining the Hindu and Mahayana Buddhist institutions underpinning the
state and by encouraging through its doctrines a more-individualistic attitude
among believers—contributed to the decline and gradual abandonment of
Angkor, which certainly accompanied the conversion in the 14th and 15th
centuries. That view, however, has been challenged by those who, doubting
that Theravada Buddhism by itself could have had such a disintegrating
influence, note that Thailand, even though it followed Theravada Buddhism,
remained united and vigorous enough to conduct repeated military attacks on
Angkor and carry away hundreds and perhaps thousands of Cambodians into
captivity in Thailand. According to that opposing view, those Tai military
campaigns offer a more credible explanation for the collapse of Angkor than
does an interpretation identifying Theravada Buddhism as the primary cause.
Yet a third explanation that has been proposed as for why Angkor declined is
based on archaeological work on the site done in the late 20th and early 21st
centuries that found evidence that serious environmental degradation may
have undermined the region’s vital irrigation system.

76
Recorded Tai attacks on Angkor occurred in 1369, 1389, and 1431, and there
undoubtedly were other attacks as well. In 1351 a Tai kingdom whose court
modeled itself culturally on Angkor was founded at Ayutthaya (Ayudhya, or
Siam), not far from present-day Bangkok. The Tai capital remained at
Ayutthaya for the next 400 years. It is likely that a transfusion of
elite culture from Angkor to the more-prosperous, more-secure Tai court began
sometime in the mid-14th century. Many of the Khmer who remained at
Angkor were probably drawn southward to the vicinity of Phnom Penh (which
is thought to have been founded in the mid-15th century) by the region’s
commercial possibilities. In any case, the smaller, outward-looking Khmer
kingdom that had replaced Angkor in the south by the 16th century earned its
wealth primarily from trade rather than from intensive rice cultivation and the
mobilization of labour for public works.
Tai and Vietnamese hegemony

The little that is known of Khmer history in the years following the

abandonment of Angkor is a confusing mixture of uncertain dates, mythical
figures, and complex dynastic rivalries. Cambodian chronicles for that period,
composed several centuries afterward, are impossible to verify against
inscriptions or other primary sources. Between the mid-14th century and the
end of the 16th, while Angkor was still inhabited, the Tai court of Ayutthaya
was most likely absorbing some of its culture and prestige, and the political
centre of Cambodia was shifting to the south. Relations between the Tai and
the Khmer remained uneasy.’

Ying Yang of Power: In the late 16th century, a period of Tai weakness following
wars with Myanmar (Burma) coincided with a time of Cambodian prosperity,
and a Khmer monarch, Chan I (ruled 1516–66), reoccupied the Angkor area
briefly, restoring some of the temples, adding some bas-reliefs to those
at Angkor Wat, and leaving several new inscriptions. When the Tai recovered
their strength in the 1590s, however, they invaded Cambodia in force and
sacked the Khmer capital at Lovek, north of Phnom Penh, ushering in a period
of Cambodian weakness vis-à-vis its neighbours that has endured to the
present day.

Cambodian political history from the beginning of the 17th century until the
establishment of the French protectorate in 1863 is indeed a sorry record of
weak kings being undermined by members of their families and forced to seek
the protection of their stronger neighbours, Siam (Thailand) and Vietnam. That
Cambodia survived at all can be attributed to the fact that in the 18th century
the Tai and the Vietnamese had other preoccupations. In the 1750s and ’60s,
Tai energies were taken up by wars with Myanmar, whose armies sacked and
destroyed Ayutthaya in 1767. Between 1603 and 1848, 22 monarchs occupied
the Cambodian throne. By seeking Tai or Vietnamese protection against their

77
rivals in the royal family and against the foreign power temporarily out of
favour, they lost territory and sovereignty.

Soon afterward the Nguyen rulers of southern Vietnam were engaged in a

prolonged campaign to regain power from the usurping Tay Son rebels.
Fighting spilled over from Vietnam into Cambodia, and the Cambodian royal
family fled to Thailand. By the end of the century, a powerful Tai dynasty had
established the kingdom of Siam and had installed itself in its new capital in
Bangkok, and at the beginning of the 19th century, the Nguyen founded a
dynasty that governed all of Vietnam.

Angkor becomes Vietnamese: A confrontation between the two powers in

Cambodia was inevitable. In 1794, in exchange for placing a refugee
Cambodian prince, Eng, on the Cambodian throne, the Siamese appropriated
two Cambodian provinces, Bătdâmbâng (Battambang) and Siĕmréab (Siem
Reap)—the latter including the ruins of Angkor. Those provinces remained in
Siamese hands until 1907. When Eng died after a short reign, he was replaced
by his young son, who ruled as Chan II under the protection of Thailand.

Chan II’s reign confirmed Cambodia’s dual vassalage to Thailand and Vietnam.
With three rebellious younger brothers and demanding patrons at the Siamese
court, he sought assistance from Vietnam; the Siamese supported his brothers,
who took refuge in Bangkok. The uneasy calm that ensued, with Chan
acknowledging Siamese and Vietnamese suzerainty, ended with Chan’s death
in 1835. Vietnamese pressure was strong enough to ensure that a powerless
princess named Mei was then enthroned, permitting the Vietnamese to control
most of the country. Not until 1841, when Chan’s brother Duong (Duang; ruled
1848–60) returned from exile in Bangkok supported by Siamese troops, were
the Cambodians able to exercise a small degree of independence. Fighting
between the Siamese and the Vietnamese continued in Cambodia for several
years. Duong was crowned only after Vietnamese troops agreed to leave the
country. Cambodia again became a Siamese protectorate. Duong tried hard to
revitalize the kingdom’s institutions, but his resources were desperately
limited, and his reign was marred by several rebellions. When he died, he was
succeeded by his son, Norodom, but conditions were too unstable in the
kingdom for Norodom to be crowned.

My, how the mighty fall. The city was abandoned and its resources frittered
away, disappearing into the jungle. And yet the Khmer people left behind a
great legacy – arguably the greatest architectural legacy in a world, recognized
by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site: Angkor Wat. However Angkor was never
really lost, it disappeared, fair enough. No one lived there for a very long time.
But the Khmer people knew of its existence even after the kingdom broke
down. For untold numbers of years, many of the temples were used by

78
fisherman and farmers in the area. The number of stones it took to build the
temple at Angkor Wat is estimated to be between five and ten million – more
than the Great Pyramid of Khufu – many of which are covered in carvings.

The world’s largest religious monument, it is as high as the Notre Dame

Cathedral in Paris: over 64 metres. It is surrounded by five towers and a five
kilometre long,190 meter wide moat.

One of the things that makes the temple so astounding is that it took only 32
years to build. Much smaller buildings in Europe took three or four hundred
years to construct, and contained far less stone. Even considering the fifty
thousand workers that built it, the speed at which the temple was completed is
astounding.

79
Though scientists and historians have tried for years to explain the speed with
which this temple was built, there is no generally accepted theory. Millions of
large stones would have been ferried down an 87 kilometre canal. Although a
shorter 35 kilometre route has since been discovered, this miracle of
construction is still shrouded in mystery.

They were vicious warriors. The history of the Khmer people is carved into
the walls of Angkor Wat: wild boar fights, construction of temples, women in
the marketplace, etc. Thanks to this visual archive, historians have a good idea
of the daily life of the Khmer.A journal by a foreign diplomat in Angkor Wat
casts a wary eye on their military capabilities. Though they did not have any
great weaponry, these masters of combat fought with a ferocity that alarmed

80
the visiting diplomat. Significantly, the entire population was required to
participate in the Khmer Empire’s ongoing war with the Ayutthaya Kingdom.

Today- One of the biggest threats to Angkor Wat today is the jungle not
Hinduism or Buddhism. Many of the great temples have begun to recede into
the jungle. Enormous, hundreds of year old trees are growing around and
through the great temples of Angkor Wat, in some cases making the structures
impenetrable to visitors. Perhaps more seriously, its millions of stones are
being weathered away by rain, wind and sun. Without constant restoration
work, Angkor is set to blow away in the wind. Literally.New information about
Angkor Wat appears in the news yearly. Our fascination with this legendary
place continues unabated.

Here’s the thing about history: there are no such thing as facts. The deeper
historians dig, the more it becomes clear how little we actually know.

phnom phem 1832

81
 CHAPTER V
Krishna- in Cambodia?

There are around 4000 temples in Cambodia, out of which most of them are
located at Siem Reap, Battambang, Preah Vihar, and Kampong Thom.
Cambodia's many striking temples. Most dedicated to God Vishnu of the Hindu
Pantheam. Vishnu is the preserver and protector of the universe. His role is to
return to the earth in troubled times and restore the balance of good and evil.
So far, he has been incarnated nine times, but Hindus believe that he will be
reincarnated one last time close to the end of this world.were commissioned by
the kings of the Khmer Empire. From the 800s to the 1400s, this empire
stretched across Southeast Asia. ... There was a widespread shift from
Hinduism to Buddhism in the latter half of the empire, so you'll find some
temples have symbolism from both religions.Originally dedicated to the Hindu
god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple by the end of the 12th
century. Who destroyed Hindu temples in Cambodia?

Standing Shiva (?) 11th century. This figure is the most intact metal image surviving
from Angkor. It belongs to a small group of metal sculptures of Hindu deities associated
with royal cult practices that was discovered in Khmer territories in Cambodia and
northeastern Thailand.(ABOVE RIGHT PIC)

In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was
sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Since
then, Hinduism slowly declined in Cambodia, and finally being replaced by
Theravadan Buddhist as the major faith in the kingdom.

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Angkor was was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the first half of
the 12th century, around the year 1110-1150, making Angkor Wat almost 900
years old. The temple complex, built in the capital of the Khmer Empire, took
approximately 30 years to build. Angkor Wat is a temple complex at Angkor,
Cambodia. It is the largest religious monument in the world, on a site
measuring 162.6 hectares (1,626,000 m2; 402 acres) which was built by a
Khmer king Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and
capital city. Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of
walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented
the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods.
Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost
wall and the temple itself.

Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan in 2017 (left) and 2021 (right)

Krishna’s torso is moved into alignment with the upper section of the sculpture in the new
reconstruction, 2021

Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan, carved around 600 for the temple site of
Phnom Da - According to Sanskrit texts, Krishna, an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu,
once hoisted a mountain overhead to shelter people and cattle from a mighty storm
brought upon them by Indra, the god of rain and lightning, whom Krishna had angered.

83
At the time, the dark-skinned god was just eight years old, and after this feat, his fellow
villagers came to recognize him as a divinity.

Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan, carved around 600 for the temple site of Phnom Da
in southern Cambodia, is one of the central works of the Cleveland Museum of Art’s
Southeast Asian sculpture collection. The sculpture depicts the boy god, standing larger
than life within an integral stone niche, pressing the weight of the mountain overhead
with his left hand.

This sculpture was on view for decades at the CMA, as standing securely on complete
stone legs and feet, with his arm raised into thin air. Today, after seven-plus years of
research, international collaboration, and conservation treatment, the sculpture looks
very different. In a dramatic change, the lower base and parts of the legs have been
removed and a large upper section, showing the top of the stone niche and the figure’s
left hand, has been added.

The new reconstruction is based on scholarship and analysis that illuminated the
complex history of this sculpture and seven others that were found on the sacred twin-
peaked mountain, Phnom Da, in southern Cambodia.
Wat Ek Phnom is an angkorian temple located on the left side of the Sangkae
River at the small creek of Prek Daun Taev northwest the G Peam Aek spot
approximately 9 km north of the city of Battambang in north western
Cambodia. It is a Hindu temple built in the 11th century under the rule of king
Suryavarman I. Although partly collapsed and looted it is famous for its well-
carved lintels and pediments.
An enormous white-stone sitting Buddha statue leads to the
modern Buddhist pagoda Ek Phnom surrounded by 18 Bodhi Trees. The site is
deemed as a very popular picnic and pilgrimage destination for Khmers at
celebration times. The pagoda opens the way to the ruins of the ancient
hinduist temple. The ancient temple, built of sandstone blocks and enclosed by
the remains of a laterite outer wall and a Baray, consists of small temples
or prasats on a platform and measures 52m by 49m. Mostly reduced to ruins
today only the main towers of the temple remain standing whose upper flanks
hold some fine bas-reliefs.

The bas-reliefs depict events of Hindu mythology mostly referring to Krishna.

In the same way as Krishna, Suryavarman I carried out institutional reforms of
the state[

84
1. Buddha statue/modern Wat Ek Phnom/ancient temple
2. Lintel of the central tower: Krishna, lifting Govardhana hill and fighting the Kaliya snake, whilst
standing on a kala
 

Lintel above the north door: Krishna taming horses  whilst standing on kala/Lintel
with pediment

85
86
 A red
sandstone fragment of a lintel with Krishna, with Krishna at center and his left
arm raised surrounded by leafy scrolls. With his hand raised to present his flat
palm upwards, it is likely this frieze represents the moment when Krishna lifts
Mount Govardhan to shield the villagers from the monsoon.
Khmer, Angkor period, Baphuon style, 11th century (45 cm high).

87
 KRISHNA IN ANGKOR

North Gallery, East Section: Krishna’s Victory over Banasura

The scenes depicted on the bas-relief carved on the eastern section of the north
gallery is based on Krishna’s Victory over Banasura story, which appears in
Mahabharata and Vishnu Purana. This story is about Krishna, who is an
avatar of Vishnu, fighting Shiva and becoming victorious. It is not a well-known
story but chosen deliberately to show the dominance of Vishnu because King
Suryavarman II broke the Shaiva tradition of his predecessors and made
Vishnu the dominant god of the Hindu Trinity.

Legend of Banasura

According to the story, Banasura, an asura king with thousand arms, is an

ardent devotee of Shiva whom he tried to please by doing tapasu (austerity and
meditation) for many years. Pleased with his devotion, Shiva confers upon him
with many varas (boons), one of which was to be his ally in future fights. Once
he gets these varas, Banasura becomes arrogant and starts ill-treating his
subjects. When his daughter Usha reaches the marriageable age, many suitors
approach her with an intention to marry. Banasura gets angry at the suitors

88
and builds a fortress called Agnigraha (house of fire in Sanskrit) and imprisons
her there to keep her away from them.

Krishna riding Vishnu’s vehicle Garuda and fighting Banasura

89
Garuda entering Agnigraha (house of fire) built by Bansaura (The image shows
Garuda facing Agnigraha (house of fire) built by Bansaura to keep his daughter
Usha.)

One day, Usha dreams of a young man and falls in love with him. When she
mentions this to her maid Chitraleka, who realizes that the young man is
Aniruddha, one of the grandsons of Krishna. Chitraleka with her superpowers
summons Aniruddha to Usha’s quarters. When he sees Usha, he falls in love
with her too. Meanwhile, Banasura comes to know of Aniruddha’s presence in
Usha’s quarters. He captures and imprisons him. When Krishna comes to
know about his grandson’s imprisonment, he wages war against Banasura. At
the request of Banasura, Shiva keeps his promise and starts fighting against
Krishna. Realizing this, Krishna tricks Shiva by firing a weapon that puts Shiva
to sleep. Krishna then severs all but four arms of Banasura. Shiva then wakes
up and begs Krishna not to kill Banasura. Meanwhile, Banasura realizing his
mistakes begs forgiveness and allows his daughter to marry Aniruddha.

90
Baphuon bas-relief illustrating the legend of Krishna (second level, gopura II/N, south
face, east section)

Copyright Statement=Palgen-Maissoneuve, Mimi, 1918-1995 (Photographer)

Krishna lifting Govardhan at ANGKOR

91
THE STORY OF SHRI KRISHNA LIFTING GOVARDHAN HILL

There is an interesting story in the Bhagwata and other Puranas about Shri
Krishna lifting the ‘Govardhan Parvat’ or Govardhan Hill when he was only a
small child. The story goes like this:

Once, when the elder people of Braj including Nanda Maharaj were planning
for the Puja of Lord Indra, Shri Krishna, a child then, questioned them as to
why they were doing so. Nanda Maharaj explained to Krishna that this was
done every year to please Lord Indra so that he continued to grace the people of
Braj by providing rain as and when required. But little Krishna debated that
they were farmers and they should only do their duty or ‘Karma’ to the best of
their abilities, by concentrating on farming and protecting their cattle, rather
than performing pujas or conduct sacrifices like this for any natural
phenomenon. Finally convinced by Krishna, the villagers did not perform with
the puja.

Furious with the inhabitants of Braj for listening to the little child Krishna and
worshipping the Govardhan Hill instead of him, lndra, the King of Heaven,
decided to punish them by sending terrible rain clouds to flood the land of
Vrindavan. Calling the Samavartaka clouds of devastation, lndra ordered them

92
to lash upon Vrindavan with torrents of rain and thunderstorms and cause
extensive floods that would destroy the livelihood of the inhabitants.

As terrible rains and thunderstorms ravaged the land and submerged it under
water, the frightened and helpless inhabitants of Vrindavan approached Lord
Krishna for help. Krishna, who understood the situation perfectly well, lifted up
the entire Govardhan Hill at once with His left hand, and held it up like an
umbrella. One by one all the inhabitants of Vrindavan, along with their cows
and other household possessions, took shelter under Govardhan Hill. For
seven days they stayed under the hill, safe from the terrible rains and
surprisingly undisturbed by hunger or thirst. They were also astounded to see
the huge Govardhan Hill resting perfectly balanced on Krishna’s little finger.

Stunned and mystified with the order of events, King Indra called back the
clouds of devastation, thus stopping the thunderstorms and the rains. The sky
became clear again and the sun shone brightly over Vrindavan. Little Krishna
asked the inhabitants to return home without any fear, and gently placed the
Govardhan Hill back to exactly where it was. All the inhabitants of Braj
including Nanda Maharaj, Yasoda and Balarama hailed Krishna and embraced
Him with happiness.

This was how the false pride of King Indra was shattered to pieces. He came to
Lord Krishna with folded hands and prayed to Him for forgiveness. Shri
Krishna, being the Supreme Personality of Godhead, bestowed his grace on
Indra and also enlightened him about his ‘Dharma’ and duties.

Krishna in BAPHUON
TEMPLE
Built in the mid-11th century, it is a three-tiered temple mountain  built as the
state temple of Udayadityavarman II dedicated to the Hindu God Shiva. It is
the archetype of the Baphuon style with intricate carvings covering every
available surface. The temple adjoins the southern enclosure of the royal
palace and measures 120 metres east-west by 100 metres north-south at its
base and stands 34 meters tall without its tower, which would have made it
roughly 50 meters tall. Its appearance apparently impressed Temür Khan's late
13th century envoy Zhou Daguan during his visit from 1296 to 1297, who said
it was 'the Tower of Bronze...a truly astonishing spectacle, with more than ten
chambers at its base.'

In the late 15th century, the Baphuon was converted to a Buddhist temple. A

9-meter tall by 70 meter long statue of a reclining Buddha was built on the

93
west side's second level, which probably required the demolition of the 8-meter
tower above to supply stones for the statue, thus explaining its current
absence. The temple was built on land filled with sand, and due to its immense
size the site was unstable throughout its history. Large portions had probably
already collapsed by the time the Buddha was added.
Surrounded by a wall 125 by 425 m the central tower was probably gilded
wood, which has not survived.
By the 20th century, much of the temple had largely collapsed, and restoration
efforts took on an epic quality. A large-scale project to dismantle the temple so
that its core could be re-enforced before the whole is re-constructed again—a
process known as anastylosis—was abandoned after civil war broke out in
1970. The workers and archaeologists were forced to leave 300,000 carefully
labelled and numbered blocks organized across 10 hectares surrounding the
temple. However, the plans identifying the pieces were lost during the decade of
conflict and the Khmer Rouge that followed.

Krishna in Preah Vihear

Cambodia lays a temple of such splendor that it was finally selected as a World
Heritage monument by the World Heritage Committee in 2008. The architects who
planned and built Preah Vihear, but at the time of the temples construction Preah
Vihear was known as Shikhareshvara. Sahai’s extensive knowledge of temples built in
India reveals that this is the only temple where Lord Shiva is attributed to being the
called "Lord of the Peak". This said, the mystery of uncovering what this temple
served within the Khmer Empire takes on a new understanding to what exactly was
the intent of Shikhareshvara.

Krishna Subduing Kaliya

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Each level of the temple was built on a North South axis, which classifies the temple
as an axial temple similar to Vat Phu and Phnom Rung. However, the temple may
have been considered from a much wider context suggesting that both East and West
developments of the temple also served the purposes of the temple priests and royal
monarchs. The depth of devotion which existed around Lord Shiva between the tenth
and twelfth centuries and how through analyzing the inscriptions one can also see how
the sacred foot prints of Lord Shiva were placed at key locations in the empire. This
act alone is the key referent to the holiness of the land which the high priest
Divakarapandita, the most powerful high priest at the royal court of Angkor, initiated
through the kindom and especially at Preah Vihear.

Krishna and his friend Balaram Angkor

95
Krishna Kills Two Enemies-Central Tower, south face-Angkor Wat

The enemies subdued by Krishna in this scene have not been definitely identified.
According to Roveda (p.212) they might be Canura and Mushtika (two wrestlers sent to
kill Krishna), or perhaps Madhu and Kaitabha (two demons slain by Vishnu).

A naga head is also visible at the right side of the photo.

96
 Krishna Kills
Kansa. Bantey Sarei

97
A popular scene from the Mahabharata is depicted at Banteay Srei: Krishna
and Arjuna attempt to burn down the Kandhava forest, which was home to all
sorts of evil creatures. But Indra, the protector of the forest, sends down heavy
rains to put out the fire. Arjuna, the world’s most skilled archer, then shoots a
barrage of arrows in the sky to prevent any rain from hitting the ground.
Afterward, Arjuna holds his own in a battle against Indra, who, despite being a
god, is actually Arjuna’s biological father!

