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PRESBYTERIAN PARACLETE COLLEGE

“A” LEVEL HISTORY SCHOOL SYLLABUS

PAPER 4: THE HISTORY OF TROPICAL AFRICA, 1855 – 1914

Taught by: Mupeni C.C

MAIN TEXT BOOK : MICHEAL TIDY

OVERVIEW

This paper covers a period of rapid change in African History, in an African rather than imperial
perspective although candidates must continue to expect questions on European activities in Africa.
Questions are derived from as early as 1855 up to 1914. The syllabus meets standard requirements for
ZIMSEC. Students are expected to derive examples from Central Africa, East and West Africa. Therefore
the syllabus requires a reasoned comparison of differing situations, developments and personalities
within the three broad geographical regions.

Syllabus content should be covered in time in order to provide ample time for revision.

TOPICS TO BE COVERED WILL BE DISTRIBUTED AS FOLLOWS:

TERM 1

1. THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

 Factors which led to its rise
 Characteristics of slavery in West Africa
 Transition to legitimate trade
 Abolition
 Effects

2. DAHOMEY
 Background
 Internal organization / political, social, economic
 Dahomean measures towards legitimate trade
 Fall of Dahomey

3. ASANTE EMPIRE
 Factors which led to its rise
 Internal Organization
 Prempeh 1 : aims, works, strategies
 Prempeh’s importance in African History
4. MANDINKA EMPIRE
 Background
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 Samori Toure
 Internal organization
 Resistance against the French
 Significance of Samori

5. THE NIGER DELTA STATES

 Background
 The House System – economic, political and social
 Jaja of Opobo
 Significance of Jaja

TERM 2

6. ETHIOPIA
 Background
 Factors which promoted unity
 Tewodros
 Yohannis IV (1872 – 1889)
 Menelik II (1889 – 1918)

7. THE PARTITION OF AFRICA

 Background
 Causes of Partition -political, economic and Social
 Berlin West Africa Conference
 Effects of the Scramble
 Formal and Informal Empire

8. AFRICAN RESPONSE TO IMPERIALISM

 Lobengula of the Ndebele
 Chartered Companies e.g Royal Niger Company, BSACo
 Concessionary Trading Companies
 Lewanika of the Lozi

TERM 3

9. AFRICAN COLONIAL RESISTANCE

 The First Chimurenga – causes, nature, results
 The Maji Maji Rising (1905 – 1906)
10. THEORIES OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION / RULE
 Assimilation
 Association
 Indirect rule
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 Direct rule

HISTORY OF TROPICAL AFRICA

ZIMSEC CODE: 9155/4

READING LIST

Afigbo. A.E (etal).The Making of Modern African Volume 1 the 19 th Century. Essex, Longman, 1998.

Africa Journal ltd.Makers of Modern Africa. Profiles in History. London, African Journal ltd, 1981.

Ajayi, J.F.A. (eds).History of West Africa. Volume 2. Essex, Longman, 1987.

Beach, D.N. War and Politics in Zimbabwe. 1840 – 1900. Gweru, Mambo Press, 1994.

Boahen, A. Adu. (ed). General History of Africa. Abridged Edition VII Africa Under Colonial Domination
1880 – 1935. London, James Currey, 1990.

Boahen, A.Topics in West Afican History – Second Edition. Harlow, Pearson Education Limited, 2005.

Buah, F.K.History Notes West Africa since AD 1000 Book One: The People. London, Macmillan, 1981.

Catchpole, B etal. A History of West Africa in Maps and Diagrams. London, Collins Educational, 1983.

Curtin, P. (etal).African History from Earliest Times to Independence (Second Edition). London,
Longman, 1978.

Hopkins, A.G.An Ecomic History of West Africa. Essex, Longman, 1993.

Isichei, Elizabeth. History of West Africa since 1800. London, Macmillan Publishers,1985.

Maxon, Robert. M. East Africa: An introductory History. Nairobi, East African Educational Publishers,
1979.

McEwan, P.J.M. Nineteenth Century Africa. Oxford, Oxford University Press,1978.

Mwijage, J.F.K Fr. Major events in African History: A guide to the study of the origins and development
of the modern African states. Morogoro, Salvatporian Institute of Philosophy and Theology,
2004.

Okoth, A.A History of Africa 1855 – 1914 (New enlarged Edition). Nairobi East African Educational
Publishers,1979

Okoth, A.Essays on Advanced Level History: 1855 – 1914. Nairobi, Heinemann, 1985.
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Prew, M.“A” Level African History Essay Writing Skills Paper 13. Harare, Longman, 1993.

Roland, Oliver and Antony, Atmore. Africa Since 1800 – Second Edition. London, Cambridge University
Press, 1977.

Thatcher, Paul. Students Notes on the History of Africa in the 19 th and 20th Centuries. Essex, Longman,
1990.

Tindall, P.E.N. History of Central Africa. London, Longman, 1978.

Rodney, W. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dar es Salam, Tanzania Publishing House, 1972.

Wanatosi, J.A.R. Mastering History for Advanced Level., Africa Since 1855- 1914. Kampala, Riso Printers,
1996.

Webster, J.B. (etal).The Revolutionary Years West Africa since 1800 (New Edition). Essex, Longman,
1992.

Wills, A. J.An Introduction to the History of Central Africa. London. Oxford University Press. 1964.

Wills, A.J. An Introduction to the History of Central Africa. Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe. 4thEdition.
Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990.

N.B: This reading list should act as a guideline. IT IS NOT EXHAUSTIVE hence students are encouraged
to consult other textbooks, the internet and reference materials for more information.

THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

DEFINATION
 This is a commercial system to recruit forced labour from Africa and escort to America and
Europe
 West Africa is the most hard hit region in Africa
 West Africans were escorted to the Americas and Europe as slaves.
 Africans were regarded as objects to be bought
 Slave trade, that is, is buying and selling of human beings was a violation of all morals and
human principles
 It is the worst ever calamity to be fell the African people.
 Many European and American commodities such a sugar, tobacco, cotton and a number of
precious metals were produced by slaves in Africa for allowing capitalist expansion of Europe
 In most cases Europeans brought goods in exchange of human beings
 The trans-Atlantic slave trade enhanced the living standards of many Europeans and Americas
and at the same time it contributed to the misery and underdevelopment of millions of Africans
and destroyed their traditional values and institutions

FACTORS WHICH LED TO THE RISE OF TRANS ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

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1) Part of the answer lies in the discovery of the Americas and the rise of plantation agriculture
 America’s climate produced different commodities which were in demand in Europe e.g.
Virginia tobacco, rice and indigo (a form of dye)
 America provided land for agriculture, Europe provide the capital, organisation and demand
for raw material while Africa provided cheap labour in the form of slaves
 At first Europeans tried to bring labour from Europe but these proved unreliable as they
were expensive and not readily available.
 The other alternative was to use indigenous Indians but they proved less adaptable to
systematic agricultural labour and were highly susceptible to European diseases
 Most of them died from European diseases e.g. small pox, syphilis and agricultural labour
and also from various wars which were associated with the pacification of areas.
 Some Indians fled and Spaniards found the export of the Africans to the New World as the
solution to the labour problem.
 As more mines were opened and plantations set up the demand for slaves increased.

2) The scientific racist attitudes towards blacks

 It was generally argued that blacks (African) people were fit for manual labour
 It was also argued at Africans were cheap and more productive in the different conditions of
America

3) The existence of unfree systems of labour in African societies also contributed to the slave
trade
 The African chiefs had the final say in all the work that was to be done.
 Therefore, the Africans did not resist being sold into slavery

SLAVERY AND SLAVE TRADE IN WEST AFRICA

West Africa suffered more from slavery than any other part of Africa. The Portuguese were the first to
capture slaves in the Africa and transport them across the Atlantic Ocean in 1518.
Britain, France, Netherlands and Spain also joined the trade and by the 18 th century Britain was the
leading buyer of slaves in West Africa. The most affected areas include Senegambia, the Upper Guinea
Coast, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Volta River Basin up to Benin and Cameroon up to Angola, Niger Delta
and Yoruba land.
There were various ways of capturing slaves :
a) Raiding –many slaves were killed in the process
b) Warfare- this increased wars and made life insecure
c) Kidnapping
d) Collecting tribute
e) Purchasing or exchange
f) Disposing of criminals.
 Given the fact that the majority of slaves were captured through war, raids and tribute. Millions
of Africans died in the process while they fought for freedom. Slave gathering expeditions were
disruptive of the day to day running of African cities. Slave traders offered African middleman
manufactured items such as cloth, armaments, guns and gunpowder, spirits and tobacco .
 These goods are better described as shoddy, useless consumables or “assorted rubbish” to use
Walter Rodney’ (1972) phrase.
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 Most of the goods were rejects of Europe, second hand goods or even intended to cause harm
and chaos among African societies especially spirits and guns.
*Guns--for promoting warfare and killing each other. The policy is persued up to this day where
the divide and rule tactic is employed.
*Spirits--to cause moral and social decay.
 These goods were exchanged for highly able-bodied Africans in their youth stages especially
between the ages of 15 and 35.
 These include the most active population of any country and slave raiders favoured men.
 A.G. Hopkins (1973:122) is of the view that “two thirds of the slaves exported were males. It is
possible that their removal might have affected female occupational roles. This might have
affected the population growth rate”.
 Slavery among the Africans benefited chiefs, headman, clan leader and professional traders for
example Susu, Mandinka, Hausa, Fulani, Dioula, Ashanti.

