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 The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV (WAISC-IV)

Journal: The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences

Manuscript ID wbepid0180.R1
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Wiley - Manuscript type: Entry

Date Submitted by the Author: n/a

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Complete List of Authors: Valentine, Thomas; The Ohio State University, Psychology
Block, Cady
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Eversole, Kara; The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center,

Pychiatry and Behavioral Health
Boxley, Laura; The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center,
Psychiatry and Behavioral Health
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Dawson, Erica; The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center,

Psychiatry and Behavioral Health

Keywords: Assessment, Intellectual assessment, WAIS-IV, Wechsler, David

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The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) is a

comprehensive clinical instrument for assessing the intellectual abilities of
older adolescents and adults. The original WAIS was developed in 1955 by
renowned psychologist David Wechsler, PhD. It went through multiple
Abstract:
revisions and improvements, culminating in the release of the current
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edition in 2008. In this entry, we review the historical context that

produced the modern intelligence assessment movement, the development
and features of the WAIS-IV, and areas in which it is of most use clinically.
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Page 1 of 9 The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences

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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV (WAISC-IV)

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Thomas Valentine
The Ohio State University
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Valentine.277@osu.edu
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Cady Block
The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center
Cady.block@osumc.edu
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Kara Eversole
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The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center

Kara.eversole@osumc.edu

Laura Boxley
The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center
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Laura.boxley@osumc.edu

Erica Dawson
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The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center

Erica.dawson@osumc.edu

Word Count: 2697

 The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences Page 2 of 9

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ABSTRACT
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) is a comprehensive clinical
instrument for assessing the intellectual abilities of older adolescents and adults. The original
WAIS was developed in 1955 by renowned psychologist David Wechsler, PhD. It went through
multiple revisions and improvements, culminating in the release of the current edition in 2008. In
this entry, we review the historical context that produced the modern intelligence assessment
movement, the development and features of the WAIS-IV, and areas in which it is of most use
clinically.

Keywords: Assessment; Intellectual assessment; WAIS-IV; Wechsler, David

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Page 3 of 9 The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences

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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV)

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) is a comprehensive
clinical instrument for assessing the intellectual abilities of older adolescents and adults. It
follows a long tradition of development, testing, and improvement in the testing of mental
abilities. Below is a review of the historical context that produced the modern intelligence
assessment movement, the development and features of the WAIS-IV, and areas in which it is of
most use clinically.
Historical Approach
The assessment of mental abilities began as a movement in the late 19th century,
spearheaded initially by English statistician Sir Francis Galton (1869, 1883). Specifically, Galton
believed intelligence to be a quantifiable construct through measurement of individual sensory
and motor functions such as visual acuity, reaction time, and manual grip strength. More
contemporary intelligence tests first appeared through the work of Alfred Binet and Theodore
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Simon, who were commissioned by the French government in 1894 to develop an objective
method of distinguishing between normal and intellectually challenged children. Their
subsequent 1905 Binet-Simon intelligence scale enjoyed wide use (Binet & Simon, 1905; Binet,
1908; Binet, 1911), and was soon thereafter adapted for use in the United States by Stanford
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professor Lewis Terman (Terman & Childs, 1912; Terman, 1916). His resulting Stanford-Binet
scale was normatively based on a representative sample of 1,000 children and adolescents under
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the age of 14. Terman expanded the mental age categories first used in the Binet-Simon, to
include adults based on a frequency distribution of 30 businessmen and 32 high school students.
As the United States entered the First World War in 1917, adult intelligence testing
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became an important tool in the assessment of draftees. American psychologist Robert Yerkes
was charged with the task of developing psychometric tools to assign recruits to various levels of
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military service, a charge that resulted in the Army Alpha and Army Beta group-based tests.
Guided by Binet’s conceptualization of mental faculties and Yerkes’ advocacy for point scale
measures (i.e., functions that would not be expected to change significantly with age; Yerkes,
1917), the Army Alpha was intended for individuals with proficiency in reading/writing in
English whereas the Army Beta was intended as a nonverbal supplement. The collective efforts
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of Binet, Simon, Terman, and Yerkes ultimately formed the basis for the modern intelligence test
series, developed by Jewish American psychologist David Wechsler. Using the clinical skills and
statistical training acquired as a mentee of statistician Charles Spearman and as a World War I
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psychology examiner, Wechsler constructed a series of intelligence tests that would overtake all
others to become the most popular and widely used measures for decades to come.
Modern Approach
David Wechsler’s motivation in constructing his intelligence scale differed from that of
his predecessors. Whereas others valued intelligence tests for their utility in identifying the
“feeble-minded” or predicting academic or occupational achievement, for Wechsler, an
intelligence scale was a clinical instrument that would peer into the inner workings of the mind.
Although he understood it as a global construct, Wechsler believed intelligence to include
multiple, specific, and interrelated elements that could be individually measured. Even beyond
World War I, Wechsler saw value in the continued development and refinement of intelligence
tests appropriate for assessing adults and older adolescents.
Wechsler’s conceptualization of intelligence was reflected in his first intelligence scale,
the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, 1939). Published by the Psychological
Corporation, the Wechsler-Bellevue provided a global composite intellectual score. It also
 The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences Page 4 of 9