98
 CHAPTER VI
The Complex Erection of Angkor Wat

99
 CONTENTS
1. Great structures built to honour the gods 32. Ghost Temple:
2. Hindu Cosmology 33. In 2016 CE, a New York
3. Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat Times article
4. The height of Angkor Wat 34. History
5. The overall profile imitates a lotus bud 35. Architecture and Construction
6. Scale of the ambition determined the structure 36. classical style of
of the Angkor. Angkorian architecture:
7. Several years must have gone into the planning 37. Built on rising ground
as such. and surrounded by an
8. The perspective artificial moat,
9. Scholarly vision 38. Sculpture
10. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the 39. The massive sandstone
universe as a cosmic world. bricks
11. The central tower mountain, Its 5 towers 40. Architectural
correspond to peaks of Meru. Features
i. Planning 41. Construction techniques
ii. The explaination and concurrence 42. Materials;
from the Monarch 43. Bricks
iii. The Model 44. Sandstone
iv. Schedule 45. Laterite
v. Approvals 46. Central sanctuary
vi. The site 47. The central prang of
vii. The water source Angkor Wat temple
viii. The material sources symbolizes the mount
ix. The manpower Meru.
x. Assorted materials 48. legendary home of
xi. Skill and unskilled labour the Hindu gods.
xii. Logistics 49. Prang
xiii. manpower planning 50. Khmer temples
xiv. Lodging abd boarding of workers 51. Thai temples
xv. Material Storage and facilitation 52. Enclosure
xvi. Training & development of workers 53. Gallery
12. Urban planning 54. Gopura
55. Hall of Dancers
13. 72 major temples  56. dancing.
14. How is Angkor Wat characterized on elements 57. House of Fire
of style? 58. Library
15. What was the cultural significance of Angkor 59. Srah and baray
Wat? 60. Temple mountain
16. What is unique about where Angkor Wat is 61. Bas-relief
built? 62. Colonette
17. Site and plan 63. Corbelling
18. temple mountain  and concentric galleries 64. List of
19. The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to Khmer lintel styles
the morning sun 65. Stairs
20. Rose Bud shape 66. MOTIFS
21. Ogival 67. Apsara and devata
22. The principal temple of the Angkorian 68. Dvarapala
region, Angkor Wat 69. Gajasimha & Reachisey
23. Vaishnavism 70. Garuda
24. Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism  71. THE MANY GODS of
25. Vishnu-Suman ANGKOR
26. Mahayana Buddhism 72. Indra

100
 27. Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian 73. Kala
architecture  74. Krishna
28. Many temples had been built before 75. linga 
Cambodia:[ 76. Makara
29. The temple itself consists of two of the primary 77. Nāga
elements 78. Quincunx
79. Shiva
30. In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and 80. The.Australian
Claude Jacques  archaeologist Damian
31. Religious Background Evans.
83.Rervelation painting
81. Secret Paintings

Great structures built to honour the gods, have led to groundbreaking

construction techniques, and pushed the limits of engineering. No expense was
spared in the ancient world, as temples were built over decades or even
centuries. But one stands out from the rest. Hidden deep in the Cambodian
jungle lies a temple that eclipses all others- Angkor Wat is a 900-year-old
complex covering more than 400 acres across a monsoon-plagued swampland.
The largest religious monument in the world by land area. Its endless hallways
and colossal structures exhibit precision stonemasonry. While some of the
great medieval cathedrals took over a century to build, Angkor Wat was
completed in just 30 years. A masterpiece of craftsmanship, sculptural
decoration and engineering. But how did an early society with little technology
build this vast monument? It is one of the most important pilgrimage sites for
Buddhists in Cambodia and around the world. It has become a symbol of
Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's main tourist
attraction. Angkor Wat played a major role in converting Cambodia into a
Buddhist nation and the one and only source of income for Cambodia today.

Angkor Wat Architectural Features

HINDU.COSMOLOGY: According to Stuart-Fox, Martin ,

and Paul Reeve,“Symbolism in City Planning in Cambodia from Angkor to Phnom
Penh.” (Journal of the Siam Society 99: 105–38. . 2011) Khmer Kings never decided
arbitrarily or at their whim the location of cities, their orientation and their
layout. The plan of the ideal Khmer city was inspired by the model of the
Khmer temples, which were based on Hindu cosmology. It should have a
perfect quadrangular shape, walls with four gates in the middle of each side
and an organised internal layout resembling a mandala, with the city temple in
the centre and its main sanctuary inside it, with a tower shape which
represents the mythological Mount Meru, the sacred axis mundi, separated by
successive concentric walls.

101
At the same time, this concrete representation of cosmology in city planning
was based on the religious and political idea of the “god-king” (devaraja), which
considers monarchs as incarnations on the Earth (avatars) of Shiva, Vishnu or
Buddha.’ ( “Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast
Asia.” Chihara, Daigoro . 1996. Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology 19. Leiden: Brill.)

Cosmos: At a paper presented at Vaastu Kaushal: International Symposium on

Science and Technology in Ancient Indian Monuments, New Delhi, November
16-17, 2002. Subhash Kak presenting the paper- Space and Cosmology in the
Hindu Temple pointed out that according to the Sthapatya Veda (the Indian
tradition of architecture), the temple and the town should mirror the cosmos.
The temple architecture and the city plan are, therefore, related in their
conception.
“ Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. The descriptions of the
temple fall far short of communicating the great size, the perfect proportions,
and the astoundingly beautiful sculpture that everywhere presents itself to the
viewer. Its architecture is majestic and its representation of form and
movement from Indian mythology has astonishing grace and power.”
 Angkor Wat occupies a rectangular area of about 208 hectares (500 acres)
defined by a laetrile wall. The first evidence of the site is a moat with a long
sandstone causeway (length 250 meters, 820 feet; width 12 meters, 39 feet)
crossing it and serving as the main access to the monument. The moat is
200 meters (656 feel) wide with a perimeter of 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles).

 Angkor Wat is influenced by the Hindu temple architecture of southern

India, which combines harmony and symmetry with a high degree of outer
adornment. The five beehive-shaped domes that rise impressively from the
center of the temple are adorned with rows of lotuses and are designed to
look like lotus buds. The temple is conceived so that all five domes are visible
when the temple is viewed from certain angles.

 The largest dome sits over the main sanctuary. Four slightly smaller domes
are organized in a square plan around the central dome. The five domes
represent the five peaks of Mt. Meru, arranged in the shape of a lotus
blossom. What makes the towers and Angkor Wat as a whole so beautiful are
the way the small details harmonize and mix with the massive architecture.
The dome-topped main sanctuary is surrounded by halls, arranged together
in a square plan, with lower walls and ceilings, and smaller temples on their
corners that represent the mountains on the edge of the world. The galleries,
corridors and halls are aligned with directions of the compass.

 The wall that surrounds Angkor Wat is 5/8th of a mile long on each side;
the central tower is eight stories (213 feet) high; the square moat around the
compound is three miles long; and the causeway that leads across the moat

102
to the temple is 1,500 feet long. The sandstone blocks at Angkor Wat were
quarried from at least 50 different quarries at the foot of Mt. Kulen 32
kilometers to the northeast. They are believed to have been transported by
canals visible today with satellite imagery.

Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and represents an

earthly model of the cosmic world. The central tower rises from the center of
the monument symbolizing the mythical mountain, Meru, situated at the
center of the universe. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru. The
outer wall corresponds to the mountains at the edge of the world, and the
surrounding moat the oceans beyond.

 The plan of Angkor Wat is difficult to grasp when walking through the
monument because of the vastness. Its complexity and beauty both attract
and distract one's attention. From a distance Angkor Wat appears to be a
colossal mass of stone on one level with a long causeway leading to the
center but close up it is a series of elevated towers, covered galleries,
chambers, porches and courtyards on different levels linked by stairways.

 The height of Angkor Wat from the ground to the top of the central tower
is greater than it might appear: 213 meters (699 feet), achieved with three
rectangular or square levels (1-3) Each one is progressively smaller and
higher than the one below starting from the outer limits of the temple.

 Covered galleries with columns define the boundaries of the first and second
levels. The third level supports five towers –four in the corners and one in the
middle and these is the most prominent architectural feature of Angkor Wat.
This arrangement is sometimes called a quincunx. Graduated tiers, one
rising above the other, give the towers a conical shape and, near the top,
rows of lotuses taper to a point.

 The overall profile imitates a lotus bud, Several architectural lines stand
out in the profile of the monument. The eye is drawn left and right to the
horizontal aspect of the levels and upward to the soaring height of the
towers. The ingenious plan of Angkor Wat only allows a view of all five towers
from certain angles. They are not visible, for example, from the entrance.
Many of the structures and courtyards are in the shape of a cross. The.
Visitor should study the plan on page 86 and become familiar with this
dominant layout. A curved sloping roof on galleries, chambers and aisles is a
hallmark of Angkor Wat. From a distance it looks like a series of long narrow
ridges but close up from identifies itself. It is a roof made of gracefully arched

103
stone rectangles placed end to end. Each row of tiles is capped with an end
tile at right angles the ridge of the roof.

 The scheme culminates in decorated tympanums with elaborate frames.

Steps provide access to the various levels. Helen Churchill Candee, who
visited Angkor in the 1920s, thought their usefulness surpassed their
architectural purpose. The steps to Angkor Wat are made to force a halt at
beauteous obstruction that the mind may be prepared for the atmosphere of
sanctity, she wrote In order to become familiar with the composition of
Angkor Wat the visitor should learn to recognize the repetitive elements in
the architecture. Galleries with columns, towers, curved roofs, tympanums,
steps and the cross-shaped plan occur again and again.

 It was by combining two or more of these aspects that a sense of height
was achieved. This arrangement was used to link one part of the
monument to another. Roofs were frequently layered to add height, length
or dimension. A smaller replica of the central towers was repeated at the
limits of two prominent areas-the galleries and the entry pavilions. The
long causeway at the entrance reappears on the other side of the entry
pavilion.

1. Scale of the ambition determined the structure of the Angkor. Several

years must have gone into the planning as such.
2. The perspective
3. Scholarly vision
4. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and
represents an earthly model of the cosmic world.
5. The central tower rises from the center of the monument symbolizing the
mythical mountain, Meru, situated at the center of the universe.
6. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru.
7. Planning
8. The explaination and concurrence from the Monarch
9. The Model
10. Schedule
11. Approvals
12. The site
13. The water source
14. The material sources
15. The manpower
16. Assorted materials
17. Skill and unskilled labour
18. Logistics
19. manpower planning

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 20. Lodging abd boarding of workers
21. Material Storage and facilitation
22. Training & development of workers

Urban planning

This, perhaps, was the first low-density city – a phenomenon normally

associated with the railway age, the car and the spread of suburbia – a vast-
reaching conurbation, its parts linked by an ambitious network of roads and
canals, reservoirs and dams carved from the forest. Khmer cities were
connected to one another, by roads and waterways- so the “built-up” area of
Angkor seems to have been bigger than anyone today, much less barefoot 16th
Century Portuguese friars, has been able to figure. An enormous and intricate
irrigation system mapped today lidar and other tech provided Angkor with food
– rice for the main part – and yet the ever-increasing scale of this engineered
and well populated landscape was, it seems, its undoing.

The top of the central tower, the highest part of the entire temple complex, is a
dizzying 700 feet above the ground. As you get into the temple and start
exploring, you would find that the Angkor Wat layout and plan consists
of numerous courtyards, chambers, porches, galleries, and stairways.
According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the
temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its
finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a
work of power, unity and style." It was originally built in the first half of the
12th century as a Hindu temple. Spread across more than 400 acres, Angkor
Wat is said to be the largest religious monument in the world. ... Originally
dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple by
the end of the 12th century.

How is Angkor characterized based on elements of style?It is a work of power,

unity, and style.” Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style
include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to
broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform
terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. How many temples
are in Angkor Wat?

105
Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area, and the
remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered
throughout the landscape beyond.

How is Angkor Wat characterized on elements of style?

It is a work of power, unity, and style.” Architecturally, the elements
characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus
buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting
enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the
temple.

What was the cultural significance of Angkor Wat?

Although Angkor Wat was no longer a site of political, cultural or commercial
significance by the 13th century, it remained an important monument for the
Buddhist religion into the 1800s. Indeed, unlike many historical sites, Angkor
Wat was never truly abandoned. Rather, it fell gradually into disuse and
disrepair.

What is unique about where Angkor Wat is built?

Also unusual for the time of construction, Angkor Wat was dedicated to
Vishnu, a Hindu deity, rather than the current king. The original outer wall at
Angkor Wat once enclosed the temple proper, city, and royal palace, occupying
a space of 203 acres (820,000 square meters). Nothing remains of the wall
today.

This phenomenal city was established in the late 9th century, when it became
the home of Khmer King Yashovarman I. At that stage it was a small, modest
settlement. Over the following 500 years a huge amount of power became
concentrated in Angkor. It was the heart of the Khmer Empire, which grew and
grew and grew. From this central base at Angkor, the empire’s territory
eventually stretched as far north as China, as far south as what as what is now
southern Thailand, as far west as Myanmar and as far east as Vietnam.

The empire accumulated so much wealth and boasted such a vast workforce
106
that it had the means to turn Angkor into a jaw-dropping city, a symbol of
Khmer supremacy. Not only was its architecture remarkable, but the concept
behind the city’s layout was incredibly complex. Angkor was intended to
represent a universe from Hindu cosmology. Anchoring the city was its only
natural hill, Phnom Bakheng, with each of Angkor’s temples then positioned in
“orbit” around this hill, while the city’s outer walls symbolized the edge of the
cosmos and its irrigation system represented the rivers of this universe.
It was in Sukhothai in the 13th century that Thailand is widely considered to
have been born and, over that century and the next, the Thais began to take
control of vast areas of what had been Khmer territory. Many historians have
long claimed this rivalry reached a head in 1431. They believe Angkor was
captured and looted by the Ayutthaya Kingdom, which was essentially the Thai
successor to the Sukhothai Kingdom. It has been widely stated that Angkor
was deserted as a result of this raid. Now a new tale has emerged.

Site and plan-Plan of Angkor Wat

107
An aerial view of Angkor Wat ////A detailed plan of the central structure

Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard

design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of
concentric galleries, most of which were derived from religious beliefs
of Hinduism originally. The construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that
there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is
observed in the temple's east–west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces
within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the
sunrise on a solstice. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home
of the gods according to Hindu mythology: the central quincunx of towers
symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolize
the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the
temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to
the lowest level.
The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of
the spring equinox. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the
west rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice
Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve
as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-
reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—
prasavya in Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order.
Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services.
Archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been
a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower. It has been
nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a
corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples
of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor
Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with
the west.
Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and
arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues that the
structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II:
"as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred

108
space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated
chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour
and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions
have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic
circlesShe distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham
Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the
constellation Draco. a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name
is Latin for dragon. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd
century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations
today. The north pole of the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco is circumpolar (that is,
never setting), and can be seen all year from northern latitudes.
Rose Bud shape: Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include:
the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways;
axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the
main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs,
and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is
considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other
elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time,
including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and
wooden ceiling panels and doors. One of the defining characteristics of Gothic
architecture is the pointed arch.
the pointed arch may have originated as in Sitamarhi caves in 3rd century BCE. The free-
standing temple of Trivikrama at Ter in Maharashtra India dated to Satavahana
period also contains ogive arch but it is constructed using principles of corbel.
Archaeological excavation conducted by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
at Kausambi revealed a palace with its foundations going back to 8th century BCE until
2nd century CE and built in six phases. The last phase dated to 1st–2nd century CE,
featured an extensive structure which features four centered pointed arches which were
used to span narrow passageways and segmental arches for wider areas. [3] Pointed arches
as load bearing function were also employed in Gandhara. Two pointed arch vault system
was built inside the Bhitargaon temple as noted by Alexander Cunningham, which is
dated to early Gupta period of 4th–5th century CE.[4] Pointed arches also appeared
in Mahabodhi temple with relieving arches and vaults between 6–7th century CE.
Ogival: The pointed arch as an architectonic principle in the Middle East, is said by
several scholars to have first been established in Islamic architecture during the Abbasid
Caliphate in the middle of the 8th century CE, and in Gothic architecture in the 11th
century CE. Some scholars have refused to accept Indian origin of pointed arch including
Hill (1993), some scholars have argued that pointed arches were used in the Near East in
pre-Islamic architecturebut others have stated that these arches were, in
fact, parabolic and not pointed arches.
In Gothic architecture, ogives are the intersecting transverse ribs of arches which
establish the surface of a Gothic vault. An ogive or ogival arch is a pointed, "Gothic" arch,
drawn with compasses as outlined above, or with arcs of an ellipse as described. A very
narrow, steeply pointed ogive arch is sometimes called a "lancet arch". The most common
form is an equilateral arch, where the radius is the same as the width. In the
later Flamboyant Gothic style, an "ogee arch", an arch with a pointed head, like S-shaped
curves, became prevalent.

109
the-ogival-redented-tower-shaped-like-lotus-bud-of-angkor-wat-and-the-very-steep-
stairways-representing-the-difficulty-of-ascending-to-the-kingdom RIGHT Cathedral in
Rome showing the ogival that also lay a role of bolstering support to the roof

The principal temple of the Angkorian region, Angkor Wat, was built

between 1113 and 1150 by King Suryavarman II. Suryavarman ascended to
the throne after prevailing in a battle with a rival prince. An inscription says
that, in the course of combat, Suryavarman leapt onto his rival's war elephant
and killed him, just as the mythical bird-man Garuda slays a serpent.
After consolidating his political position through military campaigns,
diplomacy, and a firm domestic administration, Suryavarman launched into
the construction of Angkor Wat as his personal temple mausoleum. Breaking
with the tradition of the Khmer kings, and influenced perhaps by the
concurrent rise of Vaisnavism in India, he dedicated the temple
to Vishnu rather than to Siva. With walls nearly half a mile long on each side,
Angkor Wat grandly portrays the Hindu cosmology, with the central towers

110
representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains
enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond.
The traditional theme of identifying the Khmer devaraja with the gods, and his
residence with that of the celestials, is very much in evidence. The
measurements themselves of the temple and its parts in relation to one another
have cosmological significance. Suryavarman had the walls of the temple
decorated with bas reliefs depicting not only scenes from mythology, but also
from the life of his own imperial court. In one of the scenes, the king himself is
portrayed as larger in size than his subjects, sitting cross-legged on an elevated
throne and holding court, while a bevy of attendants make him comfortable
with the aid of parasols and fans.

111
Vaishnavism
In the early days of Angkor, the worship of Vishnu was secondary to that
of Shiva. The relationship seems to have changed with the construction
of Angkor Wat by King Suryavarman II as his personal mausoleum at the
beginning of the 12th century. The central religious image of Angkor Wat was
an image of Vishnu, and an inscription identifies Suryavarman as
"Paramavishnuloka," or "he who enters the heavenly world of Vishnu."
Religious syncretism, however, remained thoroughgoing in Khmer society: the
state religion of Shaivism was not necessarily abrogated by Suryavarman's turn
to Vishnu, and the temple may well have housed a royal lingam.
Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism did not abrogate the royal personality
cult of Angkor. by which the reigning king was identified with the deity.
According to Angkor scholar Georges Coedès, "Angkor Wat is, if you like, a
vaishnavite sanctuary, but the Vishnu venerated there was not the ancient
Hindu deity nor even one of the deity's traditional incarnations, but the king
Suryavarman II posthumously identified with Vishnu, consubstantial with him,
residing in a mausoleum decorated with the graceful figures of apsaras just
like Vishnu in his celestial palace."[Suryavarman proclaimed his identity with
Vishnu, just as his predecessors had claimed consubstantiation with Shiva.
Vishnu-Suman
Angkorian representations of Vishnu include anthropomorphic representations
of the god himself, as well as representations of his incarnations or Avatars,
especially Krishna and Rama. Depictions of Vishnu are prominent at Angkor
Wat, the 12th-century temple that was originally dedicated to Vishnu. Bas
reliefs depict Vishna battling with against asura opponents, or riding on the
shoulders of his vahana or mount, the gigantic bird-man Garuda. Vishnu's
attributes include the discus, the conch shell, the baton, and the orb.

Face towers of the Bayon represent the king as the Bodhisattva Lokesvara.

112
Mahayana Buddhism
In the last quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII departed radically
from the tradition of his predecessors when he adopted Mahayana Buddhism
as his personal faith. Jayavarman also made Buddhism the state religion of his
kingdom when he constructed the Buddhist temple known as the Bayon at the
heart of his new capital city of Angkor Thom. In the famous face towers of the
Bayon, the king represented himself as the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara moved
by compassion for his subjects. [63] Thus, Jayavarman was able to perpetuate
the royal personality cult of Angkor, while identifying the divine component of
the cult with the bodhisattva rather than with Shiva
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures,
were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture
of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater
India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on
religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious
in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious
buildings were constructed of stone.
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable
materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of
Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are
identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles
succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features
were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred
to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for
dating the remains.
Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian architecture , is the
architecture produced by the Khmers during the Angkor period of the Khmer
Empire from approximately the later half of the 8th century CE to the first half
of the 15th century CE.
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures,
were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture
of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater
India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on
religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious
in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious
buildings were constructed of stone.
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable
materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of
Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are
identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles
succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features
were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred

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to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for
dating the remains.