TRANSITION TO LEGITIMATE TRADE

 Legitimate-trade in simpler terms was a shift from trading in humans to trading in commodities
such as vegetable oil, timber, gold, groundnuts, ivory etc. These are products which were
considered legitimate or lawful.
 This so called transition to legitimate trade was not abrupt as for the first half of the 19 th century
legitimate trade and slave trade co-existed.
 Therefore, the slave trade was abandoned for another mode of exploitation which Europeans
termed legitimate trade.
 The legitimacy of the so called legitimate trade is however questionable.
N.B: WAS IT FAIR?
Were the products brought to Africa beneficial to the Africans?
Did the commodities improve the quality of life of the Africans?
 Palm oil was used in making soap and lubricants on railways and in manufacturing candles.
 Historian’s thought that, “it was easier for ordinary individuals to take part in selling palm oil in
large quantities and the slave trade. They say that palm oil could be produced by large numbers
of peasant families whereas the profit of the slave trade tended to go mainly to the ruling class.”
(Isichei:1977:15)
 This theory that the palm oil trade was democratic is only partly true.
 According to the Isichei (1977:152), “palm oil production was very laborious and sometimes
dangerous, but brought very small returns to the individual involved”.
 Real profits were made by the transporting wealthy merchants who employed slave labour.
 In 1810, 1000 tonnes of palm oil were exported to England.
 By 1855 this had risen to 40 000 tonnes.

Transition to groundnuts in Senegambia

 An economy in which slaves were exported, was replaced by an economy in which the slave was
employed in farming or in collecting and transporting agricultural products.
 In Senegambia the local climate was conducive for groundnuts production thus the transition
was quick as slaves were easily replaced by groundnuts as an export commodity.

Factors which facilitated the transition from slave trade to legitimate trade
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 Changes in the transport sector

 The export of products was necessitated by a revolution in ocean transport which occurred in
the second half the 19th century.
 This was the changeover from sailing ships to steam ships. The transportation of goods became
convenient and quick with the revolution in the transport industry.

 Transport problems
 Legitimate products wanted to be transported to the coast for export but slaves were self-
transporting and could be obtained anywhere where man lived.
 Participation in legitimate trade therefore, depended on the availability of export crops or
products and also closeness to navigable rivers.
 The navigable rivers of the Niger, the Lower Kwa lbo River and the Niger tributaries enabled oil
to be easily transported.
 However, Dahomey only had one navigable river thus there were transitional challenges in the
state. In the Niger Delta states it was easy as the small delta creeks were navigable and easily
facilitated the transportation of palm oil for export.

 Availability of export substitutes

 There were desperate searches for suitable export commodities in the Gold Coast. Supply of
gold remained static and it was only in the 1880s that an adequate export cocoa crop was
found.
 In Senegal, gum trade declined because of rival supplies from Egypt and also because of
chemical substitutes.
 Timber was easily exhausted.
 Rubber boomed in the late 19th century but could not compete with Asian plantation and
inexpert tapping destroyed the trees.

ABOLITION
Questions to answer
1) Why was the slave trade abolished?
2) Who was behind its abolition and why?
3) Did slave trade really end or it was just replaced by the so-called legitimate trade?

There is still a great deal of controversy over the circumstances that led to the abolition of the slave
trade. Some historians attribute the abolition to purely humanitarian or moral and religious
considerations while others like Erick Williams argue that the slave trade and slavery were abolished
mainly for economic reasons. Some recent scholarly works have shifted attention from a single
causal factor to the study of complex factors that led to the abolition. Such historians maintain that
the abolition came about as result of many factors including economic and humanitarian factors.

1. The slave trade was partly abolished both for humanitarian and economic factors.
 It was condemned by both philosophers and economists such as Rousseau and Adam Smith
as well as evangelists such as John Wesley.
 Many people who attacked slavery were men who were personally committed to the
evangelists and humanitarian ideals.
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 Church men wanted to spread Christianity among Africans. Evangelicals argued that slavery
was evil because it contravened the law of God according to which “ all men should be
brothers under the fatherhood of God” (Afigbo: 128).

2. Anti-slavery movements were established e.g. British Anti-Slavery Movement with leaders
such as Granville Sharp, William Wilberforce, Thomas Clarkson and a former Ibo slave called
Olauda Equiano (Okwaonga) Gustavas Vasa the African.
 Olauda was a Nigerian kidnapped and sold into slavery.
 These people organized and conducted mass public lectures to arouse public opinion against
the trade until their aims were achieved by the abolition of the slave trade around 1807 and
eventually slavery around 1833.
 Their lectures evaluated the evils of the slave trade and also the rewards from the
development of African natural resources i.e. legitimate trade.
 However, if moral and humanitarian pressure alone has been sufficient the slave trade
would have been abolished in 1792.
 The fact that the British parliament agreed to abolish the slave trade in 1807 and slavery in
1833 indicates that considerations other than humanitarian ones were more important.

3. Erick Williams and other West Indian historians championed the economic motivations for
the abolition of the slave trade by the British.
 Williams argued that from as early as the 18 th century British West Indian plantations did not
compete with French, Spanish and Brazilian plantations.
 In other words British West Indian planters began to support the campaign for the abolition
of the slave trade because they were alarmed by the competitive development of the new
fertile French and Dutch colonies.

4. Economists for example Adam Smith argued that slave labour was inherently inefficient,
unproductive and wasteful.
 These economic thinkers propagated and popularised the idea that free trade, free
competition and free labour were more profitable than rigidly regulated trade and forced
labour.
 Slavery was forced labour therefore; the slave could not give his or her best because he was
made to work against his / her will.
 In Britain the largest slave trading nation the new order of industry and commerce was also
beginning to overshadow the interest of the West Indian slave owners who had for a long
time bean a powerful group in parliament.
 As more and more manufacturing machines came into use the demand for more raw
materials increased and many industrialists as well as humanitarians began to argue that
instead of exporting Africans to America, African labour could be more profitably employed
in Africa to produce commodities such as palm oil, groundnuts, and cotton and then
manufactured good could be sold in African markets.
 Thus, missionaries were first sent to Africa as if they were apologists of slavery but in reality
they wanted to pave a new way of exportation of Africans for the benefit Europe.
 This is how the so called legitimate trade was born and it was replaced later on by
imperialism or colonialism.
 The old system of exploitation was old fashioned. Europeans had found new ways of
exploiting Africans i.e. legitimate trade.
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 The slave trade was therefore outdated and had to be abolished.

5. The slave trade destroyed itself

 By the middle of the 18th century surplus capital, part of which came from the slave trade
had helped to bring about the industrial revolution in Britain. This later spread to other parts
of Europe.
 This application of science and technology to industries made it easier and quicker to turn
raw materials into manufactured goods.
 Raw materials were needed in the industries. Thus it was realised that it was indeed
profitable to abolish the slave trade and move on to legitimate trade in palm oil, vegetable
oil, rubber, cotton, timber, ivory, minerals etc. which were all abundant in West Africa.
 This sis supported by Boahen (2005:111) who pointed out that, “ The slave trade was
abolished largely because it had become more profitable to seek in West Africa raw
materials and markets rather than slaves”.

EFFECTS OF THE TRANS ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE ON WEST AFRICA

This is a subject which according to A.G Hopkins’ words “has provoked a number of vehement and
usually condemnatory historical judgements.” Following the publication of Walter Rodney’s book
How Europe underdeveloped Africa(1972) it became widely acceptable that the slave trade retarded
economic growth or development in Africa, it prevented the development of a gestating indigenous
revolution and that it laid the foundation for the underdevelopment of Africa. Rodney explained
how this could have happened by arguing that;

I. He argued that slave trade was associated with insecurity. Slaves were often captured through
raiding and warfare.
II. Through the importation of inferior goods which he called “assorted rubbish”. These were goods
of no economic value as far as development was concerned.
III. Through the exportation of inventors and labourers. Somehow this tends to exaggerate the
impact of the slave trade though.

