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CEMBUREAU
CEMBUREAU
A LIFE-CYCLE APPROACH
CEMBUREAU
The Association acts as spokesman for the cement sector towards the European Union
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and policy developments likely to have an effect on the cement market in the technical,
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appropriate.
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aimed at improving the image of concrete and promoting the use of cement and concrete
products.
Since its foundation in 1947, CEMBUREAU has developed into the major centre for the
dissemination of technical data, statistics and general information on the cement industry
world-wide. Its publications serve as the principal source of information on the cement
industry throughout the world. It is the editor of the World Cement Directory providing
data on cement companies and works based in some 150 countries.
Association
Européenne
du Ciment
The European
Cement
Association
1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 PREAMBLE 4
2.1 ISSUES 5
2.5 CONCLUSIONS 7
3.1 INTRODUCTION 7
4.1 INTRODUCTION 13
3
1. INTRODUCTION
4
These two aspects of waste (1) The production of cement • climate change and carbon
management are interlinked. by the use of two different dioxide reductions;
They are best examined by the types of fuel: coal, and non-
technique known as Life Cycle fossil fuels made from waste. • disposal versus recovery in
Assessment (LCA). An LCA cement kilns;
describes the impact on the (2) The management of waste
environment during the stages a by two different routes: • recycling versus recovery in
product goes through from the utilisation in cement kilns, cement kilns.
time the raw materials are and disposal or reuse by
obtained until the final disposal of other operations. Information under the last two
the product. headings is based on studies
The environmental benefits of carried out by TNO (The
utilising waste materials in Netherlands) and the Fraunhofer
1.3 THIS REPORT cement kilns is examined under Institute (Germany).
three headings:
In this report LCA techniques are
used to examine two related
topics:
5
2.2 S TRATEGY 1: The industry will continue along recovery, and the power
the same lines to further improve generated is fed into the
IMPROVING THE energy efficiency. There is, national electricity grid
EFFICIENCY OF however, now limited scope for system. The cement kiln
further improvements in energy operates with a conventional
CEMENT K ILNS efficiency, although the ongoing fossil fuel, coal.
programme of modernisation will
Dealing first with Strategy 1, continue to result in lower CO2 (2) Scenario 2: Waste is
emissions of CO2 from cement emissions per tonne of cement transferred to the cement
kilns are closely linked with produced. kiln, displacing an amount of
process and energy efficiency. coal in proportion to its heat
Over the past four decades, the content. Since the
European cement industry has incinerator is no longer
adopted a policy of continuous 2.3 STRATEGY 2: operational, the electricity it
improvement in plant, equipment USE OF ALTERNATIVE originally produced is now
and operation. For example, less generated by a coal fired
efficient kilns are being replaced F UELS power station.
by more fuel-efficient preheater
and precalciner kilns and ball mills This leads directly to Strategy 2, For each scenario, we have
for cement grinding have been and the use of alternative fuels in calculated the burden of CO2 to
replaced by more efficient cement kilns. This practice has a atmosphere, and then
grinding systems. Presently, 78% wider benefit than merely compared the two scenarios for
of Europes cement production is reducing CO2 emissions at the the net effect on CO2 emissions.
from dry process kilns, 16% is point of cement production. The The calculations are presented in
from semi-dry or semi-wet kilns, global CO2 emissions are Annex A.
and only 6% is from wet process reduced, but the reductions
kilns mainly in geographical areas occur in other industry sectors The net CO2 burden of the two
with wet raw materials. These than the cement industry. To scenarios is obtained by
and other energy efficiency analyse the benefits of the use of subtracting the total burden of
measures adopted within the alternative fuels in cement kilns, Scenario 2 from the burden of
industry have resulted in we have applied LCA techniques Scenario 1. The benefit
significant reductions in fuel use, to two scenarios: (reduction) in CO2 emissions
and hence of CO2 emissions. from burning waste in cement
(1) Scenario 1: Waste is kilns as opposed to dedicated
combusted in a dedicated incinerators is summarised in
incinerator, with energy Table 1 and Table 2.
Net benefit due to combustion in cement kiln 601 kg CO2/t waste 967 kg CO2/t waste
The above analysis covers process. However, there remain of the scenarios. The net
operating practice observed by some incinerators which have no reduction in CO2 emissions when
many incinerators in the EU: heat or energy recovery facilities. waste is combusted in the
namely, the recovery of energy In this case, the power plant is cement kiln is greater, as shown
alongside the waste destruction effectively decoupled from each in Table 2.