1. Sambor Prei Kuk

2. Pre Rup
3. Banteay Srei
4. Bayon

Many temples had been built before Cambodia became a powerful Kingdom
of Khmer Empire which dominated most of the Indochina region. At that time,
Cambodia was known as Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of Khmer
empire. There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles :[
The temple itself consists of two of the primary elements of Khmer
architecture: the pyramid, and concentric galleries. The pyramid takes the form
of three stepped terraces, with each step bordered on all sides by covered
galleries. At each level gateways in the galleries indicate the pathway to the
central shrine, and towers punctuate the corners. The pyramid culminates in
five towers–an indication of the temple's central shrine.
A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple
which was then encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in
construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills, 18 miles
north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals. It is
unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to some
interpretations, it was never fully completed.

The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so
that visitors could only enter from the west, a direction traditionally associated
with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to experience spiritual renewal
as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple. The design, and
imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to read the great
stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in stone across the walls and

114
up the columns of the great temple. All around the complex, homes and
workshops were built, markets and other businesses were opened, and a
network of roads created.
Dimensions and Building elements: Suryavarman II & Construction

In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and Claude Jacques  say thet “The
entire complex symbolizes the Hindu beliefs enshrined within. As Freeman and
Jacques describe, “It is, above all else, a microcosm of the Hindu universe. The
moat represents the mythical oceans surrounding the earth and the succession
of concentric galleries represent the mountain ranges that surround Mount
Meru, the home of the gods. The towers represent the mountain’s peaks, and
the experience of the ascent to the central shrine is, maybe intentionally, a
fairly convincing imitation of climbing a real mountain.”

The dimensions and building elements at Angkor Wat correspond to

“calendrically and cosmologically significant totals”
Suryavarman II is considered one of the greatest monarchs of the Khmer
Empire (802-1431 CE) for his creation of a strong central government that
united the land. Suryavarman II also sent numerous military expeditions
against the kingdom of Dai Viet in modern-day Vietnam and the neighboring
Champa kingdoms, but these were largely unsuccessful. His greatest successes
were in diplomacy, not war, as he successfully opened relations
with China which increased trade and stimulated the economy.

Although he is remembered as a great ruler, Suryavarman II was a usurper,

who assassinated his great uncle Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107-1113 CE) to
take the throne. He is said to have compared the coup to destroying a serpent
but what this alludes to, or what his motivation was, is unclear. He then
legitimized his rule through personal accomplishments and immortalized it
through the construction of the grand complex of Angkor Wat, dedicated to his
personal protector-god Vishnu, most likely in gratitude for his victory. He had
amassed considerable wealth through trade and taxes and spared no expense
in the creation of his temple. Scholar Christopher Scarre notes:

The Khmer's unique form of kingship produced, instead of an

austere civilization like that of the Indus, a society that carried the cult of
wealth, luxury, and divine monarchy to amazing lengths. This cult reached it
apogee in the reign of Suryavarman II who built the temple of Angkor Wat.

The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so
that visitors could only enter from the west, a direction traditionally associated
with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to experience spiritual renewal
as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple. The design, and
imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to read the great

115
stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in stone across the walls and
up the columns of the great temple. All around the complex, homes and
workshops were built, markets and other businesses were opened, and a
network of roads created.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia-Dennis Jarvis (CC BY-SA)

A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple

which was then encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in
construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills, 18 miles
north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals. It is
unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to some
interpretations, it was never fully completed.

Religious Background
Angkor Wat can be interpreted in many different ways but Suryavarman II
wanted to ensure that, however one saw the work, he would be part of it.
Suryavarman II is depicted in statuary as Vishnu, consorting with the god, and
performing his responsibilities as ruler such as reviewing his troops and
holding court. The appearance of the monarch's likeness in so many different
scenes, in fact, led early excavators to conclude that the site was a funerary
temple.

There are compelling reasons to come to this conclusion: unlike the other
temples in the area - which face east - Angkor Wat faces west toward the land
of the dead. Further, the bas-reliefs which adorn the temple are clearly meant
to be read counterclockwise and, in funeral services, one conducts traditional
religious rituals in reverse. If any evidence had ever been found of

116
Suryavarman II's burial at the site, there would be no contesting the claim for
it as a funerary temple; but there is no evidence of this.

It is possible that it was begun as a funerary temple but it remained unfinished

at Suryavarman II's death and he was cremated and buried elsewhere. It is
more likely, however, that Suryavarman II had it purposefully built to honor
his god, and this claim holds more weight when one considers the king's
religious beliefs.

Suryavarman II-Kris

Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which

is devotion to the god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is generally
regarded as a polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually henotheistic,
meaning there is only one god with many different aspects. In a henotheistic
belief system, a single god is considered too immense to be grasped by the
human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of personalities all of which focus
on a single different aspect of human life.

In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in his
form as Vishnu he preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and rewards
humans for their toil with death, which then continues the cycle of rebirth or
leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat reflects the course of life, death,
and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as the supreme god
and replacing him with Vishnu.

Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries as

avatars - like the popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct people.
The most famous example of this comes from the religious text Bhagavad-

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Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of
Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's purpose in life. The
temple of Angkor Wat is designed to fulfill this same purpose through its
ornamentation which tells the story of the human condition, the immanence of
the gods, and how one is to best live one's life.

SURYAVARMAN II ELEVATED THE POSITION OF THE COMMON PEOPLE,

USING RELIGION, BY DECREEING THE WORSHIP OF VISHNU, A DEITY
WHO WAS A PROTECTOR OF ALL.
The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts
between the Khmers and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-
1050 CE) extended the frontiers of his realm into Thailand during his reign and
came into conflict with the cities of the Champa. The Champa's religion
was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which was viewed
with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith. Vishnu, as a
protector-god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the backlash
against Buddhism.
By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known
as Brahmanism, which favored the elite, was growing more popular in the
region and Buddhism had also gained more adherents. Suryavarman II
elevated the position of the common people, using religion, by decreeing the
worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme creator
aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human beings and
the divine who had also proven himself a benevolent guardian.
One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the
interests of human beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The
Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in which he tricks the demons into surrendering
the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods immortal and preserve eternal
order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at Angkor Wat
and supports the claim that the building was originally conceived of as a
temple of worship rather than a funerary site.
Stories in Stone

Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and physical
nexus in Hinduism which is the center of all reality. The five peaks of Mount
Meru are represented by the five spires of the temple. Brahma and the Devas
(demigods) were thought to live on Mount Meru and it is famously referenced
in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and his brothers travel to the gates of
heaven. One by one the brothers die until only Yudhishthira and his faithful
dog are left. When they reach the border of heaven, the gatekeeper tells
Yudhishthira that he may enter for the worthy life he lived but that dogs are
not allowed in heaven. Yudhishthira rejects any paradise which does not
include dogs and turns away, but the gatekeeper stops him and reveals himself
as Vishnu who was only testing him one last time before allowing him
entrance.

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Stories such as this are told all over the temple where one finds scenes from
the classic works of Hindu religious literature such as
the Ramayana and Bhagavad-Gita. The great Battle of Kurukshetra from
the Gita is depicted clearly as is the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana. As
most people could not read in the 12th century CE, Angkor Wat served as a
gigantic book on which the important religious and cultural tales could be
related visually.

Churning of the Ocean of Milk-Jason Eppink (CC BY)

The temple was galleried – meaning it progresses upwards through a series of

galleries - giving ample room for the designers to explore the cultural, religious,
and temporal history of the people. The outer gallery of the temple stretches for
over 1,960 feet (600 m) covered in these reliefs. Angkor Wat was designed to
represent the world with the four corners of the outer wall anchored at the four
corners of the earth and the moat representing the surrounding oceans. Scenes
from everyday life, mythological tales, religious iconography, and royal
processions all wind themselves around the façade.

At the western entrance, a large statue of eight-armed Vishnu has been placed
in the present day to receive visitors who place offerings at his feet in
supplication or in gratitude for prayers answered. The central sanctuary of the
temple is aligned north-south to the axis of the earth, and the Vishnu statue
once stood in the center, making clear that Vishnu was at the heart of all
earthly and divine occurrences. The galleries, according to some scholars, were
used for astronomical observations and were built specifically for that purpose
so that astronomers could clearly view the rotation of the heavens in the night
sky. There is no doubt the site was linked to astronomical observances as it is

119
precisely positioned to mirror the constellation of Draco, the dragon, which
represents eternity because it never sets.
Rededication – Transformation

Angkor Wat was rededicated as a Buddhist temple in the 14th century CE and
statues of the Buddha and Buddha-related stories were added to the already
impressive iconography. As the Buddhists respected the beliefs of the Hindus
who still worshipped there, all of the original statuary and artwork was left in
place. The Buddhist craftsmen added to the intricate story of the temple while
taking nothing away.
By the early 16th century CE, use of the temple had waned, even though it was
still occupied by Buddhist monks, and it became the subject of stories and
legends. It was said to have been built by the gods in the distant past and a
popular story emerged that the god Indra had built it as a palace for his son
and that it rose from nothing in the course of a single night. The temple was
protected from the surrounding jungle by the immense moat and so, unlike
other ancient temples and cities (such as those of the Maya of Mesoamerica) it
was never completely lost.

Ghost Temple: very few people know that even though local people still visited
the site, it became increasingly associated with hauntings and dark spirits. The
great enthusiasm of devotees who used to visit the temple, it was said, needed
to be continued to infuse the area with positive energy. Once worship at the
site fell off, the dark spirits, attracted by the afterglow of the high energy,
moved in and made the place their home. Dark energy was now thought to
emanate from the empty galleries, porches, and entranceways, and fewer and
fewer people went to visit. With only a few monks to care for it, the buildings
began to decay and even though it was never completely taken by the jungle,
natural growth made headway up the walls and through the cracks between
the stones.

In 2016 CE, a New York Times article reported on the ongoing efforts of
archaeologists who continue to make discoveries in the surrounding jungle and
have located the sites of the workers who built the temple and of others who
lived around the complex. The temple itself has undergone major restoration
and is one of the most popular archaeological parks in the world. Those who
visit Angkor Wat today are following in the footsteps of literally millions of
people from the past who have emerged from the surrounding jungle to find
themselves at the site Suryavarman II created as the nexus of earth and
heaven.

Along with the Hindu and Indian Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho,

Central India, and the Taj Mahal in northern India, the Cambodian Khmer
temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks among the greatest examples of
religious architecture in the whole of Asia, comparable to the finest specimens

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of Gothic architecture or Baroque architecture in Europe. Situated some 4
miles (6 km) north of the modern town of Siem Reap in northwestern Cambodia
(Kampuchea), the temple was built about 1115-1145 in Angkor, the capital of
the Khmer Empire, by King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-1150), to serve as his
mausoleum. Angkor Wat operated first as a Hindu shrine dedicated to Vishnu,
then a Theravada Buddhist temple in the late 13th century. Today Angkor Wat
is Cambodia's most famous site of religious art and its silhouette appears on
the Cambodian national flag. The temple is renowned for its high classical style
of Khmer architecture, as well as the staggering quantity of its relief
sculpture and architectural carvings. Artifacts taken from the site and large
sections cast from the temple buildings were exhibited in Paris in 1867,
announcing a great and unknown civilization rivalling in sophistication the
work of the greatest architects in the West. In 1992, along with a sister temple
Angkor Thom, Angkor Wat was proclaimed a UN World Heritage Site.
For other examples of Asian art, see: Traditional Chinese Art. Also, please
see: India: Painting & Sculpture.

History
The city of Angkor (ancient name: Yasodharapura) was the royal capital from
which Khmer kings ruled one of the largest and most sophisticated kingdoms
in the history of Southeast Asia. From 890, when King Yasovarman I moved his
capital to Angkor, until about 1210, the kings of Angkor controlled an area that
extended from the southern tip of the Indochina peninsula northward to
Yunnan and from Vietnam westwards as far as the Bay of Bengal. During this
era, these kings implemented a series of massive construction projects
designed to glorify both themselves and their dynastic capital. After the death
of King Jayavarman VII (1181-1215), the Angkor Empire went into decline,
although as late as 1280 Angkor was still a thriving metropolis and one of the
most magnificent cities in Asia. However, the great construction boom was
over, Angkor Wat had been turned into a Buddhist shrine, and Thai armies
were watching. In 1431 they sacked the city which was then abandoned.

From the early 15th century to the late 19th century, interest in Angkor was
limited almost entirely to the Angkor Wat temple complex which, having been
maintained by Buddhist monks, became one of the most significant pilgrimage
sites in Southeast Asia. In time, the complex fell into disrepair and all that
remained were jungle-covered ruins of the ancient temples and the remnants of
the once-magnificent series of waterways, although it was never completely
abandoned and its moat helped to preserve it against total engulfment. After
the French took over Cambodia in 1863, they instigated a thorough program of
reconstruction, under which Angkor Wat's buildings, reservoirs, and canals
were restored to something approaching their original grandeur. The political
and military upheavals which took place in Cambodia during the period 1935-
1990 put an end to this program, but otherwise caused no great headaches.
The site's only serious problem remained the encroachment of the jungle.

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Architecture and Construction
The Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone, each of
which has an average weight of 1.5 tons. The city of Angkor required more
stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and originally occupied an
area considerably greater than modern-day Paris. Given the additional
complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear that Angkor was designed
and managed by some of the finest architects in southeast Asia.

The temple was designed and built on the basis of religious and political ideas
imported from India, albeit adapted to local conditions. From the time of King
Yasovarman I, for whom the city (originally called Yasodharapura) was named,
Angkor was designed as a symbolic universe modelled on traditional Indian
cosmology, and its temples were built in order to provide a means whereby
Khmer kings could be assured of immortality by becoming closely identified
with Shaiva or one of the other important deities of the realm. Angkor Wat, for
instance, was built by King Suryavarman II as a huge funerary temple and
tomb to serve as a home for his earthly remains and to confirm his immortal
and eternal identitification with Vishnu.

Angkor Wat defines what has come to be understood as the classical style
of Angkorian architecture: other temples designed in this idiom include
Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern
Thailand. It combines two basic features of Khmer temple architecture: the
temple-mountain and the galleried temple, founded on early Dravidian
architecture, with key features including the "Jagati" - a raised platform or
terrace upon which many buddhist and hindu temples were built. In addition
to Angkor Wat, another famous shrine with a jagati is the Kandariya Mahadeva
Temple, at Khajuraho.

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Built on rising ground and surrounded by an artificial moat, the temple of
Angkor Wat is laid out symmetrically on tiered platforms that ascend to the
central tower (one of a quincunx), which rises to a height of 213 feet (65
metres). Long colonnades connect the towers at each stepped level in
concentric rings of rectangular galleries, whose walls are lined
with sculpture and relief carvings. The temple is approached across the moat,

123
via a stone causeway lined with stone figures. The ascending towers represent
the spiritual world and mountain homes of the gods and were probably built in
homage to ancestral deities. The temple's structures are chiefly built in stone
with detailed bas-reliefs carved into the walls; the corbelled blockwork and
pseudo-vaulted towers are covered with highly animated figures chiseled into
the sandstone and volcanic rock.

Sculpture
The Angkor Wat temple is world famous for its stone sculpture which can be
seen on almost all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs. There are literally
miles of reliefs, typically in the form of bas-relief friezes illustrating scenes from
Indian mythology, and featuring a bewildering array of animal and human
figures, as well as abstract motifs like lotus rosettes and garlands. They
include: devatas (Hindu gods or spirits), griffins, unicorns, lions, garudas,
snakes, winged dragons, dancing girls and warriors. Khmer sculptors - surely
some of the greatest sculptors in southeast Asia - paid meticulous attention to
the headdresses, hair, garments, posture and jewellery of the deities and
human figures. In addition to reliefs, Angkor Wat contains numerous statues of
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Carved pediments and lintels decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the
shrines. While the inner walls of the outer gallery, for example, are decorated
with a series of large-scale scenes depicting episodes from Hindu sagas like the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata. On the southern gallery walls there is a
representation of the 37 heavens and 32 hells of Hindu mythology, while the
eastern gallery houses one of the most celebrated friezes, the Churning of the
Sea of Milk, featuring Vishnu showing 88 devas and 92 asuras.

The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of

Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals,
according to new research.

The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some
weighing up to 3,300 pounds (1,500 kilograms), made it to the temple from
quarries at the base of a nearby mountain. The researchers found many

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quarries of sandstone blocks used for the Angkor temples and also the
transportation route of the sandstone blocks. Archaeologist knew that the rock
came from quarries at the base of a mountain nearby, but wondered how the
sandstone bricks used to build Angkor Wat reached the site. Previously people
thought the stones were ferried to Tonle Sap Lake via canal, and then rowed
against the current through another river to the temples.

To see whether this was the case the area was surveyed to find 50 quarries
along an embankment at the base of Mt. Kulen. They also scoured satellite
images of the area and found a network of hundreds of canals and roads
linking the quarries to the temple site. The distance between the quarries and
the site along the route Uchida's team found was only 22 miles (37 kilometers),
compared with the 54 miles (90 km) the river route would have taken.
The grid of canals suggests the ancient builders took a shortcut when
constructing the temple, which may explain how the imposing complex was
built in just a few decades.

 Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk, also known as

Isanapura, was the capital of the Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor Prei
Kuk were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals that include a
bulb.
 Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of sculpture
but examples are scarce. Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles.
Buildings were more heavily decorated but had general decline in
standards.
 Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings on
colonettes which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being
continued.
Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural
styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named
for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style.

 Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a

period of innovation and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower is
mainly square and relatively high as well as brick with laterite walls and
stone door surrounds but square and octagonal colonettes begin to appear.
 Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of
the Khmer empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area
now called Roluos some fifteen kilometers southeast of the modern city
of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko; the
others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the Preah Ko style are known

125
 for their small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy of their
lintels.
 Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain
constructed in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the
state temple of King Yasovarman, who built his capital of Yasodharapura
around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one of the most
endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for tourists
eager to witness a glorious sundown at Angkor.
 Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV, capital
of Khmer empire was removed from Angkor region through the north which
is called Koh Ker. The architectural style of temples in Koh Ker, scale of
buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still main material but sandstone
also used.
 Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian
Khmer built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their
common style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
 Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian
temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its
small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including
several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian
mythology.
 Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries.
Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A
few temples that were built in this style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
 Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most impressed
the Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward the end of
the 13th century. Its unique relief carvings have a naive dynamic quality
that contrast with the rigidity of the figures typical of some other periods. As
of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot currently be appreciated
in its full magnificence.
 Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and
perhaps the mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the
Angkorian temples and defines what has come to be known as the classical
style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay
Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in
modern Thailand.
 Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century,
King Jayavarman VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an
invasionary force from Champa. Thereafter, he began a massive program of
monumental construction, paradigmatic for which was the state temple
called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in the style of
the Bayon, and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom,
and Banteay Chmar. Though grandiose in plan and elaborately decorated,

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 the temples exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts with the
perfection of Angkor Wat.
 Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic
construction under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the
period of its decline. The 13th century Terrace of the Leper King is known
for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings, dancers, and nāgas.

Construction techniques

Corridor

The monument was made out of five to ten million sandstone blocks with a
maximum weight of 1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far greater
amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an
area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Moreover, unlike the
Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely 0.5 km (1⁄4 mi) away all
the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried 40 km
(25 mi) (or more) away. This sandstone had to be transported from Mount
Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast.
The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres (22 mi) along a canal
towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometres (22 mi) crossing the lake, and
finally 15 kilometres (9 mi) against the current along Siem Reap River, making
a total journey of 90 kilometres (55 mi). However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita
Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have discovered in 2011 a
shorter 35-kilometre (22 mi) canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat
using satellite imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead.
Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels, and even roofs are carved. There
are kilometres of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including
unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors following
an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with elaborate

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hairstyles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost
1,000 m  (11,000 sq ft) of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls
2

indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were
highly prized in ancient times and were a prime target for robbers.
While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor, recreated
a stone sculpture under 1.2 metres (4 ft), this took about 60 days to
carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry
limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone.
The labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone
must have run into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The
skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years
earlier, as demonstrated by some artefacts that have been dated to the seventh
century, before the Khmer came to power
Materials; Angkorian builders used brick, sandstone, laterite and wood as
their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite, the
wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive processes.
Brick
The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are
the temple towers of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations
were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the
brick itself. This because bricks being softer material do not lend itself to
sculpting as opposed to stones of different kinds such as the Sandstones or the
Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in the
Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while building blocks
are assembled one over the other to create the Temples, as such bricks have
been used only in relatively smaller temples such as Lolei and The Preah Ko.
Besides, strength of bricks is much lesser as compared to the stones
(mentioned here-in) and the former degrade with age.
Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick
temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins
are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam. A Cham story tells of the time that the two countries
settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest proposed by the
Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po
Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and
wood. In the end, the Cham replica was more impressive than the real brick
tower of the Khmer, and the Cham won the contest
Sandstone
The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from
the Kulen mountains. Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive
than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was
used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-century temple

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of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less entirely
from Sandstone
Laterite
Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the
ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other
hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was not
suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite was
more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself. [10] Because
the water table in this entire region is well high, Laterite has been used in the
underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other temples (especially the larger ones),
because it can absorb water and help towards better stability of the Temple.

1. Preah Ko, completed in 879 CE, was a temple made mainly of brick
2. Ta Keo, a temple built in the 10th century, was constructed more or less
entirely from sandstone
3. Prasat Prang Ku in Sisaket, Thailand, was built with laterite STRUCTURES

Central sanctuary

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The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.