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provided verbal and non-verbal intellectual scores based on individual performance across 11
subtests adapted from the Stanford-Binet and Army series tests (i.e., Information,
Comprehension, Arithmetic, Similarities, Digit Span, Vocabulary, Digit Symbol, Picture
Completion, Block Design, Picture Arrangement, and Object Assembly). Importantly, Wechsler
acknowledged that this verbal/non-verbal dichotomy was but one of many potential means in
which intellectual domains could be feasibly organized. Nonetheless, the Wechsler-Bellevue was
considered innovative due to its use of calculated standard scores based on deviation quotients
derived from one’s performance relative to a population-based average. This approach
represented a significant point of departure and psychometric improvement upon Terman’s
calculation of IQ by dividing mental age by chronological age.
Released in 1955, the first Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) represented a
significant revision of the original Wechsler-Bellevue. It now specified Full Scale IQ, Verbal IQ,
and Performance IQ indexes. Perhaps most importantly, the WAIS derived norms from a
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nationally stratified sample based on US Census Bureau data, which was an improvement over
its predecessor’s small and geographically limited standardization sample. Subsequent revisions
were released in 1981 (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised; WAIS-R) and 1997
(Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition; WAIS-III), which included revisions to test
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instructions, scoring rules, and the subtests themselves. Normative data were also more carefully
stratified. New index scores were released, representing fluid-intellectual domains of working
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memory and processing speed. However, the most ambitious revision of the WAIS was still yet
to come.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV)
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The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV; Wechsler, 2008) was
released in 2008. Together, the 10 core subtests of the four index scales constitute the WAIS-IV
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Full Scale. Full Scale performance can be summarized using a composite score, the Full Scale
IQ, as a measure of overall cognitive ability (FSIQ; Wechsler, 2008). FSIQ is comprised of four
indexes: the Verbal Comprehension Index, Perceptual Reasoning Index, Working Memory
Index, and Processing Speed Index (standard scores: mean=100, standard deviation=15) that are
all based on a number of core and supplemental subtests (scaled scores: mean=15, standard
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deviation=3) that provide pertinent clinical information and flexibility in implementation. This
WAIS revision offered multiple benefits over its predecessors, including revised instructions and
improved floor/ceiling scores for reduced testing time, redesigned record forms for ease of use,
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subtest changes to reduce burden on motor demands, enlarged visual stimuli, and increased
portability (Wechsler, 2008).
Primary and supplementary indexes. The WAIS-IV Verbal Comprehension Index
(VCI; Wechsler, 2008) includes subtests that measure verbal abilities including expression of
lexical and semantic knowledge, concept formation, abstract reasoning, and problem-solving.
WAIS-IV VCI is composed of three core subtests: Similarities (i.e., concept formation and
abstract reasoning for pairs of related words), Vocabulary (i.e., lexical knowledge and expressive
vocabulary), and Information (i.e., degree of one’s general semantic knowledge). There is also
one supplemental subtest that is optional in the WAIS-IV administration, Comprehension (i.e.,
practical knowledge and judgment using knowledge of abstract social conventions and rules).
The Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI; Wechsler, 2008) includes subtests that measure
nonverbal perception, organization, manipulation, and reasoning. WAIS-IV PRI is composed of
three core subtests: Block Design (i.e., three-dimensional praxis, problem solving), Matrix
Reasoning (i.e., pattern recognition, nonverbal abstract problem-solving, inductive spatial
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reasoning), and Visual Puzzles (i.e., spatial rotation, reasoning, and nonverbal abstract problem-
solving). There are two supplemental subtests, including Figure Weights (i.e., quantitative and
analogical reasoning) and Picture Completion (i.e., visual perception, recognition, organization).
The Working Memory Index (WMI; Wechsler, 2008) is comprised of subtests that assess
simultaneous and sequential processing, attention, and concentration. WAIS-IV WMI includes
two core subtests: Digit Span (i.e., auditory processing, attention/concentration, mental
manipulation) and Arithmetic (i.e., attention/concentration, mental calculation, numerical
reasoning). It also includes one supplemental subtest, Letter-Number Sequencing (i.e., sequential
processing, mental manipulation, attention/concentration). The Processing Speed Index (PSI;
Wechsler, 2008) includes subtests the measure the speed of mental and graphomotor processing.
WAIS-IV PSI includes two core subtests: Symbol Search (i.e., visuoperceptual speed,
visuomotor coordination, visual scanning, visual working memory, decision-making) and Coding
(i.e., visuoperceptual speed, visuomotor coordination, visual working memory). There is also one
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supplemental subtest, Cancellation (i.e., visuoperceptual speed).
One concern regarding the WAIS has been the role of neuropsychological deficits in the
reliability and validity of index scores, as neurologically compromised populations are more
likely to display fluid impairments which may mask differences between general cognitive
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ability and other functions. To address this concern, the WAIS-IV included two optional
composite scores. The first score serves to summarize general intellectual ability by eliminating
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working memory and processing speed performances from consideration (i.e., General Ability
Index or GAI; Wechsler, 2008). Conversely, test users also have the option of a composite score
that allows the user to distinguish fluid-intellectual from crystallized-intellectual abilities (i.e.,
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Cognitive Proficiency Index or CPI; Wechsler, 2008).