1 Demographic impact.
 Has been labelled as the number’s game.
 Millions of Africans were shipped across the Atlantic.
 Even though historians are not well agreed on the actual number of Africans affected by the
slave trade, generally the numbers range between 10-100 million.
 W. Rodney makes a very good observation as he attacks slavery and slave trade apologists
by reminding them to take note of Africans:
 Who died during the raids and wars.
 Died during transportation from the interior to the coast.
 Died on transit in the ships where conditions were in humane.
 Were displaced by the wars and raids.
 Thus A.G Hopkins referred to the slave trade as “the greatest migration of all times”.
 These migrations retarded development as evidenced by the fact that in the late 19 th
century and in the early 20th century when the African economies were expanding rapidly
there was a serious shortage of labour in many parts of Africa. Thus development could
have been faster if the slave trade had not retarded population growth.
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2 Growth of nation states

 Foreign trade encouraged the expansion of some states such as Dahomey and Oyo and also
changed their structure and as a result contractual relationships become more important.
 The Africans managed to export their produce e.g. palm oil, groundnuts, timber, gold, gum
etc. and gained a greatly in foreign commerce. In 1750 for example the king of Dahomey
had a gross revenue of about 250 00 Pounds from overseas sales of slaves.
 Most of this was used to acquire cloth, hardware and salt which helped to raise living
standards.
 However the “terms of trade... exploited or cheated Africans” (Hopkins: 1973:120).
 Africans exported quality raw materials in return for “shoddy goods” as evidenced by poor
quality guns and often sub-standard products.
 The foreign imports also led to the decline of local African industries.
 European products were of low quality and therefore, very cheap thus African products
were wiped from the market.
 Thus, the so-called international trade failed to act as an engine of growth in West Africa.
 The guns from international trade were severely limited, quantitatively, qualitatively,
geographically and socially.

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Assess the relative importance of the factors that contributed to the decline of the slave trade in
either West Africa or East Africa. (Nov 2004 CAMB / NOV 2013 CAMB)
2. How and why were Dahomey and the Niger Delta States able to make the transition from the
slave trade to legitimate trade quickly and successfully? (Nov 2003 CAMB or Nov 2010 ZIMSEC).
3. Examine the problems experienced in the transition from the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade to
legitimate trade in West Africa. Account for the ultimate success of the transition. (NOV 2004
ZIMSEC).
4. Explain the survival of the overseas slave trade and of domestic slavery in East and West Africa
in the second half of the 19th century. (Nov 2005 CAMB).
5. Why was the transition from the slave trade to legitimate trade accomplished with speedy and
efficiency in either Dahomey or in Opobo in the Niger Delta? (Nov 2006 CAMB).
6. Why did the slave trade, from and within East and West Africa, continue into the second half of
the 19th century? (Nov 2007 CAMB).
7. What lasting effects did the slave trade have upon the states and people of West Africa? How far
did the transition to legitimate trade affect the economic and social development of that
region. (Nov 2009 CAMB).
8. What difficulties, both within and external to East Africa, delayed in the ending of the slave
trade in that region? How were these difficulties overcome? (Nov 2010 CAMB).
9. What challenges did African states meet in trying to adjust to the changes brought about by the
abolition of the slave trade? How successfully were these challenges addressed.
10. With what success did West African states meet the challenges created by the abolition n of the
slave trade? (Nov 2009 ZIMSEC).
11. With reference to specific examples explain why and show how some West African states
managed and others found it difficult to make the transition from slave trade to legitimate
trade. (Nov 2011 ZIMSEC) .
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12. By what means, and with what success, was the slave trade suppressed in West Africa? (Nov
2012 ZIMSEC)
13. How and why, were some West African states able to make the transition from slave trade to
legitimate trade relatively quickily and successfully? (JUNE 2013 ZIMSEC).
14. “Failure to get a substitute was the main obstacle to the abolition of the slave trade in West
Africa.” How far do you agree with this statement? ( Nov 2013 ZIMSEC).

PRE-COLONIAL EAST AFRICA

 The first outside influence in East Africa was not European but Arabic from the Middle East.
 There was a strong Islamic religious and culture influence and the development of a new
language Swahili derived from Arabic and Africa languages.
 Trade was very important to tell area with the slave and ivory trade dominating.
 In East Africa the slave trade continued well into the latter half of the 19 th Century because of
the following reasons:
a) there was no viable alternative.
b) there was very little mineral in the area.
c) the area was affected by drought with very little agricultural potential except in the Great Lakes
region.
 The slaves from East Africa were going to Arabia and India. There the slave trade was in the
hands of Arabs and Indians.
 The slaves were used in plantations by Arabs. They were also used by other Africans.
 From the mid 18th to the 19th Century, there was an increase in demand for slaves because the
French established plantations in their possessions in the Indian Ocean e.g. Mauritius.
 From the beginning of the 19th Century, there was a further increase in the demand for slaves.
This was because they had shut down slave trade in West Africa when Brazil, Cuba and Portugal
still needed slaves. This resulted in the continued existence of the slave trade from and within
East Africa.
 The price of slaves increased because they were scarce.

-The ivory trade also depended on slavery. Slavery provided cheap labour for obtaining and transporting
the ivory to the coast.

-Ivory was going mainly to Asia for bracelets for Hindu brides and some to Europe for piano keys and
billiard boards.

-The ivory trade was there considered as an alternative to the slave trade.

Arab and Swahili trades worked specific trade routes that became a highly organized network.

-The most important development in the penetration of Africa by this trade was the development of
Zanzibar as a commercial Centre and trading port. This was the result of mainly the work of Sultans of
Zanzibar egSayyid Said.
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Sayyid Said

The island of Zanzi was part of the Omani Empire Which was run by Sultan of Omani in Arabia.

-In 1886, Sayyid said became Sultan of the Empire . He was a great trader, Diplomat and
military strategist. He spent the first part of his rule in Middle East Territory but he began
more and more to realize the potential of his East African Empire.

-In 1840 he moved permanently to the tropical Island of Zanzibar making it the capital of the
empire. The Empire’s capital moved from Muscat which was a desert area.

-This move was preceeded by a period of recounquaring Omani territory at the Coast.

-He used his armed forces and Navy to do so and was ultimately able to assert his authority as
far north as Washeikh and as far South as Lindi.

-by 1837, he succeeded in controlling Mombasa by enticing the Mazrui to talks and then exiling
them.

-Having re-established loosecontrol of the area he then focoused on developing Zanzibar into
the most important trading center along the coast.

-before moving to Zanzibar, he introduced clove plantation to the Island of Pemba.

-Zanzibar grew to be the Great Commercial center in East Africa because of slave trade and
trade in Ivory and spices.

-ships from Europe, the Americas and Asia went to Zanzibar for trade.

-In the 1840s, some scholars estimate that 40 000 slaves a year went through Zanzibar.

-while in 1859, Zanzi’s export excluding slaves were worth over 310 000 pounds.

-the commercial success of Zanzibar was more important to Sayyid than the political therefore
there was no strict rigid government.

-there was no civil service and standing army. The Sultan only really had the control of city of
Zanzi itself.

-the rest of the area had self rule.

-observance of customs and economic rules was his economic policy.

-because his legacy was not political, customs duties were simplified and collection made
easier.
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-traders had to pay 50% duty on all goods at all ports.

-barter trade became outdated and they moved to buying on credit and introduced a new
copper currency, that is ,pice.

Diplomacy-Sayyid’s domination in east Africa was markedly cosmopolitan. He dealt with

Africans , Indians, Europeans and Americans.

-he worked towards the development

Born in Zanzibar about 1830, Hamid bin Muhammed el Murjebi was commonly known as Tippu Tip.

His father and mot8her were Arab but he was brought up by an African step mother, Karunde a
Nyamweziprinces of the Unyanyembe royal family

His family connections made it easier for him to establish himself as a trade of repute.

He began by trading with his Father Muhammed bin juma and in 1867, began to trade on his own
moving into the region of Tabwa.

Not content with just trading, he attacked and defeated the ruler and returned to Zanzibar with the loot

He sold this loot and made great profit.

He also gained great respect and support for being so audacious

In the 1870s he set up his own state called on the Lualaba river then accession alliance

He took the title of Sultan and for 30 years he was considered to be one of the most important rulers in
today‘s East Zaire.

He established control of the area using both force and diplomacy and those who were loyal to him
were promoted through the ranks of society.

Despite his power, he considered himself subordinate to the Sultan of Zanzibar and was therefore in a
very good position from good relations with the Zanzibar Sultanate and the Nyamwezi people.