The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's

primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated:
typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or
a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented by a
statue (or in the case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the temple
was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but
rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to
hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across. Its
importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower (prasat) rising
above it, by its location at the centre of the temple, and by the greater
decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru,
the legendary home of the Hindu gods.
Prang
The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much
Khmer religious architecture. A prang (is a tall tower-like spire, usually richly
carved. They were a common shrine element
of Hindu and Buddhist architecture in the Khmer Empire. They were later
adapted by Buddhist builders in Thailand, especially during the Ayutthaya
Kingdom (1350–1767) and Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932). In Thailand it
appears only with the most important Buddhist temples.
The term prang is a compound of the Sanskrit terms pra- ('forward, in front')
and aṅga (limb of the body), with the contacting vowels united by sandhi.
Prang tower took form of a multi-tiered structure with receding size as it
ascends. The receding size of almost identical roof structures of the stepped
pyramidal tower, creates a perspective illusion as if the tower is taller than it
actually is. The form of the tower is a reminiscent of Indic shikhara of Hindu
temple, although slightly different in design. On each cardinal points,
a prang usually has richly adorned tympanum and lintel above doorways or
blind doors. The prang took plan of multi corners rectangular, which on top of
each roof steps are adorned with antefixes, which mostly took theme of multi-
headed Nāgas, Garuda or deities.

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Khmer temples

The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.RIGHT PIC Wat Arun Thornbury

Thailand PRANGS

Originally the Khmer prang temples were for the worship of the Hindu gods,
such as Shiva and Vishnu. The space within the prang tower, the cella, was
relatively small for two reasons:

1. The rituals which were held in them were reserved for a small elite (in the
capital of the Khmer only the god king could enter the shrine).
2. The technology of the Khmer could not yet make large airy halls. (Ringis,
1990)
The cella was entered via a small porch, usually aligned to the east, which was
called the Mandapa. Over the cubic cella rose the central tower, the bud-
shaped prang, modeled after the cosmic mountain Meru, crowned by a top
stone in form of a lotus bud.
The Khmer prangs resembled north Indian temples' shikhara and rekha
(temple towers) elements. The early 10th century and the late 12th century
prangs in Thailand were influenced by the Khmer architects of the great temple
complexes of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom.

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Thai temples

Wat Chaiwatthanaram, an example of Thai style prang

The first prangs in Thailand were built in Phimai and Khao Phnom

Rung and Lopburi between the early 10th century and the late 12th century,
when the Khmer kingdom was dominant.
After the Khmer Empire collapsed, the Thai building masters of the Sukhothai
Kingdom adapted the Prang form. They extended and developed it. The
building material was no more separate small sandstone blocks, instead the
Thais built the Prang in brick or laterite covered with stucco. And the cella
could be reached only by stairs. An example for this is the Prang of the Wat
Mahathat in Phitsanulok. Later developments of the Prang suggested the cella
only. The entrance door became a niche, in which was placed
the Buddharupa (Buddha statue), which had originally taken the central
position inside. For reasons of symmetry the niche was repeated on all four
sides. On its pinnacle was a Trishul, the "weapon of Indra".
A "more modern" Prang is a slim construction, like an ear of corn, which lets its
Khmer origin be only suspected. The best example is Wat Arun, the landmark
of Bangkok. Also Wat Phra Kaeo has six thin Prangs arranged in a row.
Another example is the four Prangs arranged in all four directions around Wat
Pho in Bangkok, and the five Prangs in Wat Pichayart in Thonburi.
Enclosure
Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the
central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain
ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures
are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the
temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre
outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently
lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located
at the cardinal points.

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Gallery
A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat.

A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the

axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the
gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways
which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple.
During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional
half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress the structure of the
temple.
Gopura

A gopura leads into the 12th-century temple compound at Ta Prohm./Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman VII toward the end
of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces of Avalokiteshvara.

A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure

walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of
an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway.
Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each
of the four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and
elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall.
If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is
sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have
a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often
decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or carved on
either side of the doorways.
Hall of Dancers
A Hall of Dancers is a structure of a type found in certain late 12th-century
temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah
Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar. It is a rectangular building
elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by

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galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the
stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved
designs of dancing apsaras; hence scholars have suggested that the hall itself
may have been used for dancing.
House of Fire
House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found
only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century
monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A
House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing
windows.
Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire"
for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining
the highways into Angkor. The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his
admiration for these rest houses when he visited Angkor in 1296 CE Another
theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository the
sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies.

Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West.

Library
Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of Khmer
temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they
functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of
manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on
either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west.
Srah and baray
Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation
and embankment, respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of these
reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two.
The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East
Baray located on either side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry.

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The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple standing at the center of the West
Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at the center of
the East Baray.
The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which
stands the 12th-century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have speculated that
the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its
miraculous healing powers.
Temple mountain

The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor.

The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian
period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation
of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hinduism. The style was influenced
by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented the mountain
chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The
temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the
gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple.
The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated
in 881 by King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped
pyramid, popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple
architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong and Borobudur in Java,
going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper
terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the prototype
of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission,
between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to
Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of
Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method.
Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker,
the Phimeanakas, and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor.
According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler,
whose essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the central
sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his
death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal
ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship."

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Bas-relief
Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into
stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a
background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-
relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some cases
almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian Khmer preferred to work in bas-
relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-relief.
Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history.
Until about the 11th century, the Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative
bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The most famous
early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th-century temple
of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as well as scenes from
the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls
with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery wall is
covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of
them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at
the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the
medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman
VII.

A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt to

extinguish the fire created by Agni./ RIGHT The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of this bas-
relief at Angkor Wat.

136
This blind door at Banteay Srei is flanked by colonettes. Above the door is a  lintel,
above which is a tympanum with a scene from the  Mahabharata.
Blind door and window Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction,
typically to the east. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain
symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls. RIGHT PIC This
scene from the outer gallery at the Bayon shows Chinese expats negotiating with Khmer
merchants at an Angkorean market.

The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous
Angkorian narrative bas-reliefs:

 bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century)

o the duel of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva, and the
intervention of the human hero Rama on behalf of the latter
o the duel of Bhima and Duryodhana at the Battle of Kurukshetra
o the Rakshasa king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, upon which
sit Shiva and his shakti
o Kama firing an arrow at Shiva as the latter sits on Mount Kailasa
o the burning of Khandava Forest by Agni and Indra's attempt to
extinguish the flames
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer gallery at Angkor Wat (mid-12th
century)
o the Battle of Lanka between the Rakshasas and the vanaras or
monkeys
o the court and procession of King Suryavarman II, the builder of
Angkor Wat
o the Battle of Kurukshetra between Pandavas and Kauravas
o the judgment of Yama and the tortures of Hell
o the Churning of the Ocean of Milk
o a battle between devas and asuras
o a battle between Vishnu and a force of asuras
o the conflict between Krishna and the asura Bana

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 o the story of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer and inner galleries at the Bayon (late
12th century)
o battles on land and sea between Khmer and Cham troops
o scenes from the everyday life of Angkor
o civil strife among the Khmer
o the legend of the Leper King
o the worship of Shiva
o groups of dancing apsaras
Colonette
Colonettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the
beams and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on the period, they
were round, rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonettes were often circled
with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves.

Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom./Corbelled hallway at Ta

Prohm.

Corbelling
Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms,
passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding
layers of stones to the walls on either side of an opening, with each successive
layer projecting further towards the centre than the one supporting it from
below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch is structurally
weaker than the true arch. The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian
engineers from constructing large openings or spaces in buildings roofed with
stone, and made such buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were
no longer maintained. These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings
constructed with stone walls surmounted by a light wooden roof. The problem
of preventing the collapse of corbelled structures at Angkor remains a serious
one for modern conservation.

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Lintel, pediment, and tympanum A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two
vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the
Angkorean Khmer lacked the ability to construct a true arch, they constructed
their passageways using lintels or corbelling. A pediment is a roughly
triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated surface of a
pediment.

Lintel and  pediment at  Banteay Srei; the motif on the

pediment is Shiva  Nataraja.

The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the

decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a result,
the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to
the dating of temples. Some scholars have
endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel
styles.[28] The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are thought to be those of
the Preah Ko style from the late 9th century.
Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the nāga and
the makara, as well as various forms of vegetation. [30] Also frequently depicted
are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions, with the
identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on the
direction faced by that element. Indra, the god of the sky, is associated with
East; Yama, the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna, the god of the
ocean, with West; and Kubera, god of wealth, with North.
List of Khmer lintel styles

 Sambor Prei Kuk style : Inward-facing makaras with tapering bodies.

Four arches joined by three medallions, the central once carved with Indra.
Small figure on each makara. A variation is with figures replacing the
makaras and a scene with figures below the arch.
 Prei Khmeng style : Continuation of Sambor Prei Kuk but makaras
disappear, being replaced by incurving ends and figures. Arches more
rectilinear. Large figures sometimes at each end. A variation is a central
scene below the arch, usually Vishnu Reclining.
 Kompong Preah style : High quality carving. Arches replaced by a
garland of vegetation (like a wreath) more or less segmented. Medallions
disappear, central one sometimes replaced by a knot of leaves. Leafy
pendants spray out above and below garland.
 Kulen style : Great diversity, with influences from Champa and Java,
including the kala and outward-facing makaras.
 Preah Ko style : Some of the most beautiful of all Khmer lintels, rich,
will-carved and imaginative. Kala in center, issuing garland on either side.

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 Distinct loops of vegetation curl down from garland. Outward-facing
makaras sometimes appear at the ends. Vishnu on Garuda common.

Rich-carved decoration of Preah Ko lintel.

 Bakheng style : Continuation of Preah Ko but less fanciful and tiny

figures disappear. Loop of vegetation below the naga form tight circular
coils. Garland begins to dip in the center.
 Koh Ker style : Center occupied by a prominent scene, taking up almost
the entire height of the lintel. Usually no lower border. Dress of figures
shows a curved line to the sampot tucked in below waist.
 Pre Rup style : Tendency to copy earlier style, especially Preah Ko and
Bakheng. Central figures. Re-appearance of lower border.
 Banteay Srei style : Increase in complexity and detail. Garland
sometimes makes pronounced loop on either side with kala at top of each
loop. Central figure.
 Khleang style : Less ornate than those of Banteay Srei. Central kala with
triangular tongue, its hands holding the garland which is bent at the center.
Kala sometimes surmounted by a divinity. Loops of garland on either side
divided by flora stalk and pendant. Vigorous treatment of vegetation.
 Baphuon style : The central kala surmounted by divinity, usually riding
a steed or a Vishnu scene, typically from the life of Krishna. Loops of
garland no longer cut. Another type is a scene with many figures and little
vegetation.
 Angkor Wat style : Centered, framed and linked by garlands. A second
type is a narrative scene filled with figures. When nagas appear, they curls
are tight and prominent. Dress mirrors that of devatas and apsaras in bas-
reliefs. No empty spaces.
 Bayon style : Most figures disappear, usually only a kala at the bottom of
the lintel surmounted by small figure. Mainly Buddhist motifs. In the
middle of the period the garland is cut into four parts, while later a series of
whorls of foliage replace the four divisions. [32]

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Stairs

The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat are daunting.

Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of

the riser exceeds that of the tread, producing an angle of ascent somewhere
between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity appear to be both
religious and monumental. From the religious perspective, a steep stairway can
be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven," the realm of the gods. "From the
monumental point of view," according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize, "the
advantage is clear – the square of the base not having to spread in surface
area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust."
MOTIFS
Apsara and devata

Two apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th-century Buddhist temple

the Bayon.///Apsaras (left) and a devata (right) grace the walls at Banteay Kdei.

Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian
mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of
Milk, or samudra manthan, found in the Vishnu Purana. Other stories in the
Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras, who were often used by
the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons, heroes and

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ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and
pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was
a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term
"apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor
female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing rather
than dancing are more commonly called "devatas".
Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are most common in the
foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are
found, for example, in the Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan, in the pillars that
line the passageways through the outer gallery of the Bayon, and in the famous
bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The
largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat, where they
appear individually and in groups.

This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei.

Dvarapala
Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with
lances and clubs. They are presented either as a stone statues or as relief
carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to
entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas
may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko, Lolei, Banteay Srei, Preah
Khan and Banteay Kdei
Gajasimha and Reachisey
The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an
elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a mount
for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and at the
temples belonging to the Roluos group.

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The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the
head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It
occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery.
Garuda

In this 9th century lintel now on display at the Musée Guimet, Garuda bears Vishnu on his
shoulders.

Garuda is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds,
the mythological enemy of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu. Depictions of
Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though Indian in inspiration
exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer.[37] They may be classified as follows:

 As part of a narrative bas relief, Garuda is shown as the battle steed

of Vishnu or Krishna, bearing the god on his shoulders, and simultaneously
fighting against the god's enemies. Numerous such images of Garuda may
be observed in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat.
 Garuda serves as an atlas supporting a superstructure, as in the bas
relief at Angkor Wat that depicts heaven and hell. Garudas and stylized
mythological lions are the most common atlas figures at Angkor.
 Garuda is depicted in the pose of a victor, often dominating a nāga, as in
the gigantic relief sculptures on the outer wall of Preah Khan. In this
context, Garuda symbolizes the military power of the Khmer kings and their
victories over their enemies. Not coincidentally, the city of Preah Khan was
built on the site of King Jayavarman VII's victory over invaders
from Champa.
 In free-standing nāga sculptures, such as in nāga bridges and
balustrades, Garuda is often depicted in relief against the fan of nāga
heads. The relationship between Garuda and the nāga heads is ambiguous
in these sculptures: it may be one of cooperation, or it may again be one of
domination of the nāga by Garuda.[

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 THE MANY GODS of ANGKOR
Indra
In the ancient religion of the Vedas, Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In the
medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and served
only as a decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated with the East;
since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is sometimes
encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction. Typically, he is
mounted on the three-headed elephant Airavata and holds his trusty weapon,
the thunderbolt or vajra. The numerous adventures of Indra documented in
Hindu epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor.
Kala

A kala serves as the base for a deity at the 10th-century Hindu temple Banteay Srei.

The kala is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and
associated with the destructive side of the god Siva.[38] In Khmer temple
architecture, the kala serves as a common decorative element on lintels,
tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with a large
upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some kalas
are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the base for other
figures.
Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in
Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls
of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a kind of protective
magic or apotropaism. Such skulls tended to lose their lower jaws when the
ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of Angkor may

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represent the Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of
elements derived from long forgotten primitive antecedents.
Krishna
Scenes from the life of Krishna, a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu, are
common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and unknown in
Angkorian sculpture in the round. The literary sources for these scenes are
the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Bhagavata Purana. The following are
some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna:

 A series of bas reliefs at the 11th-century temple pyramid

called Baphuon depicts scenes of the birth and childhood of Krishna. [41]
 Numerous bas reliefs in various temples show Krishna subduing
the nāga Kaliya. In Angkorian depictions, Krishna is shown effortlessly
stepping on and pushing down his opponent's multiple heads.
 Also common is the depiction of Krishna as he lifts
Mount Govardhana with one hand in order to provide the cowherds with
shelter from the deluge caused by Indra.
 Krishna is frequently depicted killing or subduing various demons,
including his evil uncle Kamsa. An extensive bas relief in the outer gallery
of Angkor Wat depicts Krishna's battle with the asura Bana. In battle,
Krishna is shown riding on the shoulders of Garuda, the traditional mount
of Vishnu.
 In some scenes, Krishna is depicted in his role as charioteer, advisor and
protector of Arjuna, the hero of the Mahabharata. A well-known bas relief
from the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei depicts the Krishna and
Arjuna helping Agni to burn down Khandava forest.
As described in the Bhagavata Purana, the
youthful Krishna miraculously raises Mount
Govardhan, near Mathura in northern India, to
protect the villagers and cowherds from a great
rainstorm sent by Indra. The sculptor of this
image, active in the Phnom Da workshops,
clearly understood the essence of his subject. It
is evident that this sculpture evolved from a long-
standing local tradition, which, by the seventh
century, had surpassed any Indian prototypes
that were remembered.

A twelfth-century Phnom Da inscription credits a

group of seven cult images to the patronage of
an early Funan ruler and lists a Krishna
Govardhana in the group. This sculpture is likely
one of those works.METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
ART

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Linga

The corner of a lintel on one of the brick towers at Bakong shows a man riding on the back of
a makara that in turn disgorges another monster./// This segmented linga from 10th century Angkor
has a square base, an octagonal middle, and a round tip.

The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative

power. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of
worship and ritual, and only secondarily that of decoration. In the Khmer
empire, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself, and were
housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with
Siva. The lingas that survive from the Angkorean period are generally made of
polished stone.
The lingas of the Angkorian period are of several different types.

 Some lingas are implanted in a flat square base called a yoni, symbolic of
the womb.
 On the surface of some lingas is engraved the face of Siva. Such lingas
are called mukhalingas.
 Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic
of Brahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a round
tip symbolic of Shiva.
Makara
A makara is a mythical sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk of an
elephant, and a head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a crocodile,
or a dragon. In Khmer temple architecture, the motif of the makara is generally
part of a decorative carving on a lintel, tympanum, or wall. Often the makara is

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depicted with some other creature, such as a lion or serpent, emerging from its
gaping maw. The makara is a central motif in the design of the famously
beautiful lintels of the Roluos group of temples: Preah Ko, Bakong, and Lolei.
At Banteay Srei, carvings of makaras disgorging other monsters may be
observed on many of the corners of the buildings.
Nāga

Mucalinda, the nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite motif for
Cambodian Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated between 1150 and 1175
CE/ RIGHT This multi-headed nāga is part of a decorative lintel from the end of the 9th century.

Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer

architecture as well as in free-standing sculpture. They are frequently depicted
as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in a fan. Each
head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra.

Nāgas are frequently depicted in Angkorian lintels. The composition of such

lintels characteristically consists in a dominant image at the center of a
rectangle, from which issue swirling elements that reach to the far ends of the
rectangle. These swirling elements may take shape as either vinelike vegetation
or as the bodies of nāgas. Some such nāgas are depicted wearing crowns, and
others are depicted serving as mounts for human riders.
To the Angkorian Khmer, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the
myths of origin for the Khmer people, who were said to be descended from the
union of an Indian Brahman and a serpent princess from Cambodia. [47] Nāgas
were also characters in other well-known legends and stories depicted in
Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of Milk, the legend of the Leper

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King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the Bayon, and the story of Mucalinda,
the serpent king who protected the Buddha from the elements. [48]
Nāga Bridge

Stone Asuras hold the nāga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th century

city of Angkor Thom.

Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by stone balustrades shaped

as nāgas.
In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the entrances
to 12th century city of Angkor Thom, the nāga-shaped balustrades are
supported not by simple posts but by stone statues of gigantic warriors. These
giants are the devas and asuras who used the nāga king Vasuki in order to the
churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of the amrita or elixir of immortality. The
story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk or samudra manthan has its source
in Indian mythology.
Quincunx

A linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a yoni, is carved into the riverbed
at Kbal Spean.

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A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements
placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five
peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and Khmer
temples were arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic identification
with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th-century temple
known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx.
The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in
the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean.
Shiva
Most temples at Angkor are dedicated to Shiva. In general, the Angkorian
Khmer represented and worshipped Shiva in the form of a lingam, though they
also fashioned anthropomorphic statues of the god. Anthropomorphic
representations are also found in Angkorian bas reliefs. A famous tympanum
from Banteay Srei depicts Shiva sitting on Mount Kailasa with his consort,
while the demon king Ravana shakes the mountain from below. At Angkor
Wat and Bayon, Shiva is depicted as a bearded ascetic. His attributes include
the mystical eye in the middle of his forehead, the trident, and the rosary.
His vahana or mount is the bull Nandi.

The Australian archaeologist Damian Evans has discovered undocumented

ancient cities between 900 and 1,400 years ago buried in the Cambodian
jungle surrounding Angkor Wat, the largest religious monument in the world.
Some cities can reach the size of Cambodia's capital, Phnom Penh (about 678.5
square kilometers). The new finding may rewrite the history of Southeast Asia.

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Angkor Wat, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Cambodia

The existence of Mahendraparvata (the 1,200-year-old lost medieval city in

Cambodia) was confirmed in 2012. In 2015, Damian Evans and his colleagues
utilized the advanced light-scanning equipment lidar to scan more than 735
square miles of the Angkor region. Recently, the entire ancient cities beneath
the jungle have been found by analyzing data captured in 2015. These cities
seemed to have constituted the Khmer Empire, the largest empire on earth in
the 12th century.

The new discovery can deepen our understanding of Khmer culture and cast
into doubt the traditional assumptions about the empire. In addition, the
survey detected elaborate water systems were constructed hundreds of years
earlier than historians previously believed. It appears that these ancient cities
will become the new secrets attracting tourists to visit and explore soon.

Although it remains unknown when the newly discovered ancient cities will be
opened to visitors, the Angkor Wat has already been extremely popular with
world travelers. The magnificent temple was built by King Suryavarman II and
considered among the most significant attractions in Southeast Asia widely. It
consists of three rectangular galleries surrounding a central tower, each level
higher than the last. Small apsara images are used as decorative motifs on
pillars and walls and larger devata images are employed in the entry pavilion of
the temple to the tops of the high towers.

150
 Devatas,
characteristic of the Angkor Wat style

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New, digitally enhanced images reveal detailed murals at Angkor Wat showing

elephants, deities, boats, orchestral ensembles and people riding horses — all
invisible to the naked eye. Many of the faded markings could be graffiti left
behind by pilgrims after Angkor Wat was abandoned in the 15th century. But
the more elaborate paintings may be relics of the earliest attempts to restore
the temple.

Painting discovery: Subtle traces of paint caught the eye of Noel Hidalgo Tan,
a rock-art researcher at Australian National University in Canberra, while he
was working on an excavation at Angkor Wat in 2010. While spotting traces of
red pigment all over the walls when one rfesearcher was taking a stroll through
the temple on his lunch break one day.he took a few pictures and planned to
digitally enhance them later. The digitally enhanced pictures revealed paintings
of elephants, lions, the Hindu monkey god Hanuman, boats and buildings —
perhaps even images of Angkor Wat itself. Tan went back to the site to conduct
a more methodical survey in 2012 with his Cambodian colleagues from
APSARA (which stands for the Authority for the Protection and Management of
Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap).