Psychometric properties. The WAIS-IV (Wechsler, 2008) was standardized using a
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national sample representative of the U.S. English-speaking population aged 16 years 0 months
to 90 years 11 months. Data were collected from March 2007 to April 2008. Stratified sampling
was utilized to ensure representation of selected demographic variables based on U.S. Census
Bureau data from 2005. Demographic variables of interest included age, sex, race/ethnicity,
education level, parent education level, and geographic location. Amongst those excluded were
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individuals with physical or psychiatric conditions that might affect performance (e.g., traumatic
brain injury, dementia, mood disorder, substance abuse/dependence) and individuals currently
taking medication that might impact performance (e.g., anticonvulsants, antipsychotics).
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The WAIS-IV normative sample was divided into 13 age groups: 16:0–17:11, 18:0–
19:11, 20:0–24:11, 25:0–29:11, 30:00–34:11, 35:0–44:11, 45:0–54:11, 55:0–64:11, 65:0–69:11,
70:0–74:11, 75:0–79:11, 80:0–84:11, 85:0–90:11. The nine younger age groups contained 200
participants each, while the four older age groups contained 100 participants each. An equal
number of males and females were contained in each age group, with the exception of the five
older age groups, which each contained more women than men. The proportion of Whites,
African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, and other racial groups in each age group reflected the
U.S. population. Five education levels were defined: <=8 years, 9-11 years, 12 years, 13-15
years, and >= 16 years. Parent education was used for examinees aged 16 to 19. The four major
geographic regions of the U.S. (i.e., Northeast, Midwest, South, West) were represented.
WAIS-IV reliability properties are reviewed within the user manual (Wechsler, 2008).
Split-half reliability is generally strong for both FSIQ (i.e., ranging from .97 to .98 across the
thirteen normative age groups) and primary indexes (i.e., VCI = .96, PRI= .95, WMI=.94,
PSI=.90), and range from adequate to strong across core and supplemental subtests (i.e., overall
 The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences Page 6 of 9