It was relatively easy for him to establish control of the area because it was not densely populated and
was politically fragmented hence no strong opposition.

He was well supplied with fire arms and he trained his army well.

The area had a very good river system which he utilized by established a well maintained fleet and trade
canoes.

He was able to trade and maintain control using the river.

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He personally had a good relationship with the British

In 1887 he traveled with the explorer the professor, H M Stanley into the interior of the Congo

Tippu Tip was aware of the European influence in Africa and the fact that the Europeans were’ not going
home .

He tried to prevent the growth of European influence in the region by attempting to have all the African
state unite under the Sultan of Zanzibar .

Unfortunately for Tippu Tip ,non of the other African states wished to unite under the Zanzibar Sultan.
To make matters worse, the Europeans decided to take over irrespective of resistance on the part of
Africans.

In 1887, Tippu Tip signed an agreement with Leopold agreeing to govern Stanley Falls on behalf of the
Congo Free States.

He knew he was unable to resist Europeans therefore he decided to cooperate with them.

His role as the governor of Stanley Falls was to defend the free State and was given a salary and the right
to trade in anything but slaves.

Other European countries were angered by this agreement with Tippu Tip because he was a well know
slave dealer and they saw this as a betrayal of the European Christian civilizing crusade.

Tippu Tip eventually lost hope.He knew the Europeans were coming. He gave up control and retired to
Zanzibar leaving the Belgians to take over.

In 1905, Tippu Tip died in Zanzibar.

THE NGONI

Were of great influence in the central African region.

The Nguni were followers of Zwangendava who was defeated by Tshaka in 1819.

Their incursions North East Led them through Mozambique ,Zimbabwe , Malawi and finally Tanzania
where they knownNgoni because of their language .

The kingdom collapsed after Zwangendava’s death into 5 sections

The first were the TutaNgoni who raided Holoholo and the Nyamwezi.

They disrupted trade routes particularly between Ujiji andTabara.

The second splinter group was the Ngoni who invade the Hehe territory only to be ultimately defeated
by the Hehe who began using the Nguni military tacties.
 15

3rdMpezenNgoni ultimately settle in Malawi as did Mombera and the Ciwere.

The Ngoni were a warrior people. They depended on raiding for survival. They scorned agrarian life style
preferring to raid for for food supplies as well for people who could be taken as soldiers wives and
slave.

Unlike some people who enslaved’ or killed their captives, the Ngoni assimilated them, therefore
influencing the growth and development of both culture and language in the area.

Significantly, different peoples were able to form themselves into reputable states.

Some states developed as people united against the raiding Ngoni This specifically affected the
Nyamwezi and Hehe Splinters Tippu Tip eventually lost hope . He knew the Europeans were coming . He
gave up control and retired to Zanzibar leaving the Belgians to take over.

In 1905, Tippu Tip died in Zanzibar

THE NGONI

Were of great influence in the African region.

The Nguni were followers of Zwangendava who was defeated by Tshaka in the 1819.

Their incursions North East led them through Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi and finally Tanzania
where they became know as Ngoni because of their language.

The kingdom collapsed after Zwangendava’s death into 5 sections.

The first were the TutaNgoni who raided Holoholo and the Nyamwezi

They discrupted trade routes particularly between Ujiji and Tabara.

The second splinter group was the Nguni who invaded the Hehe territory only to be ultimately defeated
by the Hehe who began using the Nguni military tactics.

3rdMpezeniNgoni ultimately settles in Malawi as did Mombera and the Ciwere.

The Ngoni were a warrior people. They depended on raiding for survival. They scorned agrarian life style
preferring to raid for food supplies as well for people who could be taken as soldiers wives and slaves.

Unlike some people who enslaved or killed their captives the Ngoni assimilated them, therefore
influencing the growth and development of both culture and language in the area.

Significantly different peoples were able to form themselves into reputable states.

Some states developed as people united against the raiding Ngoni .This specifically affected the
Nyamwezi and Hehe splinters.
 16

Chief Mugumba aHehe splinter imitated the Ngoni and used a three phase programme in order to
conquer and assimilate people

Phase 1 break in by having a military attack on the people and take away their cattle and force the
traditional leaders to accept the chief’s rule.

Phase 2 Traditional leaders were either moved out and replaced with the chief own men or if they
unquestioningly accepted him, they were confirmed in their roles.

Phase 3 Young men were called to serve in the royal Army and to be educated in the royal school.

The system was laden by the belief that the chief was an overload. Allegiance to him would be seen as a
normal part of life.

THE NYAMWEZI

These people were the pioneers of the trading system of eastern Africa.

They developed trade routes long before the coastal traders moved began moving inwards.

They were able to capitalize on their geographical position as they operated in the centre of the
continent.

They were the position between the untapped interior and Zanzibar therefore they were able to build
up a trade monopoly.

They trade in salt, iron work copper; grain livestock bark goods and pottery and from the 1840s onwards
began trade in ivory.

Although they had the monopoly, their life was not easy. They faced the problem of feeding growing
numbers of caravans as a results of an agreement with Sayyid said which allowed the Swahili-Arabs
interference in the their affairs.

They also faced Ngoni incursions.

Some leaders were able to use these problems as learning experience and grew strong enough to
expand their traiding areas.

The extension of the trading network combined with the newly adopted methods of Ngoni warfare led
tothendevelopment of large successful states.

These state, which formed as small [ ntemi state] were conquered and assimilated into large groupings.

The first state, Unyanhembe, the central Nyamwezi kingdom grew up as result of having Toborabuitnear
by. However it went into decline between 1858 and 1876.

The second state was Urambo which prospered under-yaMawe.

 17

Msiri also led another highly successful Nyamwezi state.

 18

THE KINGDOM OF DAHOMEY

Location
Dahomey was located in a poor West African area in present day Benin. Dahomey was not endowed
with a lot of natural resources as there were no gold resources like its Asante neighbour (Ghana). It
was situated on a barren plateau which frequently suffered from drought and famine.

Back-ground
Dahomey was an offshoot of the big and extensive Oyo state. Dahomey was created in the early 18 th
century when King Agaja conquered the small Aja states and Quida transforming them into one
kingdom. However, Agaja failed to secure his country’s independence against Oyo. The Oyo King
(called an Alafin) was alarmed by Agaja’s conquest of these Aja states as this threatened Oyo’s trade
routes to the coast. Between 1726-1730 Oyo attacked Dahomey four times forcing Agaja to move
his capital from Allada to Abomey. Agaja agreed to pay tribute to Oyo and he was permitted to keep
his own army thus, he saved his kingdom against Oyo. Dahomey therefore, became a well-
established state. Agaja reorganised the army and set up a military school for Dahomean boys who
became disciplined and well trained soldiers. He set up a war intelligence and public information
system for spying on other states and spreading propaganda within Dahomey.

Factors which led to the rise of Dahomey / Reasons for the growth of the Dahomey Kingdom

1) Geographical location
The Dahomey state was located in the interior thus it was free from European attacks therefore,
leading to its rise.
 Dahomey had few enermies because of its location. Europeans were concentrated along
the coast.
 Originally, the Dahomeans migrated to the north from Allada where they attacked and
invaded Oyo even though in 1730 they agreed to pay tribute to Oyo.
 Their freedom to keep their own army made it possible for them to conquer other
neighbouring weaker states.
 Therefore, the collapse of the Oyo empire partially account for the rise of Dahomey.

2) Effective centralised administrative power

 Since Oyo was large and powerful it was able to protect Dahomey from external attacks
and this led to the rise of Dahomey. Dahomey rose under the armpits of Oyo.
 Effective leaders such as Glele and Gezo helped to bring the rise of Dahomey. What did
they do? They facilitated the formation of the following:
 A well organised and centralised economy.According to Mwijage (2004:36) “the
central government (was a) well organised political machinery and the King was
vested with excessive power in the state” even though the King was not a
dictator.
 The shift from slave trade to legitimate trade led to the rise as slaves provided
cheap labour in plantations thereby gaining more profits in the form of taxes.

3) The role of the army

 Thatcher (1990:35) has it that “Dahomey possessed a large, well organised
standing army”.
 19

 The use of the army contributed to the protection of plantation from enemy
attacks.
 The army also helped to raid weaker groups and also raided slaves to work in the
plantations and also bringing wealth.

4) Dahomeanisation
 There was Dahomeanisation whereby acquired groups were supposed to abandon their religion
and follow Dahomey culture.
 This promoted unity, oneness and tranquillity. Thus Dahomeanisation was total integration of
conquered states into Dahomey.
 Through Dahomeanisation anybody could become a citizen of Dahomey.