Invisible images- Some of the most detailed paintings, the ones located at the top of
the temple, are passed by literally thousands of visitors every day, but the most
elaborate scenes are effectively invisible to the naked eye. To make these paintings
visible, a technique called decorrelation stretch analysis, was used, which exaggerates

151
subtle color differences. This method has become a valuable tool in rock-art research, as
it can help distinguish faint images from the underlying rock. It has even been used to
enhance images taken of the Martian surface by NASA's Opportunity rover.

One chamber in the highest tier of Angkor Wat's central tower, known as the Bakan,
contains an elaborate scene of a traditional Khmer musical ensemble known as the
pinpeat, which is made up of different gongs, xylophones, wind instruments and other
percussion instruments. In the same chamber, there's an intricate scene featuring
people riding horses between two structures, which might be temples
Secret Paintings

Digitally enhanced images revealed hidden paintings on the walls of

Cambodia's Angkor Wat, one of the largest religious monuments in the world,
built between A.D. 1113 and 1150. The paintings, once invisible to the naked
eye, show elephants, deities, boats, orchestral ensembles and people riding
horses, according to a new research article detailed online in May 2014 in the
journal Antiquity.
Angkor Wat-Aerial view of Angkor Wat, showing the moat and causeway and
the central tower surrounded by four smaller towers

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 CHAPTER VII
The mini Angkor Wat  While Angkor Wat is Cambodia's biggest

The 11th century temple was built by King Udayadityavarman II son of the

king Suryavarman I  and despite some looting it is in a considerably better
state of repair than Wat Ek Phnom. It was built to give thanks, ask for help,
and pray to God. In this era, they have a strong belief in the god. Especially in
Hindu.

Wat Banan (Khmer: ភ្នបាំ ណន់) is the best-preserved of the Khmer temples

in Battambang Province. The distinctive five towers of the temple are similar to
the much larger and more famous temple of Angkor Wat. At the base of the
mountain, is a step laterite staircase flanked by nagas.
Adapts the architecture of mid 11th century and the end of 12th century the
temple was first built by king, Ut Tak Yea Tit Tya Varman II (1050-1066) and
then was finally built by the king, Jarvarman VII (1181-1219). The temple is
located on the top of approximate 400-meter heighten mountain at Kon Tey 2
commune, Ba Nan District in 25-kilometer distance from the provincial town
by the provincial Road No 155 parallel to Sang Ke River. At the mountain's
valley, there are Ku Teuk and two main natural wells, namely: Bit Meas and
Chhung or Chhung Achey.

This Angkor-era mountaintop temple is definitely worth a look. At the top are
beautiful views of the winding Sangker River set amidst sugar palm trees, rice
fields and small villages. To the south you will see a mountain range that
features a crocodile shaped mountain. The temple itself is beautiful looking
from the ground as well as the top. The structures are pretty much intact, but
unfortunately like so many Khmer ruins, they have fallen victim to massive
looting. Still, there are some interesting works to see. There are five temple
structures, like Angkor, with the middle being the largest. (Use caution around
the entrance to the center structure-there is a large hanging block-a headache-
in-waiting for some poor soul).

As with Preah Vihear Temple (close to the Thai border in the province of the
same name), there are a couple of big guns on the mountaintop next to the
ruins. The guns are still pointing down at the surrounding area as they were
during the more recent years of the government-Khmer Rouge skirmishes.It's
part of the sad irony of Cambodia that a place built for worship, harmony and
tranquility was utilized as a place for making war. Looking down the hillside to
the southwest you can see more of the ruins. As always, if you go looking

153
around, STAY ON THE WORN PATHWAYS AND TRAILS- there may still be
undiscovered landmines.

Phnom Banan

at Banan Temple Cambodia

From outside, the temple looks like be left fallow through many years but in
fact, it is used to worship the Gods, the Buddha by native people. Following the
path to the top of a mountain, Wat Banan Temple will appear in front of you
with an amazing scenery surrounding.

154
Some people told that it have been not clear about who constructed this temple
and when it was constructed. On the other hand, some believe that the time
was around mid 11th century to the end of 12th century and went through two
reigns of King Ut Tak Yea Tit Tya Varman II (1050 - 1066) and completed by
King Jarvarman VII (1181 - 1219).

 
Wat Banan Temple

155
To get to the Wat Banan, you have to climb approximately 400 meters heighten
mountain with around 300 stairs but the overview is worth for that. There are
stunning 360 degree panoramic views from the top, visitors can see the
immense Sang Ke River, thousand sugar palm trees below with rice fields and
small villages. But the worthest is still the amazing old Wat Banan of Angkore-
era, the whole temples are still keep its origin architecture but like the other
ruins in Cambodia, they have been also struggled with extreme looting. There
are five temple structres, like Angkor Wat with the middle being the largest.
These majestic towers with the carvings of the now-headless apsaras on it are
the best points in your journey. Otherwise, close to Wat Banan is the Prassat
Banan vineyard, the only vineyard in Cambodia, bringing visitors an experience
combined visiting the temple to outside activities such as dropping grapes and
making vine.

Stairs in Wat Banan Temple

Located at about 45 minutes from the famous Phnom Sampeau, the temple is
at Kon Tey 2 commune, Ba Nan district in 25 km far from the centre of town
and go along the provincial Road No 155 parallel to Sang Ke River.

156
Stela erected by Udayadityavarman II to mark tax-exempted regions in
the Mekong Delta. Found in My Qui, Long An province, Vietnam.

Suryavarman I  posthumously Nirvanapada) was king of the Khmer

Empire from 1006 to 1050.  Suryavarman usurped King Udayadityavarman I,
defeating his armies in approximately 1002. After a protracted war with
Udayadityavarman's would-be successor, Jayavirahvarman,[2] Suryavarman I
claimed the throne in 1010. Suryavarman was a Mahayana Buddhist  who was
also tolerant of the growing Theravada Buddhist presence in the Khmer
kingdom.

Suryavarman I established diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of

south India (Tamilnadu) around 1012. Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a
present to the Chola Emperor Rajaraja Chola I. It seems that the Khmer king
Suryavarman I requested aid from the powerful Chola Emperor Rajendra
Chola against the Tambralinga kingdom. After learning of Suryavarman's
alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the
Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. This eventually led to the Chola
Empire coming into conflict with the Srivijiya Empire. The war ended with a
victory for the Chola dynasty and Angkor Wat of the Khmer Empire, and major
losses for the Sri Vijaya Empire and the Tambralinga kingdom.

His reign lasted some 40 years and he spent much of that time defending it.
Known as the "King of the Just Laws," he consolidated his political power by
inviting some four thousand local officials to the royal palace and swear an
oath of allegiance to him. Suryavarman I favored Buddhism but he allowed the
people to continue practising Hinduism. His palace was situated in the vicinity

157
of Angkor Thom, and he was the first of the Khmers rulers to protect his palace
with a wall.
In the inscription at Tuol Ta Pec, Suryavarman is said to have known of the
principles of the six Vedangas.
Suryavarman I expanded his territory to the west to Lopburi, including
the Menam basin in Thailand, and east into the Mekong basin. 
Suryavarman probably started construction at Preah Khan Kompong Svay, and
expanded Banteay Srei, Wat Ek Phnom, and Phnom Chisor. The major
constructions built by this king were the Prasat Preah Vihear, on Dangrek
Mountain, and completion of the Phimeanakas and Ta Keo. Suryavarman I also
started the second Angkor reservoir, the West Baray, which is 8 km long and
2.1 km wide.   It held more than 123 million liters of water. This is the largest
Khmer reservoir that survives. There is some indication that Suryavarman I
sent a gift to Rajendra Chola I the Emperor of the Chola Empire to possibly
facilitate trade.
During his reign, 47 cities (known as 47 pura) were under the control of Khmer
Empire.

Suryavarman I died in 1050 and was given the posthumous

title Nirvanapada ("the king who has gone to nirvana"), a nod to his Buddhist
beliefs. He was succeeded by his sons, Udayadityavarman II, who died around
1066 and Harshavarman III (Sadasivapada). The latter continued the struggle
against internal rebellions and fought back assaults from the Chams until his
death in 1080.

Udayadityavarman I) ruled the Angkor Kingdom from 1050 to 1066 A.D. He

was the successor of Suryavarman I not his son; he descended
from Yasovarman I's spouse. He built the Baphuon Temple to honor the
god Shiva, but some of the sculptures are dedicated to Buddha. He also
completed the construction of the West Baray reservoir and built the West
Mebon, a raised-earth island in the center.
During his reign, several attempted rebellions, in 1051 and 1065, were crushed
by his general Sangrama.

The Sdok Kak Thom temple, located near the present day Thai town
of Aranyaprathet, was also constructed during his reign. The temple is perhaps
most famous as the discovery site of a detailed inscription recounting the
sequence of previous Khmer kings. The inscription stele is now part of the
collection of the national museum in Bangkok.
He was succeeded by his younger brother Harshavarman III.

158
159
 CHAPTER VIII
The Mysteries of the Khmer Moat in architectural design

One thousand years ago the Khmer empire was one of the widest in the
world, occupying what today goes from Burma to Thailand and also part of
Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. It lasted for 600 years and Prasat hin
Phimai was one of the main sites on which the Khmer empire was based on,
prior to the erection of the Angkor city.

Water, with its life-giving and purifying qualities, is central to Khmer

cosmology and all varieties of Hindu religion. A moat is a deep, broad ditch,
either dry or filled with water, that is dug and surrounds a castle, fortification,
building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In
some places moats evolved into more extensive water defences, including
natural or artificial lakes, dams and sluices. In older fortifications, such
as hillforts, they are usually referred to simply as ditches, although the
function is similar. In later periods, moats or water defences may be largely
ornamental. They could also act as a sewer. Some of the earliest evidence of
moats has been uncovered around ancient Egyptian castles. One example is
at Buhen, a castle excavated in Nubia. Other evidence of ancient moats is
found in the ruins of Babylon, and in reliefs from ancient Egypt, Assyria, and
other cultures in the region.
Evidence of early moats around settlements has been discovered in many
archaeological sites throughout Southeast Asia, including Noen U-Loke, Ban
Non Khrua Chut, Ban Makham Thae and Ban Non Wat. The use of the moats
could have been either for defensive or agriculture purposes.1

160
Franck Monnier, Les forteresses égyptiennes. Du Prédynastique au Nouvel Empire, collection Connaissance
de l'Égypte ancienne , Safran (éditions), Bruxelles, 2010, 978-2-87457-033-
9, http://www.safran.be/proddetail.php?prod=CEA11

1. WHAT DOES THE MOAT SURROUNDING THE HINDU TEMPLE ANGKOR WAT
REPRESENT?,edwardlordera,www.yumpu.com

HINDU.COSMOLOGY: According to Stuart-Fox, Martin ,

and Paul Reeve,“Symbolism in City Planning in Cambodia from Angkor to Phnom
Penh.” (Journal of the Siam Society 99: 105–38. . 2011) Khmer Kings never decided
arbitrarily or at their whim the location of cities, their orientation and their
layout. The plan of the ideal Khmer city was inspired by the model of the
Khmer temples, which were based on Hindu cosmology. It should have a
perfect quadrangular shape, walls with four gates in the middle of each side
and an organised internal layout resembling a mandala, with the city temple in
the centre and its main sanctuary inside it, with a tower shape which
represents the mythological Mount Meru, the sacred axis mundi, separated by
successive concentric walls.

At the same time, this concrete representation of cosmology in city planning

was based on the religious and political idea of the “god-king” (devaraja), which
considers monarchs as incarnations on the Earth (avatars) of Shiva, Vishnu or
Buddha.’ ( “Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast
Asia.” Chihara, Daigoro . 1996. Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology 19. Leiden: Brill.)

Cosmos: At a paper presented at Vaastu Kaushal: International Symposium on

Science and Technology in Ancient Indian Monuments, New Delhi, November
16-17, 2002. Subhash Kak presenting the paper- Space and Cosmology in the
Hindu Temple pointed out that according to the Sthapatya Veda (the Indian
tradition of architecture), the temple and the town should mirror the cosmos.
The temple architecture and the city plan are, therefore, related in their
conception.
“ Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. The descriptions of the
temple fall far short of communicating the great size, the perfect proportions,
and the astoundingly beautiful sculpture that everywhere presents itself to the
viewer. Its architecture is majestic and its representation of form and
movement from Indian mythology has astonishing grace and power.”
The moats surrounding the temples of Angkor were envisioned as earthly
models of the ocean that surrounds the world. Resembling Universe:
Khmer temples in general, as well as one of the earlier khmer architectural
examples in Thailand - Phimai were intended to resemble the universe. The
main building would be considered in design to look like what is the artist’s
conception of resembling the peak of Mount Meru at the center of the

161
universe. The surrounding walls resemble the water and encircling mountains.
The Khmer did not develop the technique of true vault architecture during their
time, they instead developed the use of multiple chapels separated by open-air
spaces.
The site
The appropriate site for a Mandir, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water
and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other
birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm. These
harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that
such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.
While major Hindu mandirs are recommended at sangams (confluence of
rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, the Brhat
Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a natural
source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built
preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is
neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the
consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also be built,
suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93,[30] inside caves and carved
stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking
beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head
of a town street.
Some sites such as the capitals of kingdoms and those considered particularly
favourable in terms of sacred geography had numerous temples. But in
practice most temples are built as part of a village or town. Many ancient
capitals vanished and the surviving temples are now found in a rural
landscape; often these are the best-preserved examples of older
styles. Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Gangaikonda.Cholapuram are
examples.

As the northeastern part of Thailand was part of the Khmer Empire (once
ruled by the Khmer), Phimai's architecture and cultural decorations were built
in Khmer architecture. Art and architecture shown on the temple itself shows
great evidence of the ancient Khmer civilization. Similar in its look and design
to Angkor, it also has the same function for worshiping the gods in the Hindu
religion.To understand this we need to look at tge earlier Khmer architecture at
Phimai.

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In the heart of Phimai, a small town in Thailand's northeastern Isan region,
one of the most remarkable Angkorean cultural heritages outside Angkor
itself is situated: Prasat Phimai. In 1936 it was set under protection by the
Thai government and became step by step restored from the 1950s on.
'Phimai Historical Park' was opened in 1989.

The main tower (prang) of the inner sanctuary of

Phimai.
Phimai town is a medieval Khmer foundation, became the first time
fortificated in the 11th century and advanced to a spiritual center of the
classical empire of Angkor. In the reign of king Jayavarman VII (1181-
1206/1220 CE) the city walls and gates so far they remain now were
constructed. The town's name is derivated fro 'Vimayapura' or 'Vimai'. The
contemporary official name of the site is 'Prasat Hin Phi Mai'.

Historical Phimai has a considerable size. The inner temple district is a

rectangular of 83m to 74m, the middle district measures 272m to 220m and
the surrounding town, which was formerly completely enclosed by the city

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wall, stretches over 665m to 1033m. Phimai must have been one of the most
important cities in the Angkorean empire.
The central temple complex is not exactly aligned onto the north-south axis,
but by 20 degree turned to southeast. It's probably done to give it the
direction facing to Angkor.
At the northern end of Phimai is a national museum placed, which displays
a number of the site's artefacts as lintels, Buddha images, nagas, pottery
and jewellery.
Prasat Phimai is considered to be the most important Khmer monument
in Thailand.
Map of Phimai

Phimai is a particularly inviting Thai town for it's marvellous combination of

a lively place in combination with a great historical site. Few tourists or
travellers take their time to study the place for a few days, although it offers
a friendly atmosphere in a spot where is much to do. Besides the main site
various Thai temples are to visit in Phimai, three markets offer opportunities
to buy food and other supplies, there is the Mun River to have walks along
it's banks and a 350 years old huge Banyan tree not far east of town. The
surrounding is coined by rice paddies showing traditional Thai life style and
there are other archeological sites not far around. Accommodation and
individual transport (bicycles and motorbikes) are easy to organize.

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History
Erection of the site started in the reign of king Suriyavarman I (1002-1049),
but most of the buildings were built between the late 11th and the late
12th century. They clearly represent Angkor Wat style, partially Bayon and
Baphuon style. There was an older sanctuary at the spot already; as a
Khmer place it's a century younger than the neighbouring site of  Phanom
Rung. 800 years ago this park used to be the start of the ancient Khmer
Highway which ended in Angkor Wat.

The king's 'dressing house', called 'Phlab Phla' in Khmer language

The central temple complex of Phimai

Although Hinduism was the main religion of Angkor at this time, also
Buddhism and Animism were practised in Wat Phimai. Though, Hinduism is
clearly the paradigmatic religion praised in Phimai's architecture. Having
much in common with Angkor Wat, it reflects the Hindu cosmos with the
sacred Mount Meru in the center. There is also a greater barray (artificial
Khmer pool) east of the place, traditionally symbolizing the sea. The Mun
River and two canals then complete the enclosement of the place by
waterways.

Though, Phimai paid tribute to the religion of Mahayana Buddhism. It's also
due to the influence of king Jayavarman VII, who was Angkor's first
Buddhist king (very much represented in Angkor Thom's Bayon monument),
that Phimai became a sanctuary focussed on the new state religion.
The building materials are the same as the Khmer always used, provided by
the surrounding quarrels in the region: different kinds of sandstone and
laterite, supplemented by the usage of bricks.
In two old stone inscriptions Phimai is mentioned in connection with king
Jayavarman VI and described at situated at an endpoint of a 225km road
which led (via Phanom Rung) to the empires capital Angkor and it's state
temple Angkor Wat. The route was used by travellers and pilgrims as well as

165
by military troops. It was equipped with seventeen resthouses, and some
hospitals. The remains of these resthouses and hospitals still mark a 150km
part of the old road. This imperial road to Angkor starts at the southern gate
of Phimai, which is therefore the main gate and still the main entrance for
the site nowadays.

Zhou Daguan (Chou Ta-Kuan), the Chinese envoy who spent a year in
Angkor in 1296/97, mentioned Phimai in his famous report.

In the second district of the site, facing the gallery with the main prang behind

Phimai had previously been an important town at the time of the Khmer

Empire. The temple Prasat Hin Phimai, located in the center of the town, was
one of the major Khmer temples in ancient Thailand, connected with Angkor by
an ancient Khmer Highway, and oriented to face Angkor as its cardinal
direction.

The temple marks one end of the Ancient Khmer Highway from Angkor. As the

enclosed area of 1020x580m is comparable with that of Angkor Wat, it is
suggested to have been an important city in the Khmer Empire. Most buildings
are from the late 11th to the late 12th century, built in
the Baphuon, Bayon and Khmer temple style. However, even though the
Khmer at that time were Hindu, the temple was built as
a Buddhist temple, since the inhabitants of the Khorat area had been
Buddhists as far back as the 7th century. Inscriptions name the
site Vimayapura (which means city of Vimaya), which developed into the Thai
name Phimai.

In the aftermath of the fall of the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1767, attempts were

made to set up five separate states, with Prince Teppipit, a son of
King Borommakot, attempting to establish Phimai as one, ruling over eastern
provinces including Nakhon Ratchasima. As the weakest of the five, Prince
Teppipit was the first to be defeated and was executed in 1768.

166
The first inventory of the ruins was done in 1901 by the French
geographer Etienne Aymonier.
Khmer architecture.

As the northeastern part of Thailand was part of the Khmer Empire (once ruled
by the Khmer), Phimai's architecture and cultural decorations were built
in Khmer architecture. Art and architecture shown on the temple itself shows
great evidence of the ancient Khmer civilization. Similar in its look and design
to Angkor, it also has the same function for worshiping the gods in the Hindu
religion.
Despite the fact that Phimai was built in a similar fashion to Angkor and other
Khmer Buddhist temples, the religious origin of some structures within
Phimai's walls are still debated. Evidence of Dvaravati influence, such as the
sculpture of "the Wheel of Law" or the statue of Buddha, shows that Phimai
was an important Buddhist spiritual location. Although a large quantity of
Buddhist artwork has been uncovered in Phimai, evidence including the large
pots that were embedded in some corners of the structure suggest that
spiritual practices other than Buddhism were also practiced in Phimai. Phimai
thus has been an important religious landmark for Animists, Buddhists, and
Hindus.
The earliest engraved records of the Khmer is dated from the 6th century AD in
the northeast of Thailand. For example, stone Sanskrit inscriptions were found
along with statues and engraved images of Hindu deities, such as the image of
Shiva's bull Nandin. The king during that time, Mahendravarman, ordered his
men to obliterate the engraved inscription. Modern scholars debate about the
possibility that evidence may have been lost.
Phimai, along with other Khmer temples in Thailand, were built mainly under
the cause of the "Deveraja cult," or "the King that resembles a god."
Jayavarman II was the most mentioned "devaraja." The Devaraja cult developed
the belief of worshiping Shiva and the principle that the king was an avatar of
Shiva. Under this principle, Khmer rulers built temples to glorify the reign of
the king along with the spread of Hinduism.
The 10th century was the time of the reign of king Rajendravarman II (944-968
AD), which was also a time when Khmer control was spreading into what is
now northeastern Thailand. Consequently, temples in Thailand with the Kleang
and Baphuon styles remain as evidence of this Khmer heritage. These
structures shared the same signature of having three brick towers on a single
platform, for instance the Prasat Prang Ku in Si Saket province and Ban
Phuluang in Surin province.
Each individual building has its own special features or functions. For
example, Prang Brahmadat was built of laterite blocks that form a square. Or
Prang Hin Daeng which translates to "Red Stone Tower" which is also a square

167
but was made of red sandstone. Or the main sanctuary built of white
sandstone that is almost 32 meters long. The southern lintel has a statue of
Buddha meditating with "seven hoods of naga Muchalinda." Adjacent to this is
a collection of statues of devils and animals depicted from the Tantric
Mahayana Buddhist scripture.