6
Table 2 Summary of CO2 emissions from burning 1 tonne of waste in a dedicated incinerator
without energy recovery or in a cement kiln
Net benefit due to combustion in cement kiln 1,619 kg CO2/t waste 2,609 kg CO2/t waste
By burning waste in a cement kiln the intrinsic energy of the waste CO2 released, relative to a
and substituting for coal, a non- material. Specialist waste scenario in which waste is
renewable resource, savings are incinerators are very inefficient combusted in a dedicated
made through resource converters of the heat content of incinerator, reduces the
conservation and associated wastes, whereas a cement kiln environmental impact of the
CO2 emissions. The cement kiln approaches 100% efficiency. A greenhouse effect during the
also makes more efficient use of net decrease in the quantity of combustion of wastes.
1)
Tukker A (1996). LCAs for Waste: The Dutch National Waste Management Plan 1997-2007. Paper presented at the
4th Symposium for Case Studies, SETAC Europe, Brussels, December 1996.
Keevalkink J A and Hesseling W F M (1996). Waste Processing in a Wet Cement Kiln and a Specialised Combustion Plant.
Report No. TNO-MEP-R 96/082, TNO Institute of Environmental Sciences, Energy Research and Process Innovation,
Apeldoorn, Netherlands.
7
downstream operations such as could not be assessed. incinerator to the kiln, while the
coal mining and transportation (in The alternative method of system incinerator system is offset with
the case of the cement kiln) and enlargement was therefore the burden of procuring fossil fuel
electricity generation (in the case agreed with the Dutch authorities for the cement kiln. The results of
of the dedicated incinerator) and applied to the LCA. the LCA, as applied to the
were not considered, nor were Conceptually, this method is specific case of a cement kiln in
the avoided burdens resulting identical to that described in Belgium, are discussed below.
from fuel substitution in the Section 2 for the assessment of
cement kiln. However, it was CO2 emissions during the burning
realised that this method of of waste, and illustrated in Figures 3.2 SYSTEM D EFINITION
allocating environmental effects 1A and 2A in Annex A. In system
penalised waste processing, enlargement, the additional The basis of the LCA was one
since emissions from cement kilns upstream activity of fossil fuel tonne of waste, either
are regulated separately to those procurement and the incinerated in a dedicated
from dedicated incinerators, with downstream activity of electricity incinerator, or combusted in a
higher emissions of acid gases generation are considered in cement kiln as a substitute for
such as sulphur dioxide being conjunction with the incinerator conventional fuels, in the present
permitted in cement kiln and the cement kiln operations. case coal (90%) and crude
operation due to the fact that The latter is offset with the burden (10%). The inputs and outputs to
they are associated with the raw associated with the generation of the two systems are summarised
materials. Further, the wider electricity as a result of the waste in Table 3.
implications of fuel substitution being transferred from the
Table 3 Summary of inputs and outputs to the cement kiln and dedicated incinerators
The system definitions were Additionally, in the case of the In the case of the cement kiln,
based on data obtained on fluidised bed incinerator for there was neither a release of
actual, operating incinerators in sewage sludge, an SNCR deNOx liquid effluent nor a release of
the Netherlands and a wet system was installed, solid residue, since cement kiln
cement kiln in Belgium. In the necessitating an input of dust was recycled back into the
incinerator systems, the flue gas is ammonia. Solid residues kiln, a practice that is standard in
cleaned in a wet scrubber, requiring disposal included fly ash, the industry.
resulting in a release of liquid filter sludge and bottom ash.
effluent from the plant.
8
3.3 E NVIRONMENTAL Avoiding the generation of be different. The LCA
energy or avoiding the use differentiated between the
I MPACTS of fossil fuels in the cement following waste types: non-
kiln can result in a significant hazardous waste (NW)
In an LCA, the environmental net avoided GWP score. arising from mining and other
impacts resulting from the similar activities; hazardous
releases to air, water and land (4) Depletion of the waste (HW) comprising
from the incinerator systems or bottom ash, fly ash and filter
ozone layer (ODP):
the cement kiln are grouped into sludge, and radioactive
This impact arises from waste (RW) comprising the
categories. Each chemical
released can contribute to one emissions of volatile waste produced by the
or more impact categories and hydrocarbons, and is proportion of the national
conversely an impact category relatively small in magnitude electricity system generated
can contain contributions from a compared to other impacts. by nuclear power (6%).
number of releases - for
example, a release of sulphur (5) Human Toxicity (HT): Each impact category was
dioxide can contribute both to This impact category arises scored for each of the waste
acidification and to human from emissions of acid management options. The
toxicity, while the latter impact gases, CO, hydrocarbons, individual scores were weighted
category can contain dioxins, metals, etc. by the Distance to Target
contributions from emissions of method relative to the impact
acid gases, metals, dioxins, and (6) Aquatic Ecotoxicity created by GWP, and then
hydrocarbons. The LCA study (AT): totalled to obtain a composite
focused on the following impact score.