5) Hardwork
 Hardwork by all the Dahomeans especially the slaves encouraged economic growth and made
Dahomey to survive economic hardships especially the transition to legitimate trade.
 Dahomey had strong trade links with the Europeans

6) Minimum succession disputes

 There were minimum succession disputes due to the fact at only children born during their
father’s reign were entitled the takeover kingship.
 Dahomey had a well-defined system of succession to the throne.
 This eliminated potential candidates since the number of children born to a king during the
king’s tenure was limited.

7) Banning of secret societies

 All secret societies which proved a threat to the royal power were banned.

8) The social organisation

 Progress up the social ladder was through merit. This largely promoted Dahomean efficiency
thus ultimately its rise as a state.

INTERNAL ORGANISATION

SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT / POLITICAL ORGANISATION

a) The king was an absolute monarchy whose word was law throughout the kingdom.
 Dahomey had a centralised system of government and all functions of the society revolved
around the king.
 Thatcher (1990:35) made it clear that, “The King was a semi-devine, absolute monarchy
controlling every aspect of the life of the Kingdom and commanding absolute respect”
 He appointed and dismissed officials.
 Secrets societies were forbidden because they were a threat to royal power.
 Even though Dahomey’s government had been portrayed as an absolute monarchy it must be
noted that there was a Great Council which met once a year.
 The council was composed of 32 ministries and 50-80 trade administrators, army officers,
herdmen, tax collector and soldiers who had distinguished themselves in battle.
 The council had freedom to discuss any issues.
 20

 Moreover, the King was not totally above the law for example King Glele was fined for not
obeying Dahomey customary law.

b) The cabinet
 The king was assisted by the Council of State which consisted of various ministers for example
the Migan (Prime Minister), the Meu (Finance Minister), Tokpe (Minister of Agriculture),
Yevogan (Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade), the Tonomum (Minister in charge of Protocol),
the Agan (Army General), the Mingi (the Chief Magistrate and Head of Police).
 This Cabinet promoted efficiency as each and every Minister was assigned to a particular area
where he or she had to excel. These clearly defined areas of responsibility promoted
transparency in job descriptions and ultimately national success. This good organisational
structure gave Dahomey the foundation for success.

c) Naye (King’s Wives)

 These were old women who had passed child bearing age and were wives of the king.
 They were assigned to work with ministers to ensure that the minister was loyal to the king.
 According to Mwijage (2004:36) “These women spied and supplied information to the King
involving the Chief`s lifestyle and attitude towards the former. The spying network cemented
the efficiency, peace and harmony in the kingdom”.
 They were responsible for overseeing and checking the efficient conduct of the work of their
department.
 This ensured a system of checks and balances thereby bringing transparency and accountability.
 The Naye were respected and their advice was taken into consideration.

d) The army
 Dahomey had large standing army believed by European observers as the strongest and well-
disciplined of all the enemies of West Africa at that time.
 The army was “an instrument for conquering and controlling boarder towns --- a military system
which was remarkable in its time and place for both its composition and and methods of
recruitment” (Ross: 1978 in Catchpole: 1983: 63)
 The army consisted of both men and women. It was divided into 3 sections:

i. Full time soldiers

 These were increased from about 5 000 in 1840 to 12 000 in
1845 during King Gezo’s reign.
ii. The military
 These could be summoned at any time, ie, they were not full
time soldiers.
 It included the retired.
iii. The amazons
 These were women who were devoted to the king and very
courageous at war such that they were not to be undermined.
 They consisted of about 2 500 female soldiers divided into three
brigades.

 Commanders of the army in general were top cabinet ministers thus enhanding the position
of the army in decision making.
 21

 However, it must be noted that Dahomey was not a militarised state.

e) Provincial administration
 Dahomey was divided into two areas: the metropolitan and the provinces
 The Metropolitan consisted of the capital Abomey and the Provincial consisted of the
provincial capital of Allada, Whydah etc.
 Provinces were ruled by governors.
 To unite the people the leaders used dahomeanisation.
 Conquered states were to accept Dahomean rule and religion.
 Dahomeanisation included the fact that the ruling class had to accept Dahomey laws.

ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 The economy of Dahomey was highly centralised.
 The king derived revenue from taxers, custom duties and tolls.
 All products produced by agriculture were taxed.
 Hunters or even grave diggers were also taxed.
 The King of Dahomey regularly conducted a census to ensure that tax per person would be
planned and also for recruitment in the army. The census became the basis of economic
planning.
 The Fon administrators knew not only the figures for the total population but also its
distribution by province, village, sex and occupation.
 Trade was another aspect of the economy for example there was gun trade conducted at
the port and it was under the control of the King.
 Palm oil trade was also conducted. All palm oil trees were counted for the annual
production of oil in order to get enough revenue and tax.
 By the 1870s the state was exporting about three times the value of palm oil compared to
the value of slaves exported in the 1870s.
 Cowrie shells were the basic currency but trade goods were used, for example guns.
 Dahomey’s also kept cattle, dogs and sheep.
 Every livestock was controlled, that is, every butcher had to keep every skull of an animal
killed in order to be taxed on the number of beasts slaughtered.
 If sales ran ahead of production slaughter would be banned for a period.
 Each province had to grow assigned crops, for example, Abomey specialised in maize and
beans, Allada grew maize and cassava.
 The Minister of Agriculture could change the crops grown in a province depending on
demand.
 There were royal monopolies, for example, there was restricted production of honey, red
and black pepper which were under strict supervision of the King.
 The slaves worked in plantations such that even after the slave trade was abolished slaves
were still captured and were employed locally on palm oil plantations and estates of the
king.
 During the transitional period and also the legitimate trade phase slavery was introduced in
the form of pulla boys who were transporting agents, that is, transporting palm oil from the
interior to the coast.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION

a. There were 3 classes namely:

 22

The royal class,

The commoners and
The slaves / Servile class.
 The royal / Leisured class was made up of relatives of the King and past Kings.
 There were also supported by the state economically.
 The commoners were state officials appointed by the king for example cabinet ministers.
 Their position was not hereditary, for example, the Yevogan.
 These officials were given large estates and lived in major towns.
 They also had summer or rest houses on major roads.
 They were often rewarded for their allegiance and hard work.
 The slave class worked on plantations and were sacrificed to appease the gods.
NB: The commoners and slaves supplied cheap and forced labor and were to be offered as sacrifice to
god in case of need.

b. The judicial system

 Traditional laws were fair and arbitrary.
 The judiciary aided the observance of law, order and stability.
 The king was the law maker though he was not above the law.
 There were regional courts and there was also the High Court which comprised of the King
and his advisors.
 The king reserved the right to reduce the sentence if he thought at the sentence was too
severe.

c. Religious organisation
 The King was the head of all religion.
 The gods of conquered states were absorbed into Dahomey and the conquered people had
to accept Dahomeans gods.
 All secret and religious societies were not allowed in Dahomey because they proved a threat
to royal power.
 Ancestors were important for the well-being of each Dahomean family.
 Royal ancestors were important for the well-being of the whole nation.
 The Calabash ceremony was a religious and political ceremony where the monarch
displayed its wealth and power.
 Moreover, at this ceremony the people renewed their allegiance to the king.
 The Calabash was a perforated vase which was filed with water designed to symbolise the
national spirit.
 On becoming a Dahomean citizen people were required to place a finger in one of the holes
of the vase.
 The ceremony was meant to illustrate that if any citizen withdraws his finger the national
spirits will be unhappy thus the nation will suffer.
 Take note of the following illustration.

FRENCH INTERVENTION
 The French intervened around 1883 as they gave protection to Porto Novo.
 Dahomey shipped its palm oil through Quidah and Cotonou.
 However, Porto Novo wanted to be independent from Dahomey and this would undermine oil
production from Dahomey.
 23

 As the French protected Porto Novo, Dahomean revenue declined for example exports fell from
£500 000 in 1870 to £1000 in 1887.
 The French invasion encouraged the Yoroba slaves on Dahomean palm oil plantations to revolt.
 The slaves killed Dahomeans and destroyed property.
 Since Dahomey’s revenue declined the army starved as Glele could not even buy sufficient arms
and ammunition to defend Dahomey.
 Glele also believed that, “He who makes the powder must win the battle.”
 Glele was succeeded by Behanzin who decided to resist the French.
 Under Behanzin Dahomey resisted the French with 1700 repeater riffles, 6 canons and 5
machine guns. The rest of army had old, flint open riffles.
 However, duringthe war the machine guns, jammed or overheated because of improper use and
poor maintainance for example Dahomean soldiers shot from the hip and not from the shoulder
thus missing the target.
 Behanzin was finally defeated by the French in 1892.
 He was partly defeated because the coastal kingdoms of Porto Novo, Whydah and Allada
supported the French.
 Thus, Behanzin was exiled in the West Indies.