Today Phimai is a well-known tourist attraction, especially among people

interested in history and archaeology. Located in the middle of Phimai is a
small rectangular gallery surrounding the courtyard, which has been newly
rebuilt.
When tourists enter the area of Phimai from the old town on the south, they
have to cross a river about one kilometer to the south and enter an ancient
laterite landing stage which archaeologists believe stood for the bathing place
for the heroine in local myths. The north gate is the city main gate, also known
as the "Pratu Chai," which has recently been reconstructed by the Royal Fine
Arts Department. Its size is enormous; it is said that the size is big enough for
a royal elephant to enter. The Royal Fine Arts Department also built an inner
gallery which shows ancient Buddhist inscriptions and small sculptures as well
as pieces of wrecked architecture. The rest of Phimai remains the same only
with a little restoration by the Royal Arts Department.
Architecture Style
Within the gallery there is a pre-Angkorian Buddhist inscription that tells the
story of prince Siddhartha Gautama and his journey to becoming Buddha,
along with other classic Buddhist stories. The prang symbolize that the area is
a sacred space.
Angkor Wat and Phimai have several architectural similarities and are
examples of classical Khmer architecture. Ancient Khmer architects were best
known for their superior use of sandstone over the traditional bricks and
laterite architectures. Sandstone is used on the visible outer layer. Laterite on
the other hand was used for the inner wall and other hidden parts. All the
structures are huge sandstone blocks. There are many lotus-shaped roofs
representing Mount Meru (Hinduism's holy mountain).
Resembling Universe: Khmer temples in general, as well as Phimai in this
case, were intended to resemble the universe. The main building resembles the
peak of Mount Meru at the center of the universe. The surrounding walls
resemble the water and encircling mountains. The Khmer did not develop the
technique of true vault architecture during their time, results in large areas at
Phimai that could not be roofed over. They instead developed the use of
multiple chapels separated by open-air spaces.

168
Construction Materials
The Khmer learned how to use bricks, sandstone, and laterite effectively. They
were the three principal structural materials. Builders generally cut the lintel
at 45 degrees to produce a triangular wedge.In 1998, the Origins of Angkor
Project (OAP), a joint project of the Royal Thai Fine Arts Department,
Anthropology Department, and the University of Otago, New Zealand, began
excavations to investigate the underlying sequence. Temple construction
during the Angkorian period involved the deliberate deposition of layers of fill,
which can clearly be seen in the stratigraphy of the site. 
Angkor Wat itself is surrounded by a 650-foot-wide (200 m) moat that
encompasses a perimeter of more than 3 miles (5 km). This moat is 13 feet
deep (4 m) and would have helped stabilize the temple's foundation, preventing
groundwater from rising too high or falling too low. What was the main
function of the moat around Angkor Wat?

The moat served an important purpose from the architectural standpoint. It

helped to stabilize the massive Angkor Wat structures by keeping the
groundwater at a steady level, i.e., it acts as a reservoir that does not let the
groundwater go down too low or high.

What does the moat surrounding the Hindu temple Angkor Wat represent?
The moats surrounding the temples of Angkor were envisioned as earthly
models of the ocean that surrounds the world. .

LiDAR-image-of-formal-grid-system-across-Angkor-Wat-enclosure-top-merged-digital(Pic
Below)

169
170
Why is Angkor Wat surrounded by water?

Hindu Temple tanks are wells or reservoirs built as part of the temple
complex near Indian temples. They are called pushkarini, kalyani, kunda,
sarovara, tirtha, talab, pukhuri, ambalakkuḷam, etc. in different languages and
regions of India. Some tanks are said to cure various diseases and maladies
when bathed in. According to Hindu mythology, which the Khmer people
absorbed from Indian traders, the gods live on the five-peaked Mount Meru,
surrounded by an ocean. To replicate this geography, the Khmer king
Suryavarman II designed a five-towered temple surrounded by an enormous
moat. Angkor Wat, like many Hindu and Buddhist Southeast Asian temples,
was designed as a "mandala," a geometric design of a perfected world usually
with square nested walls and passages leading past deity images towards a
high central tower.

Water, with its life-giving and purifying qualities, is central to Khmer

cosmology and all varieties of Hindu religion. The moats surrounding the
temples of Angkor were envisioned as earthly models of the ocean that
surrounds the world. A Sanskrit inscription compares the moats and reservoirs
at Angkor with tributaries of the sacred Ganges River in India. Angkor was the
royal capital of the Khmer empire from 802-1431 A.D. Angkor's long-lasting
prosperity was based on the local abundance of three resources: water, fish,

171
and the rice crops grown on soil nourished by annual rains, rivers, and
controlled water reservoirs. The area's unique source of water is the "Great
Lake," Tonlé Sap, which connects to the Mekong River and multiplies in size
after the annual monsoon rains.

These natural resources allowed the Khmer population at Angkor to reach an

estimated one million inhabitants. The "footprint" of Angkor's stone
monuments spans about eighteen by eight miles. During its peak, Angkor's
influence extended far, into what are now Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Burma,
and Malaysia. The ruler who oversaw the building of Angkor Wat was
Suryavarman II. He ruled the Khmer empire by 1113 A.D. and began an
ambitious building and imperial expansion project. Angkor Wat's stone
buildings, built within nested square walls, took over thirty years to complete.

In contrast to the intricately carved outer wall, the interiors of the stone
temples are usually bare. Small holes on some walls along with inscriptions
describing the grandeur of Angkor, suggest the idea that there originally were
interior murals, possibly of bronze, which long ago were removed and re-forged.
When the French assumed rule over the Angkor area in the late 1800s, they
marvelled at the ruins and debated their origins. Many of the puzzles were
solved by translating inscriptions on stone slabs at Angkor, and other stones
resting as far away as Laos.

The stone inscriptions, written either in the ancient Indian language of

Sanskrit or in an old form of Khmer transcribed with a Sanskritic form of
writing, describe the accomplishments of Khmer kings during their reigns,
royal accounting practices, rice production, and even the amount of medicines
used in imperial hospitals. Apparently the human dwellings at Angkor, even
those of the kings, were made of wood and they perished long before the
remaining stone temples.

Ultimately, it was the ascending Siamese kingdom, based in what is now

Thailand, that sacked Angkor in 1431 and ended the kingdom's regional power.

Although the Angkor Wat site originally was dedicated to the Hindu God
Vishnu and most of its images are from Hindu scriptures, the temple later
became used as a shrine for Theravada Buddhists. Theravada Buddhism is the
dominant religion among the contemporary Khmer people of Cambodia (as well
as majorities in Thailand and Burma) although it is influenced by earlier local
ideas and practices, as well as the Hindu antecedents of Buddhism.

Airborne laser technology has uncovered a network of roadways and canals,

illustrating a bustling ancient city linking Cambodia's famed Angkor Wat
temple complex. The laser scanning revealed a previously undocumented
formally planned urban landscape integrating the 1,200-year-old temples

172
In Residential patterning at Angkor Wat, Greater Angkor Project,Miriam T.
Stark,Damian Evan et al have this to say, “the functions and internal
organisation of the large rectangular enclosure surrounding the temple. Such
enclosures have long been assumed to have been sacred precincts, or perhaps
‘temple-cities’: work exploring the archaeological patterning for habitation
within them has been limited. The results of LiDAR survey and excavation have
now revealed evidence for low-density residential occupation in these areas,
possibly for those servicing the temple. Recent excavations within the
enclosure challenge our traditional understanding of the social hierarchy of the
Angkor Wat community and show that the temple precinct, bounded by moat
and wall, may not have been exclusively the preserve of the wealthy or the
1
priestly elite.”

The LiDAR survey reveals that, in the Angkor area, the formal division of
enclosed space into urban grids first occurs unambiguously at the temples of
Angkor Wat and Beng Mealea (Figures 6 & 7), although we can identify a
possible prototype for the grid system at the slightly earlier temple of Chau Srei
Vibol (Evans et al. 2013b).

The road-grid pattern therefore precedes, by at least half a century, the

reorganisation within Angkor Thom. The LiDAR survey reveals that the grid
pattern extends far beyond the 9km2 enclosed by the walls of Angkor Thom
(Figure 11). This extended pattern beyond Angkor Thom is therefore from an
earlier period because very few of the linear features in the extramural grid line
up precisely with the linear features of the Jayavarman VII era inside Angkor
Thom.

The implication of the grid within Angkor Wat, therefore, is that this rigidly
geometric patterning of space became a defining feature of the urban areas
around the major temples sometime in the early twelfth century AD and is
strongly associated with the reign of Suryavarman II, who was originally from
the area around Phimai in present day Thailand.

Was the grid pattern of Phimai a provincial Khmer settlement pattern that was
introduced to the capital? Or was it a central metropolitan development that
was exported to the provinces? The date of the grid in Phimai is crucial. The
question of Indian influence in the layout of Angkor Thom needs to be pursued
further, as the grid could have been originally a borrowing from the ‘Indian’
tradition in the early first millennium AD and then become entirely Khmer, or
perhaps also had an additional phase of input from the Indian tradition in the
twelfth century AD.-------------------------------------------------------------------------

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286246541_Residential_patterning_a
t_Angkor_Wat

173
Given that the narrow blocks of the grid within Angkor Thom also resemble the
blocks in Chinese towns such as Suzhou, as can be seen in the famous
Pingjiang map of AD 1229 (Skinner & Baker 1977; Xu 2000), the issue
becomes very complex.

Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard

design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentric galleries,
most of which were derived from religious beliefs of Hinduism originally. The
construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that there was a celestial significance
with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east–west
orientation, and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show
specific towers to be at the precise location of the sunrise on a solstice. The
temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods according
to Hindu mythology: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks
of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolize the surrounding mountain
ranges and ocean.[41] Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively
more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.

A detailed plan of the central structure

The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of the spring
equinox. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather
than the east. This has led many (including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès)
to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple.
Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-reliefs, which proceed in a
counter-clockwise direction—prasavya in Hindu terminology—as this is the
reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during
Brahminic funeral services.
Archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been
a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower. It has been
nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a
corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples
of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor
Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with
the west.

174
Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and
arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues that the
structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II:
"as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred
space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated
chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour
and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions
have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic
circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham
Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the
constellation Draco.
Style

Angkor Wat as viewed from the side

Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture—
the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its name. By the 12th century
Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use
of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most
of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the
outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the
blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime has been
suggested.
Harmony of Design: The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of
its design. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of
Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained
monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of
its proportions. It is a work of power, unity, and style."
Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include:
1. The Moat and as part of the grid
2. the ogival,
3. redented towers shaped like lotus buds;
4. half-galleries to broaden passageways;
5. axial galleries connecting enclosures; and

175
 6. the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple.
Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and
on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor
Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier
work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the
passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures
on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors

176
 CHAPTER IX
Enceinte of the Angkor Structure

Enceinte could be a decorative wall or a defensive wall. The latter  is

a fortification usually used to protect a city, town or other settlement from
potential aggressors. The walls can range from simple palisades or earthworks
to extensive military fortifications with towers, bastions and gates for access to
the city. From ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements.
Generally, these are referred to as city walls or town walls, although there were
also walls, such as the Great Wall of China, Walls of Benin, Hadrian's
Wall, Anastasian Wall, and the Atlantic Wall, which extended far beyond the
borders of a city and were used to enclose regions or mark territorial
boundaries. In mountainous terrain, defensive walls such as letzis were used
in combination with castles to seal valleys from potential attack. Beyond their
defensive utility, many walls also had important symbolic functions –
representing the status and independence of the communities they embraced.
Existing ancient walls are almost always masonry structures, although brick
and timber-built variants are also known. Depending on the topography of the
area surrounding the city or the settlement the wall is intended to protect,
elements of the terrain such as rivers or coastlines may be incorporated in
order to make the wall more effective.
Walls may only be crossed by entering the appropriate city gate and are often
supplemented with towers. The practice of building these massive walls,
though having its origins in prehistory, was refined during the rise of city-
states, and energetic wall-building continued into the medieval period and
beyond in certain parts of Europe.
Simpler defensive walls of earth or stone, thrown up
around hillforts, ringworks, early castles and the like, tend to be referred to
as ramparts or banks.
Angkor Wat ('temple city / city of temples', located in northwest Cambodia, is
the largest religious structure in the form of a temple complex in the world by
land area, measuring 162.6 hectares (401+3⁄4 acres). At the centre of the temple
stands a quincunx of four towers surrounding a central spire that rises to a
height of 65 m (213 ft) above the ground. The temple has three rectangular
galleries, each raised above the next. It lies within an outer wall 3.6 kilometres
(2+1⁄4 miles) long and a moat more than five kilometres (three miles) long.
The temple was built at the behest of Suryavarman II in the early 12th century
in Yaśodharapura - Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as the state

177
temple for the empire. Originally constructed dedicated to
the Hindu god Vishnu in the early 12th century, it was converted to
a Buddhist temple towards the end of the 12th century.
Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture:
the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to
represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu and Buddhist cosmology.
Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west. Scholars
are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the
grandeur and harmony of its architecture, extensive bas-reliefs, and statues
of Buddhas and Devas that adorn its walls.

Getting orientated at Angkor Wat

Moat

Angkor Wat is surrounded by a 190m-wide moat, which forms a giant rectangle

measuring 1.5km by 1.3km. From the west, a sandstone causeway crosses the
moat.

Outer wall

The rectangular outer wall, which measures 1025m by 800m (3363ft by

2625ft), has a gate on each side, but the main entrance, a 235m-wide (82ft)
porch richly decorated with carvings and sculptures, is on the western side.
There is a statue of Vishnu, 3.25m (1066ft) in height and hewn from a single
block of sandstone, located in the right-hand tower. Vishnu’s eight arms hold a
mace, a spear, a disc, a conch and other items. You may also see locks of hair
lying about. These are offerings both from young people preparing to get
married and from pilgrims giving thanks for their good fortune.

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A section of the outer wall at Angkor

Avenue

The avenue is 475m long (1558ft) and 9.5m wide (31 ft) and lined
with naga balustrades, leading from the main entrance to the central temple,
passing between two graceful libraries and then two pools, the northern one a
popular spot from which to watch the sun rise.

Central complex

The central temple complex consists of three storeys, each made of laterite,
which enclose a square surrounded by intricately interlinked galleries. The
Gallery of a Thousand Buddhas (Preah Poan) used to house hundreds of
Buddha images before the war, but many of these were removed or stolen,
leaving just the handful we see today.

Towers

The corners of the second and third storeys are marked by towers, each topped
with symbolic lotus-bud towers. Rising 31m (102ft) above the third level and
55m (180ft) above the ground is the central tower, which gives the whole grand
ensemble its sublime unity.

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Upper level

The stairs to the upper level are immensely steep, because reaching the
kingdom of the gods was no easy task. Also known as Bakan Sanctuary, the
upper level of Angkor Wat is open to a limited number per day with a queuing
system.

As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a
significant religious centre since its foundation. The temple is at the top of the
high classical style of Khmer architecture. It is one of the most important
pilgrimage sites for Buddhists in Cambodia and around the world. It has
become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the
country's main tourist attraction. Angkor Wat played a major role
in converting Cambodia into a Buddhist nation
The outer wall, 1,024 m (3,360 ft) by 802 m (2,631 ft) and 4.5 m (15 ft) high, is
surrounded by a 30 m (98 ft) apron of open ground and a moat 190 m (620 ft)
wide and over 5 kilometres (3 mi) in perimeter.The moat extends 1.5 kilometres
from east to west and 1.3 kilometres from north to south.  Access to the temple
is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the
latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden
bridge. There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western is by far
the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both
hides and echoes the form of the temple proper.

Towers of Angkor Wat 

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Under the southern tower is a statue known as Ta Reach, originally an eight-
armed statue of Vishnu may have occupied the temple's central
shrine. Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances
on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are
large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the
outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between
the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with
dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows, dancing
male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including (south of the
entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth.
The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres (203 acres),
which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the
north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these
were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of
them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area is now covered
by forest. A 350 m (1,150 ft) causeway connects the western gopura to the
temple proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the
city on either side. Each side also features a library with entrances at each
cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond
between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the
design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to
the central structure.

Wall detail of apsara figures, Angkor Wat

Celestial nymphs

Angkor Wat is famous for having more than 3000 beguiling apsaras (heavenly

nymphs) carved into its walls. Each of them is unique, and there are 37
different hairstyles for budding stylists to check out. Many of these

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exquisite apsaras were damaged during efforts to clean the temples with
chemicals during the 1980s, but they are being restored by the teams with the
German Apsara Conservation Project. Bat urine and droppings also degrade
the restored carvings over time.

The level of detail

Visitors to Angkor Wat are struck by its imposing grandeur and, at close
quarters, its fascinating decorative flourishes. Stretching around the outside of
the central temple complex is an 800m-long (2624ft) series of intricate and
astonishing bas-reliefs – carvings depicting historical events and stories from
mythology.

At its simplest, a defensive wall consists of a wall enclosure and its gates. For
the most part, the top of the walls were accessible, with the outside of the walls
having tall parapets with embrasures or merlons. North of the Alps, this
passageway at the top of the walls occasionally had a roof.
In addition to this, many different enhancements were made over the course of
the centuries:

 City ditch: a ditch dug in front of the walls, occasionally filled with water.
 Gate tower: a tower built next to, or on top of the city gates to better
defend the city gates.
 Wall tower: a tower built on top of a segment of the wall, which usually
extended outwards slightly, so as to be able to observe the exterior of the
walls on either side. In addition to arrow slits, ballistae, catapults and
cannons could be mounted on top for extra defence.
 Pre-wall: wall built outside the wall proper, usually of lesser height – the
space in between was usually further subdivided by additional walls.
 Additional obstacles in front of the walls.
The defensive towers of west and south European fortifications in the Middle
Ages were often very regularly and uniformly constructed (cf. Ávila, Provins),
whereas Central European city walls tend to show a variety of different styles.
In these cases the gate and wall towers often reach up to considerable heights,
and gates equipped with two towers on either side are much rarer. Apart from
having a purely military and defensive purpose, towers also played a
representative and artistic role in the conception of a fortified complex. The
architecture of the city thus competed with that of the castle of the noblemen
and city walls were often a manifestation of the pride of a particular city.
Urban areas outside the city walls, so-called Vorstädte, were often enclosed by
their own set of walls and integrated into the defense of the city. These areas
were often inhabited by the poorer population and held the "noxious trades". In
many cities, a new wall was built once the city had grown outside of the old
wall. This can often still be seen in the layout of the city, for example

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in Nördlingen, and sometimes even a few of the old gate towers are preserved,
such as the white tower in Nuremberg. Additional constructions prevented the
circumvention of the city, through which many important trade routes passed,
thus ensuring that tolls were paid when the caravans passed through the city
gates, and that the local market was visited by the trade caravans.
Furthermore, additional signaling and observation towers were frequently built
outside the city, and were sometimes fortified in a castle-like fashion. The
border of the area of influence of the city was often partially or fully defended
by elaborate ditches, walls and hedges. The crossing points were usually
guarded by gates or gate houses. These defenses were regularly checked by
riders, who often also served as the gate keepers. Long stretches of these
defenses can still be seen to this day, and even some gates are still intact. To
further protect their territory, rich cities also established castles in their area of
influence. An example of this practice is the Romanian Bran Castle, which was
intended to protect nearby Kronstadt (today's Braşov).
The city walls were often connected to the fortifications of hill castles via
additional walls. Thus the defenses were made up of city and castle
fortifications taken together. Several examples of this are preserved, for
example in Germany Hirschhorn on the Neckar, Königsberg and Pappenheim,
Franken, Burghausen in Oberbayern and many more. A few castles were more
directly incorporated into the defensive strategy of the city
(e.g. Nuremberg, Zons, Carcassonne), or the cities were directly outside the
castle as a sort of "pre-castle" (Coucy-le-Chateau, Conwy and others). Larger
cities often had multiple stewards – for example Augsburg was divided into
a Reichstadt and a clerical city. These different parts were often separated by
their own fortifications.

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Walls of the Bukhara Ark

The main materials used to construct Angkor Wat were sandstone and

laterite (a clayey soil and rock material rich in iron and aluminum). Sandstone
was used as the main material for visible parts of the temple. Laterite was
mainly used for the hidden structures. The massive sandstone bricks used to
construct the 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a
network of hundreds of canals, according to new research. ... The complex was
built to honor the Hindu god Vishnu, but 14th-century leaders converted the
site into a Buddhist temple.

The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of

Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals,
according to new research.

The monument was made out of five to ten million sandstone blocks with a
maximum weight of 1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far greater
amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an
area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Is Angkor Wat built on sand?

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Eight buried towers and the remains of a massive spiral structure created from
sand have been discovered at Angkor Wat in Cambodia. The massive structure
— almost a mile long — contains a spiral design, with several rectangular
spirals that form a giant structure, archaeologists say. The massive sandstone
bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat were brought
to the site via a network of hundreds of canals, according to new research. The
findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some
weighing up to 3,300 pounds, made it to the temple from quarries at the base
of a nearby mountain. Archaeologist knew that the rock came from quarries at
the base of a mountain nearby, but wondered how the sandstone bricks used
to build Angkor Wat reached the site. Previously people thought the stones
were ferried to Tonle Sap Lake via canal, and then rowed against the current
through another river to the temples.

The Bayon temple is made out of stone towers.