For the incinerator systems,
categories: AT results from releases of The results of the LCA are
effluent containing heavy
presented in Table 4 and in
metals. For the fossil fuels,
Figure 1. In Table 4, the
(1) Depletion of mineral AT arises from effluents
environmental burden scores
raw materials (DRM): generated during the mining
associated with burning waste in
For the incinerator systems, or refining processes. the incinerator system (adding
depletion of raw material the burdens associated with
results from the use of utilities (7) Photochemical burning fossil fuel in the cement
such as lime. The DRM Ozone Creation kiln) and the scores associated
score can be positive (i.e. Potential (POCP): with burning waste in cement kilns
the resource is procured and (adding the burdens associated
This impact is caused by
used) or negative (i.e. with generating additional heat
releases of hydrocarbons to
avoided, when considering and electricity) have been
atmosphere, and can arise
net emissions within the summed to provide an overall
at any stage of the life
overall waste management sub-score for resource depletion
cycle.
option). and releases to air and water,
and an overall sub-score for
(8) Nutrification (NP): waste production. These scores
(2) Depletion of fossil
Nutrification results from the are then added to provide a
energy carriers (EDP):
addition of nutrients to a soil total score for each waste
This burden relates to the or water system, causing an management option, the
energy input for waste increase in biomass. Any assumption having been made
handling and utility input for nutrient can have this effect, that the impact categories are
flue gas cleaning. Again, but nitrogen and phosphorus all of equal importance.
the net EDP score relative to are the most crucial species.
two different options for
waste management can be
(9) Acidification (AP):
both positive or negative.
This impact is caused by
deposition of acid gases
(3) Global warming such as sulphur and nitrogen
potential(GWP): oxides onto water bodies.
This impact arises from
emissions of CO2 during
(10) Solid waste
combustion, and from
generation:
emissions of methane from
biodegradable waste Depending on the type of
deposited in landfills. solid waste, the
environmental impacts will
9
Table 4 LCA scores for waste management options
The higher the score the waste disposal fly ash, filter cement kiln. From each base
greater the potential sludge, etc. is a major case the scores for the avoided
environmental impact of a consideration within the overall environmental burdens are
particular waste management life cycle, and involves landfilling subtracted. In the case of waste
option. Therefore a net and its associated impacts of combustion in incinerators, the
environmental benefit leachate generation and health avoided burdens relate to
relative to the cement kiln effects, the cement kiln option external electricity and heat
operation is represented by does not generate liquid or solid production. In the case of
a negative net score, while a waste. The small score assigned combustion in a cement kiln, the
net environmental disbenefit will to solid waste impacts relates to avoided burdens relate to the
be represented by a positive net the waste associated with the savings in fossil fuel and raw
score. The table shows that generation of the additional material use at the kiln. A net
regardless of the type of waste, electricity and heat needed to decrease in emissions is
there is a net benefit to the replace the power produced by represented by negative scores
cement kiln option, in terms of the incinerator. for the impact categories,
all the impact categories whereas a net addition to
considered (i.e. resource TNO has also developed a environmental burdens is
conservation, releases to air, standardised environmental represented by positive scores.
releases to water and the profile for each disposal option. Net scores for individual impact
production of solid waste). The In this method of presentation, categories are shown in Figure 1
impact category of solid waste is scores for the base case for each waste type. The
perhaps the most significant net environmental burdens are summation of individual scores
benefit accrued to the cement calculated when one tonne of into a single overall score for
kiln disposal option. Whereas in waste is combusted in an each waste management option
the case of combustion in incinerator, and when one tonne is presented in Table 5.
dedicated incinerators solid of waste is combusted in a
Table 5 Net scores and environmental profiles for waste management options
10
4. RECYCLING VERSUS RECOVERY IN
CEMENT KILNS
2)
Life Cycle Analysis of Recycling and Recovery of Households Plastics Waste Packaging. Fraunhofer Institute, Munich, 1996
Verwertung von Kunststoffabfällen aus Verkaufsverpackungen in der Zementindustrie. Fraunhofer Institute, Munich, 1997
13
mean the continuation of fossil processing and use in cement The LCA results for CO2 emissions
fuel procurement and use at the kilns were added to the and energy use are displayed in
cement kiln. Therefore the environmental burdens resulting Table 6.
environmental burdens from reprocessing operations. As with the utilisation of waste
associated with coal extraction,
plastics in cement kilns, the use reprocessing. Emissions of CO2 the waste oil is reprocessed into
of waste oils as supplementary and overall energy utilisation are lubricating oil products.