Why Dahomey was defeated?

According to Wanetosi (1996:27), “Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Dahomey began to
decline due to internal and external stridency --- the final blow to the kingdom came in 1899 when the
French subdued the territory”.
 The Dahameans were armed with old weapons which were slow to load and fire. Besides, their
weapons were rusty from disuse.
 French soldiers were highly trained and armed. Dahomeans only trained in dawn tactics and did
not know how to stop French advances
 African disunity. Slaves in the Yoruba plantations revolted
 Dahomeanisation worked against them. When the slaves revolted it became inevitable for
Dahomey to crumble. Dahomean social stratification “accelerated disunity and it precipitated
internal squabbles in the Dahomey Kingdom by the close of the nineteenth century”
(Mwijage:2004:37-38).

Measures taken by Dahomey towards legitimate trade

The transition the legitimate trade was made possible by Gezo and Glele who applied the following
measures:
a) Resistance
 Dahomey tried to continue with the slave trade because palm oil production was slow and
brought only a small amount to the state treasury. When the coast was closed down Dahomey
established new ports and smuggled slaves with the help of the Brazilians. As anti-slave trade
activists tightened their measures, profits declined and forced Gezo to adopt new measures

b) Changes under Gezo and Glele.

 Dahomey owed its efficiency much to stability of her two great rulers, that is, King Gezo (1818-
1858) and Glele (1859-1889).

King Gezo
 24

Gezo is credited for laying the foundation for Dahomean administrative efficiency. It was the
administration`s efficiency that made it possible for Dahomey to easily change to legitimate trade.
Gezo produced Dahomeans independent from the weak and increasingly inefficient Oyo empire.
Besides, it was Gezo who decided in the 1840s that Dahomey should base its economy on legitimate
trade and abandon its dependence on the slave trade. As a result Gezo encouraged palm tree
cultivation on his plantations and encouraged state officials to plant palm trees in their plantations.
King Gezo also began to divert slaves for export to plantation labour. The decision was a wise one as
by 1870 palm oil was providing Dahomey with three times the revenue she earned from the export
of slaves in 1840.

King Glele
Glele took over from his father Gezo. Under King Glele Dahomey benefited from a well organised
and centralised administration. He mentained an efficient administrative system. Position in
government were filed on merit with able men from the commoner class. King Glele also diversified
the Dahomean economy.

c) Territorial expansion
 Gezo attempted to invade Abeokuta and Egbadoland so as to move into the natural rainforest
region. This would have given him access to the Yoruba palm oil belt. His troops were however
defeated. Gezo was therefore, forced to turn to domestic or internal solutions as opposed to
external aggression.

d) Processing companies
 Processing companies were set to produce legitimate products.
 The people were involved in fishing and small scale industries (such as cotton weaving, iron
smelting and the marking of iron equipment).

e) Census
 This was done and carried out by the Tokpe, that is, The Minister of Agriculture

f) Slavery
 Instead of exporting slaves Dahomey opted to make them work in their palm oil plantations and
in transporting palm oil from the interior to the cost. The slaves in the transport business were
popularly known as pulla boys.

g) Growing of Cash crops

 Each and every province was given a particular and specific crop to produce.

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1) Assess the achievements of King Glele of Dahomey and Jaja of Opobo and analyse their
significance in African History. (Nov 1994 camb)
2) Explain how, and with what success, Dahomey and the states of the Niger Delta met the
challenge of the abolition of the slave trade. (NOV 1996 CAMB).
3) What changes were made during the pre-colonial period in the political and economic
organisation of Dahomey and the Niger Delta states inorder to meet thye new challenges
and changing conditions? (NOV 1998 CAMB)
 25

4) Why was the transition from the slave trade to legitimate trade accomplished with speedy
and efficiency in either Dahomey and in the Niger Delta states? (NOV 2000 CAMB)
5) Why was Dahomey one of Africa`s most efficient states in the pre-colonial period? (NOV
2002 CAMB).
6) How and why were Dahomey and the Niger Delta States able to make the transition from
the slave trade to legitimate trade quickly and successfully? (Nov 2003 CAMB or Nov 2010
ZIMSEC).
7) Explain the survival of the overseas slave trade and of domestic slavery in East and Qwest
Africa into the second half of the nineteenth century. (NOV 2005 CAMB)
8) Why was the transition from the slave trade to legitimate trade accomplished with speedy
and efficiency in either Dahomey or in Opobo in the Niger Delta? (Nov 2006 CAMB).
9) Why did the slave trade, from and within East and West Africa, continue into the second half
of the 19th century? (Nov 2007 CAMB)
10) Analyse the reasons why Dahomey may be considered to have been an efficient state in the
pre-colonial period. (Nov 2012 CAMB)
11) Compare and contrast the internal organisation of the Ndebele state with that of the
Kingdom of Dahomey in the 19th century. (Nov 2013 ZIMSEC)
 26

THE ASANTE EMPIRE

Location
The AsanteEmpire was located in present day Ghana, previously known as the Gold Coast

Background
The AsanteEmpire was one of the largest political units to emerge along the west coast of
Africa
There were 2 states in the gold coast whose histories are not easilyseparable i.e. Asante and
Fante
The 2 constitute what is 2 day known as the republic of Ghana
The AsanteEmpire had been created before the end of slavery
His foundation was based on gold and slave trade
The empire ruler or king was as Asantehene.

The formation of the empire

The growing expansion of the AsanteEmpire was spear headed by 3 outstanding rulers of
Asante namely: ObiriYeboa, Osei Tutu &opuku ware
These 3 rulers were able to absorb teOyoko-Elans& create a powerful nuclear& a strong
constitution at built strong banks among people
The symbol of unity among the Oyoko people was the golden stool
The golden stool was created by osei tutu as a symbol of unity
All the Oyoko groups respected individual who occupied the golden stool
This individual carried the tittle Asantehene
The Asantehene was the supreme religious & political head of the union of states
He was assisted by a council of advisors called omanhenelamanhene(kings) vassal chiefs
By the beginning of the 19th century, AsanteEmpire comprised of metropolitan & provincial
territories
Only Fante remained free of Asantecontrol& relations between the 2 were tense

The political organisation of the Asante Empire

The AsanteEmpire was organised into 3 circles
The unifying force in the empire was the military as the empire was not centrally organised

Metropolitan Asante (1st circle)

It was made up of states which were united in the 17th century
The Kumasi state was the seat of government of metropolitan Asante under the Asantehene
All the states within a radious of 35 miles from Kumasi recognised the golden stool and king
of Kumasi as their Asantehene
These states include Asumeya, Edweso, Dwaben, Nsata, Kokofu, Adanzi, Ofinso, Mampong
and Bekwai

Asante union (2nd circle)

It was made up of 7 states
Each state had its own king & each king had his own council of chiefs
All the kings of the 7 states belonged to the state council presided over by the Asantehene
 27

It was the duty of the state council to decide on issues regarding to war & peace
They formed the Supreme Court& had the power to appoint/ remove the Asantehene from
the throne
They could legally choose 1 from the council
There was also an executive council made up of some chiefs & some of the kings
Both circles recognised the golden stool which was the soul & symbol of unity of the asante
nation

Provincial asante
Its was made up of states at were conquered in the 18th century
These were tributary but they returned their political, cultural & religious beliefs
Besides they allmaintained their own leaders & traditions
They proved the allegiance to metropolitan Asante by paying annual tribute to
theAsantehene& they also gave military support when needed
Tribute was in the form of gold, slaves, cattle, military service, and agricultural service
Its people were regarded & treated as 2nd class citizens
They did not recognise the golden stool

How were the tributary states kept loyal then?