Such huge and serenely smiling faces are carved on stone towers throughout
the Bayon Temple at Angkor Thom, literally "Great City." Angkor Thom was a
fortified city built from the early eleventh to the late twelfth centuries A.D.
during the reigns from Suryavarman I to Jayavarman VII.

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CHAPTER IX

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The Significance of 108
At Angkor, the early mountain temple of Phnom Bakheng had its central
sanctuary surrounded by 108 smaller ones.

The story also contains significant numerological symbolism. The two

teams consisted of 54 devas and 54 asuras. The number 108 is highly
important in Hinduism. All Hindu eras, or yugas, are comprised of large
numbers divisible by 108, while mantras are often repeated 108 times.
The number is considered as a ‘building block’ of the universe.
Thanks to modern-day science, we know that the sun is 108 times the
diameter of the Earth, while the moon’s diameter times 108 is the
distance between the moon and the Earth.

ANGKOR WAT, CAMBODIA Angkor Wat was an ancient city in present

Cambodia built by a people whose culture came from Vedic India. They were
not of the Mongolian type, in contrast to most of modern Cambodians.
Cambodia is 1200 miles southeast of Calcutta. Angkor Wat's culture was more
like cultures of ancient Bali and of cities of North India. For some reason the
ancient society at Angkor failed. Perhaps disease and warfare caused their
decline and disappearance. In either event, the jungle took over and grew upon
this former great city, concealing its amazing architecture and city planning,
much of which have now been uncovered. French exploring parties
rediscovered Angkor Wat, in the 19th century, when Cambodia was a French
colonial protectorate. They began to clear away the jungle and unveil its
ancient architecture and city plan. Angkor Wat incorporates the numbers 54,
108 and 540, in its planning, architecture and engineering. This type of
evidence is much different than ancient literature or ancient oral traditions.
Angkor was laid out for both practical transportation and for honor to celestial
deities. The city has a diameter of about two miles, and was surrounded by a
moat with five bridges. It has five gates, and to each of them leads an avenue,
bridging over that water ditch which surrounds the whole civic area on a flat
plane. A row of huge stone figures, 108 per avenue, 54 on each side, a total of
540 statues of the Indo-Aryan deities Deva and Asura, border each of these
roads, and each row carries a huge Naga serpent with nine heads.

DEVA. One half of the statues were replications of the Vedic deity Deva. In
Zoroastrian mythology, Deva was a demon, an evil spirit. The Latin word
“diabolus” and the English word "devil" are semantically and linguistically
related to Deva. In Sanskrit, "div" means "from the sky" (meaning "from the
region of the planets", not from Earth's stratosphere). Deva is a deity in Hindu,
Jainistic and Buddhist literature. ASURA. "Asura" in Sanskrit means "glowing"

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or "glowing breath". Possibly the meaning of "Asura" is related to the glowing
ancient cometary tail of Mars, in the P&W scenario, according to whom the
Greeks saw this cometary train as the "fleece of Aries". The ancient Egyptians
and the Israelites saw the reflective cometary tail as celestial "wings". Mars has
dried ancient river beds in only one hemisphere, longitudes 10° W to 190° W,
and thus the ices, in the P & W scenario, effervesced off its surface in 12-hour
cycles (Mars has approximately a 24 hours day). Angkor also involves serpents
with nine heads. That serpent is interpreted, in the P&W scenario, as a
representation of Mars, appearing like a serpent followed by its ancient,
dragon-like cometary tail, churning the heavens.

108 AND 108,000 IN INDIA The number 432,000 appears not only in
Germanic traditions (the Eeinherier entering Valhalla, see below) and in
Chaldea (the Chaldean king list in Berossus) but also in the Rig Veda of India.
The Rig Veda has 10,800 stanzas with 40 syllables per stanza, a total of
432,000 syllables. There are 10,800 bricks in the Indian fire altar
(Agnacayana), a funeral pyre, a number of fate. Page 9 In the Ramayana (prose
version by Buck , the monkey Hanuman breaks the skull of the demon
Lighting Tongue into 108 pieces. The hermit Pulastya gets angry when he is
disturbed for the 108th time. Indrajit, the son of the demon Ravana, who takes
away Sita from Rama, wins 108 kinds of illusions from Brahma. In a battle
between Rama and the Rakshasas in the Dandaka forest, a Rakshasa soldier
hit a brass plate 108 times. At variant with the number 108, but this might be
easily explained by a memory slip when, after several years, he told his story to
Rustichello of Pisa while in a Genoa prison, Marco Polo (Il Milione, third book,
chapter 23, latin version of 1485 by Pipino, with notes by Cristoforo Colombo;
italian edition by Edizioni Paoline, 1985) states, with reference to the king of
Maabar, in southern India: on his neck there is a silk band adorned with 104
pearls and rubies. Every day he has to recite 104 prayers in the morning and
104 in the evening. Mustang is a secluded province of in north-west Nepal,
which the Nepalese government is still trying to keep out of the main tourist
directions by charging a quite high entrance visa. The local religion is mainly
Buddhism and that land is rich of monasteries (gompas) with extremely
ancient and rare documents (a copy of the Kangyur written on pure gold foils,
weight 40 kilos, is kept in the fortress of the town of Tsarang).
___________________________________________________________________________

THE NUMBERS 54 AND 108 : Donald W. Patten, Meridian Publishing Company, Seattle and Emilio Spedicato,
University of Bergamo-http://www00.unibg.it/dati/persone/636/414.pdf

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The famous gompa of Lo Gekar is located in a mountain area in the middle of
108 chorten. See Terzani [15]. Muktinath is a temple town in Nepal, where
Buddhism and Hinduism coexist with several temples. Near the Vishnu temple
the water of a holy source is distributed by a system of 108 outlets, see Tucci
[24]. The Hindu rosary has 108 grains as does the Buddhist rosary (perhaps it
is worth recalling that Buddhism can be seen just as a variant of Hinduism;
this was the opinion of Gandhi for instance). Curiously, Allen [17] notes that
the Survey of India Office was able to send his agents incognito into Tibet for
land measuring where the agents counted the number of their passes, the
basic length unit, using a modified rosary with 100 instead of 108 grains.

Astronomer, mathematician, and physicist Galileo Galilei made an interesting

statement. He said that the universe is written “in mathematical language”. He
maintained that the mysteries of creation itself could be solved through
numbers and mathematical equations. Mystics of all traditions around the
world, found that numbers offered more than scientific insight—they offered a
secret language for awakening, a key to our own intuition and higher aspects of
our being. Yogis found the number 108 to be such a key.
The number 108 has always been a highly revered number for thousands of
years, coveted by many spiritual traditions and ascribed special significance in
meditation and prayer.  Considered to be the most auspicious number of all,
108 also happens to be the number of stitches on a baseball.  

In yoga, the number 108 refers to spiritual completion. That’s the reason why
malas used for japa (silent repetition of a mantra) are composed of 108 beads –
with an additional “meru” bead, which when reached, prompts the practitioner
to count the mala beads in reverse order. Pranayama cycles are often repeated
in 108 cycles and even sun salutations are often completed in nine rounds of
the 12 postures, which when multiplied, adds up to 108. Ancient yogis believed
that we can attune ourselves to the rhythms of creation by completing
practices in rounds of this sacred number.

108 seems to be a mysterious number that connects the ancient world to the
modern world and also connects the physical realm to the metaphysical realm.
The number 108 is sacred in mathematics, geometry, astrology, numerology
and in many world religions and spiritual traditions.

Let’s look at some of the reasons why 108 is considered to be a sacred number:

1. It represents the unity and wholeness of existence

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According to the mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci, who was born around
A.D. 1170 and after whom the Fibonacci sequence is (nick)named, it is believed
that the number 108 has a way of representing the wholeness of existence.
The Fibonacci sequence is also related to the golden ratio. The spiral
arrangement of leaves or petals on some plants follows the golden ratio.
Pinecones exhibit a golden spiral, as do the seeds in a sunflower, according to
"Phyllotaxis: A Systemic Study in Plant Morphogenesis" (Cambridge University
Press, 1994).

The Fibonacci sequence is one of the most prominent mathematical formulas.

Each number in the sequence is the sum of the two numbers that precede it.
So, the sequence goes: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on. The
mathematical equation describing it, is Xn+2= Xn+1 + Xn
It’s been called "nature's secret code," and "nature's universal rule." It is said to
govern the dimensions of everything from the Great Pyramid at Giza to the
iconic seashell called Nautilus.

What is interesting though is that Leonardo Fibonacci  (whose real name was
Leonardo of Pisa) did not actually discover the sequence. Instead ancient
Sanskrit texts that used the Hindu-Arabic numeral system first mention it, and
those predate Leonardo of Pisa by centuries.

To fully understand the significance of the number 108, it is necessary to

understand the numerical science of decimal parity. 

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In many ancient cultures (e.g., Egypt and India) decimal parity was used as a
way to understand the truth of numbers.

Using decimal parity we can break numbers down into single digits. Let’s take
the following example: the decimal parity equivalent of the number 377 is 3 + 7
+ 7 = 17 and 1 + 7 = 8. So the decimal parity equivalent of 377 is 8.

The first 24 numbers of the Fibonacci Sequence are: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21,

34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181, 6765, 10946, 17711,
28657.

If we apply decimal parity to the Fibonacci sequence we find that there is a

repeating series of 24 digits as seen here: (0), 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 4, 3, 7, 1, 8, 9, 8,
8, 7, 6, 4, 1, 5, 6, 2, 8, 1.

If we add these 24 digits up, we get the number 108.

0+1+1+2+3+5+8+4+3+7+1+8+9+8+8+7+6+4+1+5+6+
2 + 8 + 1 = 108

What’s amazing is that the 1.08 constant growth rate the nautilus uses to
build its spiral shell involves the same pattern which repeats every 24 numbers
in the Fibonacci sequence.

Furthermore, the number 108 has significance with regards to the distance
between the earth and the moon and between the earth and the sun.

The distance between the moon and the earth is 108 times the diameter of the
moon – but only once a month, because according to NASA the moon’s orbit
around the Earth is not a perfect circle but more of an ellipse. Similarly, the
distance between the earth and the sun is 108 times the diameter of the sun.
Earth’s orbit around the Sun is however also an ellipse. And so on September
18-19 the distance of the Sun from Earth is 108 times that of the Sun’s
diameter.

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Consider the number of days in a leap year – 366 days. When we multiply the
three numbers we arrive at 108. 3 x 6 x 6 = 108.

2. 108 in mystical traditions and numerology

Numbers can be seen as messengers. When the number 108 appears in our life
it may mean that we are about to attain a long-desired goal or achievement.
The number 108 consists of the individual numbers 1, 0 and 8. The number 1
represents authority and leadership. It also represents new beginnings, taking
initiative, and embarking on a new path of progress.

The number 0 is a mysterious one in that it represents both nothingness and

eternity, but when combined with other numbers it will amplify the vibrational
influence of the other numbers.

The number 8 is related to power and influence, abundance and achievement

and the power to manifest desired outcomes. When this vibration becomes
dominant in our lives we can expect to wield a great amount of influence in the
chosen area of interest or in our professional lives.

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Another explanation is this: 1, 0, and 8: 1 stands for God or higher truth, 0
stands for emptiness or completeness in spiritual practice, and 8 stands for
infinity or eternity.

The number 108 may also be thought of as a special number or a special

combination that represents the number 9. Number 9 is considered to be a
highly spiritual number and entrusts us with a high spiritual energy associated
with altruism and humanitarianism. So when number 9 “shines” through the
number 108 it signals that we should share our gifts and abundance with
those less fortunate than us. The abundance we attract, we must remember,
has come to us by aligning with the Divine Source. Conversely, when we align
our thoughts with the Divine Source, our whole attitude changes and we
become generous, altruistic and benefactors of the world, naturally – all the
while maintaining a sense of gratitude for all that we have.

The Divine Source keeps giving without expecting anything in return. We can
best maintain a connection to that source by an attitude of gratitude and
generosity – such an attitude will continue to attract prosperity into our lives,
materially and spiritually.

3. Shri Yantra

On the Shri Yantra there are marmas (points) where three lines intersect, and
there are 54 such intersections. Each intersection has masculine and feminine
qualities, which represent Shiva and Shakti. 54 x 2 equals 108. Thus, there are
108 points that define the Sri Yantra as well as the human body.

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4. Heart Chakra

The chakras are the intersections of subtle nerve channels or nadiis, and there
are said to be a total of 108 nadiis converging to form the heart chakra. One of
them, sushumna leads to the crown chakra, and is said to be the path to Self-
realization.

5. 108 defilements in Buddhism

In Buddhism, it is among the tenets that there are exactly 108 types of
defilements – no more and no less. This could be the reason a bell is usually
chimed exactly 108 times in Japanese Buddhist Temples to mark the end of an
old year and to usher into a new year.

6. There are 108 earthly temptations

In Buddhism, it is also believed that the road to nirvana is laden with exactly
108 temptations. So, every Buddhist has to overcome 108 earthly temptations
to achieve nirvana. In addition, the ring of prayer beads worn around the waist
of Zen priests is usually made of 108 beads.

7. Tibetans have 108 sacred books

All their holy writings in Tibet, as much as it is, have been divided into exactly
108 sacred books. Tibetan Buddhism also believes that there are 108 sins and
108 delusions of the mind. Some of these sins and delusions are callousness,
blasphemy, anger, abuse, and aggression.

8. The basis of all creation

A certain aspect of Indian cosmology defines the number 108 as the basis of all
creation. The number ‘1’ in 108 represents Divine Consciousness. Zero
indicates null or void implying that everything on this Earth is vanity since all
creatures are here only temporarily. Eight represents the infinity of creation.

9. 108’s significance in astrology

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 There are 12 zodiacs and 9 planets and when multiplied, we get 108.
Additionally, there are 27 lunar mansions and they are divided into 4 quarters.
When 27 is multiplied by 4, the result is 108.

10. 108 images of Lord Buddha

Kathmandu is said to be the capital of Buddhism and there are exactly 108
images of Lord Buddha, erected in and around the place in reverence of the
Buddhism deity.

11. There are 108 names for deities

Each deity in Hinduism has 108 names.

12. Sarsen Circle Stonehenge has a diameter of 108 feet

Sarsen Circle Stonehenge, in the UK, is one of the world’s most famous
prehistoric monuments. Interestingly, it has a diameter of 108 feet. The
structure of the monument is similar to that of PhNom Bakheng, an ancient
Shiva Temple located in Cambodia. The temple also has 108 towers around it.

13. 108 types of feelings in a human

Both Buddhism and Hinduism believe that every human being has 108
different types of feelings. 36 of these feelings revolve round their past, 36
revolve round the present, and the remaining 36 are based on their dreams
and future ambitions.

14. The significance of 108 degree Fahrenheit

When the internal body temperature reaches 108 degrees Fahrenheit, the vital
organs in the body will begin to shut down.

15. Mathematical significance of 108

Ancient Indians were astonishing with mathematics and they were the ones
that discovered the significance of the number – 108 a long time ago. First of
all, they discovered the links between 108 and 9, a more sacred number. The

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link between 9 and 108 is much more than one being a multiple of the other.
Here are some of the interesting mathematical relationships between 9 and
108.

 11 x 22 x 33 = 108. This means (1) x (2x2) x (3x3x3) = 108.

 When 108 is divided by 2, the answer is 54 and 5 + 4 = 9.

 When 54 is further divided by 2, it will lead to 27 and 2 + 7 = 9.

 When 1 is added to 0 and 8, the answer is 9 (1+0+8 = 9).

 When 108 is multiplied by 2, the resultant figures will result in 9

when added together – 108 x 2 = 216; 2+1+6 = 9.

 When 108 is multiplied by 3, the resultant figures will result in 9

when added together – 108 x 2 = 324; 3+2+5 = 9.

Other reasons number 108 is sacred

There are exactly 108 sacred sites (also called pithas) all over India. There are
108 Upanishads, and there are 108 Marmas with regard to Ayurveda. There
are 108 stars in Chinese astrology and while 72 of them are malevolent, the
remaining 36 are beneficial. Tibetan legends are made of 108 Masters and 108
initiates.

108 saints are celebrated in Japan and they are also known as Vajradhatu.
The Buddha has 108 names and there are 108 lamps devoted to him. Both
Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva have 108 names each.

The division of Christian holiday from Soul’s day which is on November 2nd to
25th December has 54 days and 54 nights. The significance of the number lies
in the fact that within those two dates, light transformed into darkness a total
of 108 times and the reverse also occurred the same number of times.

Most Buddhist temples usually have 108 steps and 108 columns. A very good
example of such temples is the temple at Angkor. The temple is built around
108 huge stones.

Mathematics and Geometry

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108 is a Harshad number (1+0+8=9) / 108 is divisible by 9
366 days in sidereal year; 3x6x6 = 108
1 squared plus 2 squared plus 3 squared equals 108
108° degrees on inner angles of a pentagon

Theology and Culture

108 beads on a mala

108 repetitions of a mantra
108 types of meditation
108 dance forms in Indian traditions
108 time frame in Rosicrucian cycles
108 gopis of Vrindavan in the Gaudiya Vaishnavism
108 defilements in some schools of Buddhism
108 earthly temptations
108 beads on a juzu (prayer beads) worn by Zen priests
108 questions for Buddha in the Lankavatra
108 previous incarnations remembered in modern Gnosticism
108 chances or lifetimes to rid the ego and transcend the materialistic world
108 earthly desires/lies/delusions in Buddhism
108 is maximum number of repetitions in Kriya Yoga
108 Sun Salutations in yoga
108 breaths in a day to reach enlightenment
108 energy lines or nadiis converging to form the heart chakra
108 sacred books in the holy writings of Tibet
108 epistemological doctrines in Hinduism tradition
108 virtues in Jain tradition
108 steps in temples mentioned in the Lankavatara Sutra
108 sins or 108 delusions of the mind in Tibetan Buddhism
108 pressure points in body according to Marma Adi and Ayurveda

In conclusion, we may say that the sacredness of 108 began in ancient times
but it is not likely that the origin will be discovered. What we may discover are
the hidden reasons for it being regarded a sacred number.

Ancient and Sacred use of these numbers – 5/7

I was stimulated into realising the importance of my Cube discovery, from information
mentioned in books I read recently and a television show I saw on a particular number autistic
savant, Daniel Tammet.
Firstly I would like to describe why I believe the number 9 has such underlying importance. As
shown in this Ant Cube of number patterns, the number 9 reveals itself as a ‘physical’ structure,
totally encompassing the number Cube’s outer shell, with internal intersecting pillars, and wholly
different to the other eight numbers 1 to 8. The importance of the three dimensions of the number
nine, as well as the Cube coupling numbers, is shown in part by the following:-

199
With reference to the book ‘Heavens Mirror; Quest for the Lost Civilisation’ by Graham
Hancock and Santha Faiia, there are numbers considered of such importance that they are passed
down in myth, legend, architecture and religious texts. I would like to point out some very
interesting links between these numbers mentioned and the number patterns discovered in the
Ant Cube (i.e. the ‘structural’ number 9 and the coupling numbers). At the time of writing this I
have not yet made contact with the authors to discuss these links. Also there is no mention that I
could find, in their wonderful book, of these links.
Firstly regarding the number 9 being a possible ‘structure’ inherent in the mathematics of our
measurement of time and the universe, please note the following extracts from their book i.e.
Page 150. “The great ‘world ages’ of Hindu cosmology… Their respective durations are
1,728,000 years, 1,296,000 years, 864,000 years and 432,000…  (and with respect to Angkor
Wat) the key sections of the causeway 1,728 Hat, 1,296 Hat, 864 Hat and 432 Hat – the Yuga
lengths scaled down by 1000… passage of time is numerically expressed by the length
corresponding to yugas along the west – east axis”.

Aerial view Angkor Wat

My comment: As well as the 4, 3, 2 ratio between these periods of time, when adding the number
integers until a single number is reached, each of these ancient number periods add up to the
number nine, the ‘structural number’ of our universe:- i.e.
1,728,000 years and 1,728 Hat = 1 + 7 + 2 + 8 (+0 +0 + 0) = 18 = 1 + 8 = 9;
(note coupling numbers 1 + 8 [7 + 2 + 8] = 9)
1,296,000 years and 1,296 Hat = 1 + 2 + 9 + 6 = 18 = 1 + 8 = 9;
(note coupling numbers 3 [1 + 2 + 9] + 6 = 9).
864,000 years and 864 Hat =  8 + 6 + 4 = 18 = 1 + 8 = 9;
(note coupling numbers 8 + 1 [6 + 4 = 1] or 5 [8 + 6] + 4 = 9).
432,000 years and 432 Hat = 4 + 3 + 2 = 9;
(note coupling numbers 4 + 5 [3 + 2], or 7 [4 + 3] + 2 = 9).
The grand total of the ‘World Ages’ of Hindu cosmology = 4,320,000 years. (A reminder that the
ratio of the ‘world ages’ is also 4 to 3 to 2 and 4 + 3 + 2 = 9.)

200
At this point I would like to mention that this number 4,320,000 or its division by 10 = 432,000
or again by 10 = 43,200 is mentioned in many ancient forms such as the following:
 Kali Yuga, the last of the four world ages mentioned above describes 1200 god years of
360 mortal years, which equals 1200 x 360 = 432,000 mortal years.
 The ancient religious Hindu texts, the Rig Veda, has 10,800 stanzas of 40 syllables each,
which equals 10,800 x 40 = 432,000 syllables.
 The ratio of the scale of the Great Pyramid to our planet’s circumference of 1: 43,200 has
been hinted at from ancient times. Note that the number 43,200 divided by 2 = 21,600 (2 +
1 + 6 = 9), which is the number of nautical miles in the circumference of our planet. The
perimeter of the base of the Great Pyramid of Giza, as described further on, is to all intents
and purposes, 0.5 nautical miles, which when multiplied by the 43,200 ratio of the Great
Pyramid equals the 21,600 nautical miles circumference of our planet. I discuss this in more
detail further on.
Continuing with extracts from ‘Heavens Mirror; Quest for the Lost Civilisation’ by Graham
Hancock and Santha Faiia,
Page 164. In discussing the pyramid mountain Pnohm Bakheng, north of Angkor Watt, the
central sanctuary is surrounded by 108 towers.  “The number 108, one of the most sacred in
Hindu and Buddist cosmologies, is the sum of 72 and 36 (i.e 72 + half of 72). As such it is a key
component in the sequence of numbers linked to the earth’s axial precession… Great Cycle of
25,920 years, at the rate of one degree every 72 years.”