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core subtest median of .89; overall supplemental subtest median of .87). Test-retest coefficients
are also strong for the FSIQ (i.e., r=.96 across test-retest intervals ranging from 8 to 82 days) and
primary indexes (i.e., VCI= .96, PRI=.87, WMI=.88, PSI=.87), and for subtests range from as
high as .90 (Information) to .74 (Matrix Reasoning). Inter-rater reliability coefficients are
similarly strong, ranging from .98 to .99 across all subtests – even in subtests with greater
inherent subjectivity in scoring (i.e., Similarities=.93, Information=.97, Vocabulary=.95, and
Comprehension=.91).
WAIS-IV validity properties are likewise reviewed within the user manual (Wechsler,
2008). Multiple confirmatory factor analysis studies support the four-factor structure of the
WAIS-IV. Construct, structural, and incremental validity has been established for the primary
indexes though subtest validity is less strong (Nelson, Canivez, & Watkins, 2013; Wechsler,
2008). Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the WAIS-IV (Wechsler, 2008) has
also been established via correlational studies with the WAIS-III, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
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Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV), Wechsler Memory Scale-III (WMS-III), Children’s
Memory Scale (CMS), Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II (WIAT-II), Brown Attention-
Deficit Disorder Scales (Brown ADD), Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS),
California Verbal Learning Test-Second Edition (CVLT-II), and Repeatable Battery for the
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Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) across clinical populations.

Clinical Indications and Considerations
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The WAIS-IV plays a central role in clinical practice. It has broad applicability to
individuals aged 16–90 years, with a great deal of research describing patterns of cognitive
performance across demographic, developmental, injury, and disease-related variables;
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normative data can be obtained for many clinical populations including those with intellectual
disabilities, learning disorders, acquired brain injury, psychiatric disturbance, neurodegenerative
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illness. Both normative and item-response data can also be utilized in the characterization of test
performance and disambiguation of clinical diagnoses.
In 2009, Advanced Clinical Solutions (ACS; Pearson, 2009a; Pearson, 2009b) was
released as a supplement to the WAIS-IV and WMS-IV. ACS includes an assortment of
additional scores, indexes, norms, and subtests that enhance and expand normative comparisons,
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assess functional status and social cognition, and detect suboptimal effort. The ACS Test of
Premorbid Functioning (TOPF) is an additional valuable subtest that provides estimation of an
individual’s premorbid cognitive functioning, allowing for comparison with current functioning.
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While WAIS-IV and ACS provide a wealth of information in and of themselves,

clinicians should keep in mind that performance should always be interpreted in light of
important contextual factors such as medical history, psychiatric history, psychosocial history,
education, behavioral observations, previous testing performance, and the purpose of the
evaluation. The complexity of the data obtained necessitates comprehensive training at the level
of neuropsychologists, clinical psychologists, and school psychologists. One critical
consideration to the interpretation of WAIS-IV data is level of task engagement and effort
(Boone, 2008). This determination should always be made on the basis of multiple sources of
information and informed by objective measures of performance. WAIS-IV and ACS together
include multiple embedded measures of performance validity (i.e., Reliable Digit Span, Word
Choice subtest) that users can consider in light of base rates for normal, feigned impairment, and
clinical populations.
Use of the WAIS-IV also requires clinicians to manage the test and the data obtained in
an ethical manner. Clinicians should not base their assessment, interpretation, or
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recommendations on data that are outdated or inconsistent with the purpose of the measure. For
example, using the most updated version of WAIS-IV with appropriate normative adjustments is
critical for accurate and responsible assessment. Populations show gains in intelligence testing
performance over time and, as such, intelligence tests must be standardized periodically to
maintain accuracy (i.e., Flynn Effect; Flynn, 1987). On average, fluid intelligence testing
performance increases by one standard deviation per generation, while performance on
crystalized intelligence measures increases by less than a standard deviation. Increases have also
been reported across other cognitive domains including semantic and episodic memory. It
remains unclear what is driving the Flynn Effect, though some have hypothesized that literacy,
testing familiarity, health, and environmental complexity could be contributing factors.
While our review relates only to the WAIS-IV and its contributions to intellectual
assessment, we feel it important to note that development of the next revision is already well
underway. Data collection for the WAIS-5 began in spring 2016 and will continue through 2019.
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Anticipated benefits include extensive updates to the normative sample, and opportunity for
users to choose administration in either paper or digital formats. Until then, however, the WAIS-
IV reigns as the most widely used intelligence assessment.
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See Also
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REFERENCES
Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1905). Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des
anormaux [New methods for the diagnostic of the intellectual level of abnormal persons].
L'Année Psychologique, 11, 191–244.
Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1908). Le développement de l'intelligence chez l'enfant [The
development of intelligence in children]. L'Année Psychologique, 14, 1–94.
Binet, A. (1911). Nouvelle recherches sur la mesure du niveau intellectual chez les enfants d'
école [New studies on the measurement of the intellectual level of children in schools]. L'Année
Psychologique, 17, 145–201.
Boone, K. (2008). The need for continuous and comprehensive sampling of effort/response bias
during neuropsychological examinations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23, 729-741.
 The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences Page 8 of 9