The state was almost always at war making it necessary to maintain some form of unity with
the army. Therefore the state was held together by force
Some people hired to become part of the empire for security reasons
The Fante on the other hand tried by all means to ensure at they were not absorbed this there
was conflict between the two

Army
It was 1 of the well trained &well-disciplined in west Africa
Tributary states provided extra personnel in times of need
Duties of the army included:
Making sure at tributary states maintained their loyalty & paid tribute regularly
Ensure the slave trade & slave trade routes fell under the control of the state
Capture slaves

Bureaucracy
This was increase in state control over political administration
Asante formed a system of state official who were appointed and paid by the Asantehene
Civil servants were controlled by the rule
There were 3 main categories:
Finance and tax collection
These were civil servants accountable for finance & tax collection
Judiciary
General administration
Their role was to keep records on important matters relating to justice, trade, tax collection
and general admin
They did not have much power but they supervised tributary chiefs who were all supposed to
attend the Odwira festival
 28

As time progressed the slave trade was abolished and it becomes difficult to control the army.
Thus it weakened and is was exploited by the British in the last years of the 19th century

Economic organisation
The ruler amassed resources to run the state through the allowing mechanisms
Tribute collection from tributary states
Taxes from hade since he controlled all trade routs
Profit from the state’s gold mines
Prolonged trading parts on the Atlantic coast
Agriculture also played a control role in the form of cocoa plantation or kola nuts
Asante traded with the British & the Dutch at the coast
There were government officials controlling the trade, thus Europeans were not allowed to
trade with anybody else
The Asantehene got guns from Europeans
It was the control of gun trade at government the ruler control of the state
European products e.g. cotton, liquor, beads were used to reward loyal civil servants

Social organisation
The most important & powerful religious symbol was the golden stool
It was a symbol of divinity approved authority of the ruler
Within the metropolitan area, the stool was regarded the high degree of respect however the
tributary states did not regard it as important
Therefore, there was an element of identity within the metropolitan area
Another important religious activity was the adwira festival
All tributary states were required to present themselves at the metropolitan capital, Kumasi
Taking part in this ceremony was regarded as a gesture of allegiance or loyalty in the state

British Asante relations

The British had tried on a number of occasions to win the confidence of prempeh & gain his
permission to create a protectorate over Asante
In 1894 appeal to prempeh was turned down & in the following year he sent a delegation to
London asking for the return off all territories taken over the years & incorporated into the
gold coast colony
Eventually in 1896 the British took a decision to invade Asante

Why the British invaded Asante?

They were concerned at them would lose territory to the French & the Germans who were:

Strategically positioned from the Congo& Cameroon

They wanted the gold from the territory
They wanted the gold from the territory
Prempeh did not allow British traders or merchant in the territory
Thus the British were convinced at for free trade to prevail Asantehad to be destroyed. This
could open visit areas of commence
There was tremendous missionary pressure as the Asante continued to participant in slave
trade & human sacrifices
 29

Thus, Britain wanted to invade Asante for humanitarian grounds i.e. abolishing the slave
trade & stopping the human sacrifices
There was concern at prempeh was entering into negotiations with samaritoure to form an
anti-European alliance
Racial attitudes
Sir Charles MacCathy who was the governor of the area regarded the Asantehene as
“barbaire,” because the British saw themselves as the superior race which wanted to take
control of the inferior race
It was because of such attitudes at MacCathyhad a general disregard of Asante custom laws

Anglo-Asante wars
The Asantehene’s power was greatly extensive & effective in metropolitan Asante.
Geographically Asante was a landlocked country which desired free access to the sea.
This conflicted with the British and the Fante
The British did not allow Asante access to the coast becoz they saw them as a savagery state
and a slave dealer. Thus the British adopted a policy of protecting rebels against Asante.
The British was Asante as a tyranny and did not want their friends the Fante to be part of it.
There were about 10 Anglo-Asante wars in the 19th century i.e 1807, 1811, 1823-6, 1863,
1869,1873-74, 1896,1901
The British invaded Asante in the last 3 occasions and then the other occasion Asante
invaded the coastal regions
Most of the Asantemeasure out of the syllabus thus special reference is made as made from
the 1863 wars onwards
However the 1896 wars of special significance as it was a war against one of Asante’s great
leaders i.e. prempeh 1

THE 1863 ANGLO-ASANTE WAR

This war was absolutely unnecessary
It was caused by the British governor, Richard pine’s failure to understand Asante’s laws &
culture
All gold belonged to the Asantehene under Asante’s law
A group of Asante’s men including kwesigyani store gold & took refugees in the British
court fort
The Britishrefused to surrender the Asante refugee chief janin
The Asantehenekwakudua 1 was well within his rights to demand attach men be brought to
force the Asante justice
Pine refused to allow the extraction of the criminals believing at believing at they would be
executed
The Asantehene had no choice but to attack the British or else he would look weak oin
everybody’s eyes
Reluctantly he sent his forces to the coast
The expeditions was ultimately a failure despite initial successes
The Asante men succumbed to malaria & dysentery which gare the British an advantage to
called some extra forces to attack the Asante
The British forces were later affected by the same diseases & had to withdraw
 30

The 1863 war costed the British a lot of money such as a parliamentary committee was
established & in 1865, was committee declared as British should cat he loses & pull out of
the western region
It was proving to be expensive to run the forts within this region but the British decided at
before leaving they would prepare the people to rule themselves

THE FANTE CONFEDERATION

Faced with the situation of losing British support against the Asante the Fante began to form
a stronger union against the Asante
In 1869 about 13 Fante chiefs came together & formed the Fante confederacy
They were helped by some other educated Africans such at by 1871 a constitution was
agreed upon
James Africans Horton was the driving force towards this federation
Provisions were made for a poll tax which would be the basis of the federation’s economy
The Fante unity &self-government did not work because:
The British turned around & considered the move a rebellion against their authority
Leaders of the movement were arrested, imprisoned & the scheme collapsed
The sudden change of the British policy & problems created by the Dutch forts also led to the
collapse of the Fante confederacy
Britain decided against her policy of helping people to be self-governed
The idea of a Fante confederation was too much for the British& a threat to their control of
the region. Therefore, it had to be destroyed

THE 1873 FOR NGLO-ASANTE WAR

It was caused by the Elmina question
The admitted British
The Dutch used to the port of Elmina from the British
On leaving the port the people of Elmina who had been allies of the Asantewere handed over
to their British enemies
Therefore, Asante invasion of Elmina was intended to safe guard it from British occupation
The santé also fought in order to restore their sovereignty over Denkyara, Akren, Assin
In March 1973 the Asantehene Kofi Karikari told the British od the ony move to appease
Asante was to hand these states to hes
The Asante wanted to Brede Fante position of middleman
The British responded by sending an army under sir garnet wisely which destroyed Kumasi
The Asante were defeated for a number of reasons
The Dweben refused to participate in the war
Before the war it was planned at the Dwaben would destroy the bridge at pra& cut off British
suppliers
Military Asante was at a government disadvantage
The guns they used were collated
The effective suppression off te slave trade, the departure of the Dutch & the danes in 1872
gave Asante increasing difficulty to access guns & gun powder
On the other had the British were well armed with 7 ponder guns & Enfield rifles & these
were the most up to date guns & their use decided the war
The experience & ability of sir garnet crackly determined the result,
 31

The brutish relied on well trained soldiers from Britain &lagos rather than from Fante

RESULTS OF THE 1874 ANGLO-ASANTE WAR

The war resulted in the formena treaty of 13 feb 1874
The terms were as follows:
Asante was to pay war indemnities (80 00 ounces of gold)
Asante was forced to recognised the independence of Dekyira, Wassa, Fante & Accra
Fante was declared a British colony & that’s how Fante last their independence 32 years
before the Asante
Asante was to renounce all claims of the southern states &Elmina
Asante was to withdraw all troops from the coast
Asante was to abolish human sacrifice
Kofi karikari was destroyed&mensabansa took over & was later detruded in 1883
(Asantenever recovered from the 1874 war)

THE 1896 ANGLO-ASANTE WAR

The actual cause of the invasion of Asante in 1896 is not clear
According to tidy m, the war was caused by the fact of prempeh had refused to pay the
indemnity required after the 1874 war
He maintained of the treaty of fomena was the responsibility of kofikarikari
Sagg ay &wilsen argue sys of it was prempeh use of human sacrifice in the enstodment of
instigated the war
Whatever the motivation the British launched a full scale attack on Asante in 1896
Inadequate armed, prempeh took the decision not to resist
He allowed a British resident to be based in Kumasi in the hope of they would leave him in
his position as Asantehene
However, he was mistaken in his belief
The British invasion &inquest was therefore smooth
The British had to effectively occupy Asante because they feared of France or German could
do it before them
One can overally conclude of the British used the war indemnity issue as an excuse to wage
war against Asante
In March 1896 the British occupied Kumasi & arrested prempeh, his relatives & principal
chiefs & exiled them in Elmina
They were subsequently moved to SierraLeone in 1897
One prempeh was out of the way Asante was declared a Britishprotectorate under the gold
coast colony
To consolidate his power, the British governor took steps to confiscate the golden stool in
1900
This was a direct challenge to Asante’s customs, prestige &sovereignly
Not even the Asantehene was allowed to sit on the golden stool
Asante rose against the briskish under the leadership of Asantehene, you Asante’swaa(the
queen mother)
This “rebellion” was typical of post-pacification African resistance (an uprising farmed to
resist colonial rule).
 32