Image Great Cycle

My comment: The Great Cycle refers to the axial precessional cycle of our planet: If one
extends, as a straight rod, the longitudinal axis of our planet into space, over time this rod slowly
moves in a circle. It takes 72 years, approximately, per degree of this 360 degree circle, which
means that it takes 72 x 360 years to complete the Great Cycle = 25,920 years. Effectively for an
astronomer looking up to the heavens from Earth it would take 72 years for the stars to move just
one degree in the sky. For an older civilisation to know about this Great Cycle would be
considered highly unlikely without highly sophisticated equipment; and yet it seems some very
early civilisations did possess this knowledge.
The sums of the numbers above, each added as per the logic of the number Cube, are as follows;-
The sacred numbers  108 = 1 + 0 + 8 = 9; – 72 = 7 + 2 = 9;- 36 = 3 + 6 = 9; –  The Great Сycle
of 25,920 years = 2 + 5 + 9 + 2 + 0 = 18 = 9.  The numbers all add up to the structural number 9.
Before bringing in other extracts from the book ‘Heavens Mirror’ I also wish to remind readers
of the important ‘coupling’ of numbers revealed in my Cube and how these ‘couplings’ are
prevalent in these ancient numbers i.e. the numbers 1 and 8 are of equal pattern but at 90 degrees
to one another and can be shown as 18 or 81 or 108 etc. Similarly the numbers 2 and 7 are shown
as 72 or 27; 3 and 6 as 36 or 63; 4 and 5 as 54 or 45. Note the numbers in the paragraph above

201
108, 72 and 36 each reflecting this number ‘coupling’ of 1 with 8, 7 with 2 and 3 with 6. Again I
remind the reader that each ‘coupling’ adds up to the structural number 9.
With regard to larger numbers such as 216, optional number couplings may apply. 2 + 1 + 6 =9
and furthermore in terms of number couplings 216 may read as 2 with 7 (1+6) as well as 3 (2 +
1) with 6.
Similarly with large numbers such as noted in the previous page, ‘1296 Hat’, adjacent numbers
may be added in any combination, but will still end up with the coupling numbers. i.e. 1296 =
coupling numbers
1 with 8 ( 2 + 9 + 6 = 17 = 1 + 7 = 8) or 3 (1 + 2) with 6 (9 + 6 = 15 = 6) or again 3 (1 + 2 + 9 =
12 = 3) with 6.
FURTHER EXTRACT REFERENCES TO ‘HEAVENS MIRROR’
Angkor Watt in Cambodia sits 72 degrees east of the Great Pyramid of Giza, and the overall
major building works consists of 72 temple complexes, including Angkor Watt and Angkor
Thom.

Page 184.- regarding the Cambodian ancient temple complex of Angkor Thom where each of the
five gates is “surmounted by four serene and gigantic sculpted faces…oriented with high
precision towards the four cardinal directions” and “is approached by a bridge, and each … is
lined by parallel rows of 54 devas  and 54 asuras – ‘108 per avenue……altogether 540
statues……’a colossal model set up’ of the precessional cycle.”
My comment: 54, 540 and 108 are the number couplings 5 with 4, and 1 with 8 in the Cube and
both add up to the ‘structural’ number 9
Page 189 “ ….54 (or 72, or 108, or 216, etc)  … the numerical code by which the cosmic cycle
of precession was evoked in ancient cultures.”
My comment: the numbers add up to 9 and are the cube number couplings 5 with 4, 7 with 2, 1
with 8 and 3 (1+2) with 6
Page 190 “there are ‘72 major stone and brick temples and monuments of Angkor’… located 72
degrees of longitude east of the Pyramids of Giza) is, in our view, highly suggestive of an overall
plan.”

202
My comment: If one takes the centre of the Great Pyramid as 0 degrees longitude (instead of
Greenwich, London) then Angkor lies 72 degrees east of the Great Pyramid and has 72 temples
(or temple complexes). Significant ancient and Sacred sites lie on degrees longitude which relate
directly to the coupling numbers in the Number Cube. 7 and 2 are coupling numbers in this
example, adding to 9.
Page 194. At the exact geometric centre of enclosure of Angkor Thom is the Bayon “ the Bayon,
54 massive stone towers, each … is carved with four gigantic faces… making a total of 216
faces”.
My comment: 54 is the Cube number coupling 5 with 4 and adds up to 9. Also 216 faces = 2 + 1
(3) + 6 = 9.

Page 201, 203.  “54 degrees of longitude to the east of Angkor… Nan Midol… extensive
underwater ruins”

203
My comment: 54 is the cube number coupling of 5 with 4 and adds to 9. Nan Midol is therefore
72 degrees (number coupling 7 with 2) + 54 degrees, east of the Great Pyramid of Giza = 126
degrees east = 1 + 2 + 6 = 9
Page 220. In discussing the changes to the angles of the earth’s obliquity of the ecliptic “ the
range of the obliquity cycle is 2 degrees 24 minutes. Each degree is subdivided into 60 arc
minutes… a total of 144 arc minutes… total of 8640 arc seconds “.
My comment:  144 adds up to 1 + 4 + 4 = 9, note arc seconds 8 + 6 + 4 + 0 = 18 = 1 + 8 = 9.
Again the ‘structural’ number 9 and coupling numbers are inherent in the movement of earth
over time. The logic of the coupling numbers with these larger numbers applies as described
previously.

204
My comment:  216 adds 2 + 1 + 6 = 9, the structural number I believe, behind the mathematics
of our universe. Note that the circumference of Earth is also 21,600 nautical miles. It seems that
there is a coincidence in the same number 21,600, applying to both the time required for the
minimum to maximum shift of the tilt of the earth’s axis and the number of nautical miles around
the earth’s axis. Has anyone else noticed this?  Also I now notice another interesting
coincidence! – The number of years required for the tilt of the earth’s axis from maximum back
to maximum, minimum back to minimum, which is 43,200 (21,600 x 2) years, is also the ratio in
scale of the Great Pyramid to Earth ( i.e. 1 in 43,200. I discuss this ratio further on).Page 220 “If
we now divide these 8640 seconds by 40 seconds (the estimated change of obliquitry in a
century) we find that 216 centuries- i.e. 21,600 years – is the period required for the tilt of the
earth’s axis to shift from its minimum to its maximum value”.
My comment continued; Note that the number 20, or its multiple as 40 (seconds as above), and
60 (arc minutes) above that, not itself divisible by 9, also often plays a role with 9 and the other
number couplings in many of these calculations, but with the result still divisible by 9. I mention
this now because when looking at the DNA units of life itself, the number 20 (and its multiple) is
significant.
The next paragraph in this book ‘Heavens Mirror’ is undoubtedly a co-incidence (?) because it
relates to our present point in time, however please note that these co-incidental numbers add
back to 9, which may mean that our present time is somehow significant.(As these numbers
change they would no longer add to 9) i.e.
“Using the accepted rate of change of 40 arc seconds per century, the earth’s last period of
maximum obliquity must have occurred 94.5 centuries ago (3780 divided by 40 = 94.5), i.e. 9450
years before the present”.
(My comment 3780 adds 3 + 7 + 8 + 0 = 18 = 1 + 8 = 9; and also 9450 = 9 + 4 + 5 + 0 = 18 = 1
+ 8 = 9. )
Interestingly it is also mentioned that the Hindus and Mayans believed that the New Age started
3100 BC and the Mayan end is 2012 AD.
(My comment: This is a period of 5112 years and 5 + 1 + 1 + 2 = 9. Of course every nine years
on the date will again add to 9 so not particularly significant, apart from tying in with the Mayan
end of calendar)
Page 221. “..a network of monuments was set up around the world in prehistoric times… co-
ordinates of longitude and latitude… through a sequence of ‘precessional numbers’ : 54, 72, 108,
144, 180, 216, etc”
My comment: These numbers expressing degrees longitude all add up to 9 and express the
number couplings 1 and 8 (108, 180), 2 and 7 (72), 3 and 6 (216 = 2+1 and 6 = 3 and 6), and 4
and 5 (144 = 1+4 and 4 = 5 and 4). The knowledge of the number couplings, discovered in the
Cube highlight that the following, or combinations of the following, many covered above, may
further aid in discovering ancient sites of importance from the 0 degree longitude base line of the
Giza Pyramids (actually the Great Pyramid) i.e. 18 and 81, 27 and 72, 36 and 63, 45 and 54.
Combinations 81 and 27 or 72 and 36 or 63 and 45 = 108; 72 and 45, 63 and 54 = 117; 81 and
54, 72 and 63 = 135; 81 and 63 = 144; 81 and 72 = 153. Also additions such as 108 +108 = 216
or 144 + 72 = 216. In terms of the coupling numbers, the three longitudes up to 180 degrees (half
way around the world east or west from the Great Pyramid) that I did not see mentioned in
Heaven’s Mirror are 117, 135 and 153; these may reveal important ancient sites yet to be
discovered. Similarly longitude mirrored numbers between 180 and 360 degrees or working
west from the Great Pyramid.

205
I need to investigate the relationship, if it exists, of the coupling numbers to latitude also. If a
coupling number link to latitude is found to the sites we know of then all of the possible
positions for these ancient markers of ancient ‘sacred’ sites could be identified. The reference in
old texts that Angkor Watt complex of 72 temples was built over old sacred ‘mounds,’ hints at a
very much older positioning of sites around the ancient world, placed on a careful grid of
coupling number inter-relationships.
In terms of the latitude of these ancient sacred sites there is a convincing hypothesis
in www.Ancient-World-Mysteries.com, by Keith M Hunter and various other authors, such as
Jim Alison, that the majority of these ancient sacred sites such as Giza, Angkor, Nazca,
Ollantaytambo, Easter Island etc, sit on one Great Circle around earth, tilted in a way that crosses
the equator so that an equal half is above and the other half below. When rotating the earth
visually along the equator, the Great Circle creates a single great sine wave, with a wave height
equal to half the radius of earth. The distance between the sites have a strong ‘golden section’
relationship i.e. 1.618, as does the Great pyramid (length both sides divided by the base length,
712/440 = 1.618).
My comment: If the above hypotheses are true then the coupling numbers of the number Cube
are reflected only in the longitude positioning of these mysterious ancient sites, and
the latitude is determined by their location on the Great Circle. As an aside, does another such
Great Circle exist, picking up other ‘sacred’ sites?
I believe that there is an exception to the greatest significant ancient sites being located on the
Great Circle, and that is the locations of the legendary ‘Halls of Records’ (i.e. sites containing
secrets of the universe, hidden by the ‘Gods,’ and undiscoverable by chance, according to the
Egyptian ancient texts); they would otherwise be too easy to find, in my opinion. According to
the author Ralph Ellis, and as discussed on the next page, the one possible Hall of Records site
may exist at K2. The dead centre of this site has the number coupling result in both longitude and
latitude, i.e 45 degrees east of the Great Pyramid and 36 degrees north of the equator, both
coordinates separately and together adding to the structural number 9. To my sensibilities and
logic, this rings an important bell, and points to a site of great importance in terms of the Cube
number couplings.
 http://www.ideasofant.com/number-cube-2/ancient-and-sacred-use-of-
these-numbers/

206
ABOUT THE AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS

About the Author

The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He
was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human
Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human
Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant
to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of
Business Management and Research, Nagpur.

In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi

millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done

207
 his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he
has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.

A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was
invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of
Seychelles.

Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English.
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”

RESEARCH PAPERS-320 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd

Followers(readers) 65,000 consolidated as on 26 th September,2020.

Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India

208
 Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and
failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project
marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN

209
From the Newspaper Times of India March
24, 2018

210
Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in
which is about Dr Uday Dokras

211
Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA
releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA
gimes( May 2010)

212
213
214
215
216
Some of my books

217
218
219
220
 Unravelling the

SCIENTIFIC
BORUBUDUR

Dr Uday Dokras-Srishti Dokras - Kinjal Shah

221
 Indo Nordic Author’s Collective
Indo Nordic Gem research Institute

SCIENTIFIC BORUBUDUR

Dr Uday Dokras and 2 others

51 BOOKS BY DR UDAY DOKRAS

Published by
The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Stockholm
222
 The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Finland

Dr. Uday Dokras

Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers

The Cambodian Trilogy

223
 I.HINDU CAMBODIA

II.HYDROLOGY of ANGKOR
ANGKOR is known as a Hydraulic city- full or canals and river and
waterways. It is this water system they say that brought the downfall of this
intrinsic kingdom. But is that TRUE?

III.ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT

VANISHED- Angkor

224
Building Materials of the Hindu Temple
Indo Nordic Author's collective, 2021
In depth study of how Building Materials of the Hindu Temple was used in
India,Indonesia and Cambodia and India

The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE

COMPLEX, AMRITSAR

Mathematics in Temple Designs

225
 Jain ART
Book on Jain Art and Iconography

Jain Temples- Part I -Complete Compendium-

Book I
A to Z of the architecture, Design,Cosmology,Philosophy of Jain temples in

Jain Temples II
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF JAIN TEMPLES AND THE
ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPHS(ORIGINAL) OF 3JAIN TEMPLES of Nagpur

226
DWARKA- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost
CITY of KRISHNA

TIRUPATI TEMPLE Book part I

TIRUPATI TemplePart II

Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods

Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods. Animals in Hinduism. demi Gods

227
SATYANARAYAN PUJA-The Complete Compendium
Satyanarayan Puja or 9 Graha Puja( a puja of 9 planets) has been
performed by most Hindus not only now but for 1,000’s of years.

MAHALAXMI Puja
Hindu Goddess MAHALAXMI Puja

ARCHITECTURE OF PALESTINE

Palestine my Love
228
Palestine my Love is about the culture arts and crafts of palestine so we
recognize it as a entity that is fighting for recognition of not only its
legitimacy but also its cultural heritage

QUINTET (5) BOOKS ON MANDALA

Unravelling the MAZE of the MANDALA BOOK I

First part of a two book treatise on MANDALAS. This introductory phase
introduces mandalas

Maze of MANDALA BOOK II

Advanced Mandala routine for those who want to know more about
MANDALAS

Mandala BOOK III on Nakshatra

229
BOOK IV MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE
The Use of Mandalas in Building Temples and Modern Buildings

Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms

Islamic Architectureal Arts of of Imam Ali's 2

Shrines

Hindu Gods in Scandinavia

230
Did the Hindu Gods originate or live in Scandinavia once? Find out

Book on Divinity and Architecture

What is divinity? How has man tried to harness architecture to create magic
in space

Virat Hridaya Padma-sthalam CHIDAMBARAM

Temple -Celestial Mysteries
This book is about a mysterious and revered tempe built by the Chola
Kings of South India 2000 years ago

T2- Temple Tech. A Book

How are Hindu temples built and the technology that follows this craft.
From A to Z Complete Guide.

231
Rendezvous with Sri RAM Portfolio of Temple Art
by Srishti Dokras, Architect Special section on
Hindu Foods by Karan Dokras, Product Guru

Best Foot Forward

The story of Footwear through the ages up to COVID times

Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial Mysteries

A to Z of Temples. A total Panoramic View of design and architecture of
Hindu temples in 350 page...

232
 DUOLOGY (2) on JAINISM
Ativir
ATIVIR means Very Brave and is the name given to Lord Mahavir the 24 th
Saint(TIRTHANKAR) Contains rare translations of the Dialogue of the
Mahavir with his disciples called GHANDHARVAVAD

Vardhaman-वर्धमान
IThis book is about Jainism- written by a non-

THE TRILOGY(3) on DEVRAJA The God

kIngs of Khemer

Book I DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-

Cambodia.
This is the first Book of a Trilogy that traces the growth of Hinduism in
South East Asia.

BOOK I I DEVRAJA- The Great Civilizations of

South East Asia -HINDU Era

233
How Hinduism reached Cambodia and how the Hindu Kings called Devraj
Built these magnificent structures

Devraja BOOK II I Devraja and Raj Dharma God

King and Kingly Religion The HINDU Era of
Great Civilizations of Khemer
Book 2 of a Trilogy that traces the advent of Hinduism on South East Asian
and Indo-Chinese

Vayu- Man's taming of the winds

Man's conquest of nature spans a million years. How was wind tamed by
him. Here is the full story... more 

VIMANA Ancient Conquests of Wind

234
Ancient flying machines of Gods and Men(?) Were they true. Did they really
exist. 7000 years ago?

LIGHT HOUSES In words and pictures

BOOK Architecture of the Lighthouse of

Alexandria-BOOK
Indo Swedish Author's Collective, 2020
The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called
Pharos. Its name, legend

Cosmology of lotus
Indo Nordic Author's Collective, 2020
The Lotus is the king of the flower world but few know it as a part of
creation. Find out the Cosmology.

235
Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple
Borobudur remains a mystery even today. The largest Buddhist Stupa in
the world has many unanswered...
Win with this new DIET

Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and Indonesia

Hindu Temples dot India, Cambodia and Indonesia

DISRUPTION-Book

236
Book Architecture Creativity
Creativity and Architecture are linked and go hand in hand. This Book is a
culmination of 16 publications that have been put together as a book

Project HR Management
Indo Swedish Author's Collective
PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/'Dr UDAY DOKRAS The
project sphere has not been valued appropriately

Human Resource Engineering in Theme Parks.

by Dr. Uday Dokras and Mansse Bhandari
As theme parks evolve into facilitating for greater thrill seeking
audience,the role of human res... more 

Health Human Resource Management

237
Management of Health care workers in hospitals and the human resource
practices to be followed in hospitals.

WIN DIET Lose fat-Diet and Exercise Book ONLY

BODY SHAPING GUIDE YOU NEED

The Act on Co-determination at Work – an Efficacy

study
Thesis of the Author for the degree of Doctor of Law
Stockholm University, SWEDEN 1990

238
 SCIENTIFIC BOROBUDUR

U.DOKRAS
BOOKS ON CAMBODIA & South East ASIA by Dr UDAY DOKRAS

239
Temple Mountain

Book V on
The Lands of Ganesh Mandala of the DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-
Oriental Kingdoms Cambodia. Book I of a Trilogy of 3 books

Cosmology of lotus
Selected Essays on
some Celestial HINDU CAMBODIA
Mysteries

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur

Temple
HYDROLOGY of
ANGKOR
Potpurri of Research
of Dr Uday Dokras,
Book

Hindu tempels of Bharat Cambodia and

Indonesia
Mathematics in
Temple Designs

New Essays on
ANGKOR

The Great Marco Polos of Ancient Trade- The

Civilizations of Tamilians
South East Asia
-HINDU Era BOOK
THE BATTLES for II
Preah Pisnulok-

240
 Srijijay the Kingdom of the Winds- booK

Devraja and Raj

Newer Essays on Scientific Borobudur
Dharma -God King
Khemer inspired by
and Kingly
Jayavarman II
Religion The
-
HINDU Era of
Great Civilizations
of Khemer

GRAPHIC Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers

BUDDHIST-STUPA
- BOOK
Scientific Angkor I

ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT

VANISHED- Angkor
Suvarnabhoomi
Scientific Angkor II BOOK

Khemer Timeline
Prambanan
South East Asian Temple-BOOK
Architecture BOOK II

DEVRAJA BOOK III

South East Asian Complete Essays
Architecture BOOK I of Architect
SRISHIT DOKRAS
VOLUME II

241
 BOROBUDUR
BOOKS and Research papers/ articles by Dr Uday
Dokras

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple

Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and

Indonesia

MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE

Temple Mountain

Scientific Angkor and Borobudur

Book II

South East Asian Architecture BOOK II

242
 GRAPHIC BUDDHIST-STUPA - BOOK

Scientific Borobudur

STUPA MANDALA- Book 6 of the Mandala

Series-

PAPERS
1. The Concept of the Mountain Temple in Hinduism and comparison with the cambodian temple
mountain
2. Southeast Asia had 3 great empires
3. Quintessential EGG Shape of the Buddhist Stupas
4. Bakong in Cambodia and Borobudur in Java-Mandala Comparison
5. " A form of Emptiness"-Stupa Design Elements of the Borobudur based on Sutras of the
Buddha
6. Bakong in Cambodia and Borobudur in Java-Mandala Comparison
7. The striking similarity of the Bakong in Cambodia and Borobudur in Java
8. Did the Borobudur ships carry a African diaspora?
9. Comparison between Angkor Wat and Borobudur temple
10. Mandala in Borobudur
11. The blueprint for Borobudur

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12. Comparison between Angkor Wat, Paharpur and Borobudur
13. DIFFERENT TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION TECH OF INDONESIAN TEMPLES 
14. The Mysterious Malayu, Dharmasraya & the Candi Gumpung-a Buddhist temple, aligned with the
temple Burobudur
15. Stepped pyramid
16. The Main Stupa of Borobudur as Gnomon and Its Relation With Pranotomongso Calendar System
17. Navel in Buddha
18. Balinese Nudes
19. Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple of Indonesia’
20. Lotus in Buddhism
21. Borobudur Temple of Indonesia
22. Reliefs in Borobudur Temple of Indonesia
23. Indian design in Borobudur Temple

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