fuel outperforms the alternative approximately 60% lower for the Controlled processing of waste
waste management option of cement kiln option than when
5. SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL
BENEFITS PROVIDED BY CEMENT
KILNS
with energy recovery and energy while ensuring their governments. The practice of
material recovery within a safe disposal; employing alternative fuels in
cement kiln represents an cement plants does not hinder
attractive waste management • produces overall the establishment of a sound
option. With an excess of 300 environmental benefits by waste management industry.
cement plants spread throughout reducing releases to air, This practice can co-exist
the European Union, the industry water and land; alongside a vigorous and thriving
is particularly well placed to materials recovery and recycling
respond to Societys needs in this • prevents resource depletion and incineration industry, without
regard. Waste materials which of valuable non-renewable distorting the essential principles
the industry has utilised as fossil fuels; of the EUs waste management
alternative fuels include used hierarchy.
tyres, rubber, paper waste, waste • obviates the need to build
oils, sewage sludge, plastics and dedicated incineration To this end the cement industry
spent solvent. In all cases these facilities. continues to contribute to the
waste materials would either furtherance of sustainable
have been landfilled or The important contribution that development in Europe.
combusted in dedicated the cement industry can make
incinerators. Their use in cement to a nations waste management
kilns replaces fossil fuels: infrastructure has been explicitly
• maximises the recovery of recognised by several European
15
Annex A
CO2 EMISSIONS
WHEN BURNING
WASTE
A1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this note is to develop scenarios describing the emissions of CO2 during the combustion of
waste material in a cement kiln rather than in a dedicated incinerator. The calculations are intended as
indicative, to establish broad order of magnitude of net emissions rather than precise emission estimates.
Two scenarios are constructed. In Scenario 1 the waste is combusted in a dedicated incinerator, and the
power generated is fed into the national electricity grid system. The cement kiln operates with a conventional
fossil fuel (coal). The releases of CO2 from this system comprise the following:
· CO2 from the mining and transportation of coal used at the cement kiln;
In addition to the above, there are emissions of CO2 from the power plant, when the latter is operating at
reduced load owing to the addition of electricity into the grid from an external source downstream of the
power plant. These emissions do not need to be computed if the objective is to examine the net difference
between Scenario 1 and Scenario 2.
In Scenario 2 the waste is now transferred to the cement kiln, displacing an amount of coal in proportion to its
heat content. Since the incinerator is no longer operational, electricity is not produced. In order to maintain
the overall supply of electricity to the grid, the power plant has to generate an additional amount of electricity
equivalent to that previously generated by the incinerator. In most EU Member States this marginal power is
generated via the combustion of coal. The releases of CO2 from this system comprise the following:
· CO2 from the mining and transportation of coal used at the power plant;
A2. ASSUMPTIONS
A summary of the assumptions and their sources is presented in Table A1. The assumptions are discussed in
more detail below.
17
A2.1 FUEL AND W ASTE TYPES
We assume that the conventional fossil fuel used in the cement kiln and in the power plant is coal with a heat
content of 26 GJ/t and a CO2 emission factor of 93 kg CO2/GJ.
We assume two waste types broadly representative of a biofuel made from waste materials (sewage sludge,
refuse derived fuel (RDF), etc.) and a solvent waste derived from chemical wastes. For the biofuel we assume
a heat content of 16 GJ/t (typical of RDF) and for the solvent waste we assume a heat content of 26 GJ/t,
typical of the specifications for supplementary liquid fuels delivered to cement kilns. The CO2 emission factor
for the biofuel is taken as 110 kg CO2/GJ, between that of domestic waste (108 kg CO2/GJ) and a woody
waste (112 kg CO2/GJ). The CO2 emission factor for the solvent waste is taken as 70 kg CO2/GJ, assuming a
lower carbon content (55%) relative to that of coal (75%).
When combusting waste in the cement kiln, the amount of coal displaced will be proportional to the heat
content of the waste. Therefore 1 tonne of biofuel will displace 0.62 tonne of coal, and one tonne of solvent
waste will displace 1 tonne of coal. Assuming an energy consumption of 4 GJ/t of cement, 1 tonne of
biofuel will produce 4 tonnes of cement, while 1 tonne of solvent waste will product 6.5 tonnes of cement.