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Nelson, J.M., Canivez, G.L., & Watkins, M.W. (2013). Structural and incremental validity of the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition with a clinical sample. Psychological
Assessment, 25(2), 618-630.
Pearson (2009a). Advanced Clinical Solutions for the WAIS-IV and WMS-IV: Administration and
scoring manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
Pearson (2009b). Advanced Clinical Solutions for the WAIS-IV and WMS-IV: Clinical and
interpretative manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (1939). Measurement of adult intelligence. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
Wechsler, D. (2008). WAIS-IV Administration and Scoring Manual. San Antonio, TX: The
Psychological Corporation.

FURTHER READING
Lichtenberger, E.O., & Kaufman, A.S. (2009). Essentials of WAIS-IV Assessment. Hoboken, NJ:
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John Wiley & Sons.
Sattler, J.M., & Ryan, J.J. (2009). Assessment with the WAIS-IV. La Mesa, CA: Jerome M.
Sattler Publisher.
Wechsler, D. (2008). WAIS-IV Administration and Scoring Manual. San Antonio, TX: The
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Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (2008). WAIS-IV Technical and Interpretive Manual. San Antonio, TX: The
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Psychological Corporation.
Weiss, L.G., Saklofske, D.G., Coalson, D., Raiford, S.E. (2010). WAIS-IV Clinical Use and
Interpretation: Scientist-Practitioner Perspectives. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
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BRIEF BIOGRAPHIES
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Thomas R. Valentine, MA is a doctoral candidate in clinical psychology, with concentrations in

health psychology and quantitative psychology, at The Ohio State University. His research
interests include examining the intersection of cognition and emotion in chronic disease
populations. He has received training in neuropsychological assessment and cognitive
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rehabilitation. Following completion of his doctoral degree and post-doctoral training, he plans
to continue to embrace his passion for research, clinical work, and teaching via a career in
clinical neuropsychology.
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Cady Block, PhD is an assistant professor, and Research Director of the Neuropsychology
Clinic in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health at The Ohio State University. She
holds concurrent appointments in the Departments of Neurology and Neurosurgery. Her research
is in neuropsychological assessment of epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, movement disorders, brain
injury, and chronic pain. She is involved in national leadership, with positions in the Society for
Clinical Neuropsychology, International Neuropsychological Society, and American Academy of
Clinical Neuropsychology. She is a recipient of the Early Career Award (National Academy of
Neuropsychology) and Young Investigator Award (American Pain Society).

Kara Eversole, BS is a graduate of Denison University in Granville, Ohio. She is currently a

neuropsychological psychometrician in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health at
The Ohio State University College of Medicine. She is involved in face-to-face assessment of
adults with a range of presenting clinical diagnoses including epilepsy, demyelinating conditions,
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movement disorders, dementia, and brain injury. She is also involved in research, managing the
clinic’s longitudinal dataset. She is looking forward to attending graduate school to achieve her
long-term goal of becoming a board-certified clinical neuropsychologist in an academic medical
center.

Laura Boxley, PhD is an assistant professor, and Training Director of the Neuropsychology
Clinic in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health at The Ohio State University. She
holds concurrent appointments in the concurrent appointments in the Departments of Neurology
and Psychology. Her research is in the neuropsychological assessment of postconcussive
disorder. She is involved in national leadership, holding a position within the Membership
Committee within the Society for Clinical Neuropsychology.

Erica Dawson, PhD is an assistant professor, and Clinical Director of the Neuropsychology
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Clinic in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health at The Ohio State University. She
holds concurrent appointments in the concurrent appointments in the Departments of Neurology
and Psychology. Her research is in the neuropsychological assessment of brain tumors. She is
involved in national leadership, with positions in the Early Career Committee and Award
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Committee within the Society for Clinical Neuropsychology.

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