Under Scenario 2, additional coal required in the power plant to supply the energy withdrawn from the
electricity grid due to the closure of the dedicated incinerator. Assuming a conversion efficiency at the
incinerator of 23%, a conversion efficiency at the power plant of 37%, and a conversion factor of 280 kWh
per GJ of heat content, 1 tonne of biofuel will produce 1,030 kWh of electrical energy in the incinerator,
equivalent to 0.39 t of coal at the power plant. 1 tonne of solvent waste will produce 1,674 kWh of electrical
energy in the incinerator, equivalent to 0.63 t of coal at the power plant.
CO2 is released during the mining and transportation of coal. The emission factors used are 24.3 kg CO2/MWh
electric from coal mining, and 0.045 kg CO2/km/t for transportation by rail. It is assumed that coal
transportation from the mine to the cement kiln or to the power plant involves a round trip of 300 km.
• Electricity from the incinerator offsets an equivalent amount of electricity produced at the power plant,
enabling the power plant to operate at reduced load.
18
The CO2 burden to atmosphere comprises the following:
• (D) CO2 generated at the power plant when the incinerator is on-line.
A+B+C+D
With an emission factor of 24.3 kg CO2/MWh electric from coal mining, 0.045 kg CO2/km/t for transportation by
rail and a round trip of 300 km for transportation to the kiln, the CO 2 burdens are as follows:
· Scenario 1(a): CO2 emissions from mining of 0.62 t coal is 110 kg and transportation of 0.62 tonne of coal is
9 kg. Total is 119 kg.
· Scenario 1(b): CO2 emissions from mining of 1 t coal is 177 kg and transportation of 1 tonne of
coal is 13.7 kg. Total is 191 kg.
· Scenario 1(a): CO2 emissions from combustion of 0.62 t coal is 1,500 kg.
With an emission factor of 110 kg CO2/GJ for biofuel, and 70 kg CO2/GJ for the solvent waste, the CO2
burdens are as follows:
· Scenario 1(b): CO2 emissions from combustion of 1 t solvent waste is 1,820 kg.
19
A4. SCENARIO 2 - BURNING WASTE
IN CEMENT KILNS
• The incinerator does not function. An equivalent amount of energy is produced in the power plant by
mining, transportation and combustion of coal.
D+E+F+G
· Scenario 2(a): 1 t of biofuel will generate 1,030 kWh electrical energy, equal to 0.39 t coal at the
power plant, giving an additional CO2 burden of 943 kg at the power plant.
· Scenario 2(b): 1 t of solvent waste will generate 1,674 kWh electrical energy, equal to 0.63 t coal at
the power plant, giving an additional CO2 burden of 1,523 kg at the power plant.
A4.3 ADDITIONAL CO2 EMISSIONS FROM COAL USE AT POWER PLANT (F)
• For Scenario 2(a), 1 t of biofuel is equivalent to 0.39 t coal. CO2 emissions from mining is 69 kg and from
transportation is 5.3 kg. Total CO2 emissions is 75 kg.
• For Scenario 2(b), 1 t of solvent waste is equivalent to 0.63 t coal. CO2 emissions from mining is 110 kg
and from transportation is 9 kg. Total CO2 emissions is 119 kg.
These emissions are identical to CO2 generated during the combustion of the waste in the dedicated
incinerator.
20
· Scenario 2(a): CO2 burden due to combustion of 1 tonne of biofuel in the cement kiln is 1,760 kg.
· Scenario 2(b): CO2 burden due to combustion of 1 tonne of solvent waste in the cement kiln is 1,820 kg.
The net CO2 burden of the two scenarios is obtained by subtracting the total burden of Scenario 2 from the
burden of Scenario 1. The benefit (reduction) in CO2 emissions from burning waste is cement kilns as opposed
to dedicated incinerators is summarised in Table A2.
Table A5 Summary of CO2 emissions from burning 1 tonne of waste in a dedicated incinerator
or in a cement kiln
Net benefit due to combustion 601 kg CO2/t waste 967 kg CO 2/t waste
in cement kiln
(1) Substitution of coal, a non-renewable resource, with waste, an unwanted material that will require safe
treatment and/or disposal. Savings are made through resource conservation and associated CO2
emissions.
(2) Making more efficient use of the intrinsic energy of the waste material. Specialist waste incinerators are
very inefficient converters of the heat content of wastes, whereas a cement kiln approaches 100%
efficiency.
(3) Provision of combustion capacity for incinerable wastes in existing thermal plants which are
environmentally safe and secure, obviating the need for dedicated, specialist combustion capacity to
be constructed.
(4) A net decrease in the quantity of CO2 released, relative to a scenario in which waste is combusted in a
dedicated incinerator, thereby reducing the environmental impact of the greenhouse effect during the
combustion of wastes.
21
Copyright: CEMBUREAU
N° Editeur: D/1999/5457/February
Published by CEMBUREAU
The European Cement Association