PREMPEH 1
From 1883 Asante was in confusion as member state could not agree on a successor
Agyeman prempeh was elected Asantehene in 1888
On his enthronement, march 1888 prempeh 1 was faced with devastated kingdom
The kingdom was impoverished due to constant wars
It was becoming depopulated as may people them to the security of the south away from
unrest &Asante’s law
The treat of constant rebellion was a major challenge to the new Asantehene
The Oyoko chiefdoms were in revolt e.g. Dwaben, Kokofu,Adansi, Noula, Mampons etc.
This caused a serious personality clash between the Asantehene& the Amanhene
Prempeh was also facing Britishinterventionbut it was only in 1896 of Britain was able to
claim Asante as a British colony
Prempeh ruled from 1888-96

PREMPEH’S AIMS
Prempeh’s aims were basically, to undo the results of the 1875-4 war which meant:
To revive the Asante confederacy
Revive the AsanteEmpire
To avoid a military confrontation with the British
To preserve the independence of his country & his own authority in his own kingdom.
Thus, regaining & restoring Asantesovereignty
To regain last territories south of the river Pra
To regain & restore authority in provincial Asante

Prempeh’s Work & Strategies

Prempeh used war &diplomacy to achieve his aims
To restore metropolitanAsante he used military force
Heattacked& bought Kokofu back into metropolitan Asante
He crushed revolts in nsuta&mampony& brought them back into metropolitan Asante
He used shread diplomacy by taking advantage of the golden stool
He reminded the Oyoko clan of the golden stool symbolised unity, strength & authority
The omanhenes therefore gave in & were absorbed into Asante
Besides diplomacy prempeh shrewdly replaced the Omanhenes he personal clashes with,
with their younger brothers who were respected by their subjects
By 1892, prempeh had successfully regained authority in metropolitan states & he continued
working towards regaining authority in provincial Asante
Scholars differ in their views as to prempeh dealings in provincial Asante
In 1889, prempeh sent a letter to the British with regard to kwahu which he claimed to be his
territory & not part of the gold coast colony
In 1890, prempeh requested British assistance in regaining authority & in having all the
outlying provinces back under his control
They also demanded of all Asante refuges be returned to Asante
Afigbo (etal) considered this as a weakness in prempeh part
Other historians examine of prempeh wanted the British to help rebuilt the empire they had
destroyed
In 1891 prempeh rejected a proposal of Asante should become a British protectorate
 33

In 1892 & 1893 prempehattacked& defeated the baron states

In March 1894 prempeh felt firmly entrenched of he even rejected the British request to
establish a resident at Kumasi
Prempeh thought such a move would lead the establishment of a Britishprotectorate over his
empire
Prempeh was formally encoded on the golden stool in 1892
This marked the height of prempehachievements
In 1895 he sent a delegation to London to ask Britain to recognise the independence of his
country
However, the British launched a full scale attack on Asante in 1896
Inadequately armed prempeh deeded not to resist. He allowed a British resident to be based
in Kumasi in the hope of they would leave him in his position as the Asantehene
However, the British continued with their advance, captured Kumasi & arrested prempeh
with his relatives & imprisoned them in Elmina & were later exiled to SierraLeone in 1897

REASONS BEHIND THE COLLAPSE OF ASANTE

Weakness in the empire system of government

The empire’s system of government is identified by thatcher p (1981) as one of the main
causes for the decline of Asante
The empire was made up of 2 district parts i.e. metropolitan Asante&provincial Asante

METROPOLITAN ASANTE
In metropolitan Asante the Asantehene was supreme only in Kumasi & the other states had
their own hereditary rulers
Most rulers after OseiBonsiincreased the power of the Asantehene committed
Most rulers before OseiBonsiwere weak& it was only OseiBonsiwho worked to increase the
power of the Asantehene mainly because of his personality
After the death of OseiBonsithe rulers lacked the ability to hold metropolitan Asante together

PROVINCIAL ASANTE
ProvincialAsantesystem of government was also weak
The states were ruled indirectly & were mainly expected to provide annul tribute & military
support
They kept their own rulers, customs &systems of government, thus they were always looking
for an opportunity to free themselves from metropolitan Asante (thatcher 1981)

Empire was kept together purely by military strength, thus when the army was weak (after
the 1873-4 wars) the provinces sonly gained their independence& of the what happened
towards the end of the century

CONFLICT WITH THE BRITISH

On several occasions during the 19th century the Asante fought the British on the coast
These wars eventually destroyed military power of Asante& led to the breakup of the empire
Asante failed to recover after the 1874 defeat
 34

The terms of the formena treaty greatly weakened Asantee.g. it was forced to recognise the
independence of the southern states

The British laid the final nail on Asante in 1896 wheney “conquered Asante, exited prempeh
and declared a protectorate over he whole are.” (Thatcher (1981: 35)

THE DEATH OF OSEI BONSI

He was the only man who had frightened the administration of provincial Asante& when he
died it was over

Numerousrebellions
Janine. (Other states of rebelled against Asante).

Fante states stopped the Asante from bradding at the coast

Asante’s religion was greatly compromised especially with the advent of inanity& ultimately
the coming of the Europeans

Why prempeh failed to achieve his aims

The basic reason behind prempeh failure to achieve his aims lay in the clash between Britain
& prempeh attitudes & ambitions which were irresponsible
Britain regarded Asante as barbaric & an aggressive military power & she was determined to
prevent Asante from gaining control of thecoastal states

The confrontation between prempeh & the British collided with the peak period of the
European’s scramble for Africa

Prempeh was too young & inexperience in the face of British officials
He was just 40 years when he was appointed Asantehene
Even though he was a military genius, good commander & a natural leader of the people he
fouled to overcome the colonial challenge of Britain
In the last resort Britain’s supremacy over Asante was bound to end in Prempeh’s defeat
Asante’s muzzle leader were of n match to British riffles |&artillery
Issue of civil wars
Prempeh was too bold from London’s linking
Prempeh regarded the payment of 1844 war as a responsibility of karikari
Lack of diplomatic technique. His aims were conflicting.
 35

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Compare and contrast the political and social systems of the Asante with that of
the Mandinka in the 19th century.
2. Analyse the importance to the history of the Tropical Africa of any two of the
following: Mkwawa of the Hehe; Jaja of Opobo; Prempeh 1 of Asante; Tewodros
11 of Ethiopia; Mzilikazi of the Ndebele.
3. Explain why the British invaded Asante in 1896 and why the Asante did not
resist. (NOV 2001 CAMB)
4. Outline the careers and show the importance in African History of any two of the
following.
a) Jaja of Opobo
b) Mkwawa of the Hehe;
c) Prempeh of Asante. (NOV 2004 ZIMSEC)
5. Analyse the political, economic and social organisation of the Asante state. (NOV
2005 ZIMSEC)
6. Explain the aims of Prempeh 1 after becoming Asantehene. What were the results
of his policies? (NOV 2005 ZIMSEC)
7. What were Prempeh 1`s aims when he became Asantehene in 1888? Why , and to
what extent, did he fail to achieve them? ( NOV 2006 CAMB)
8. To what extent, and for what reasons, did Prempeh 1 of Asante achieve his aims?
(NOV 2010 ZIMSEC) and (NOV 2003 CAMB).
9.
 36

THE NIGER DELTA STATES

- The Niger Delta is a complex system of rivers and creeks through which the Niger River flows
into the Pacific Ocean.
- The Niger delta is an arcuate type of delta, inhabited by about 160 small states e.g. Istekiriland,
Opobo, Calabar, Bonny etc.
- For about 100 years, these states had been the leading participants in slave trade; they made a
quick transition to legitimate trade because of their proximity in relation to the palm oil belt.
- The suppression of slave trade in this region led to the rise of “new men” and to greater
European involvement leading to the partition of the Niger Delta.
- Each state was composed of three parts: the Capital, the Heart and the Nerve.

THE HOUSE SYSTEM

- The houses were cooperative companies whose main function was the organisation and
promotion of trade.
- Even though the houses existed before the abolition of slave trade, they became more
numerous and more important in respect to the changing conditions created by the abolition of
slave trade and the challenges resulting from the need to switch from slave trade to legitimate
trade.

Political Organisation
- House heads came second to the king in the political hierarchy and were members of the state
council.
- The houses recognised the overall authority of the king, but were into smaller city states such as
Itsekiriland, Bonny, Calabar etc.
- The city states were headed by the royal lineages up until the 19 th century when the position of
the house head was the monopoly of the royal lineage.
- They could use their position to exercise over the following:
 Administration
 Judiciary
 Trade
 The Economy
- The house head once elected became the absolute ruler with the power of life and death over
the members of the house.
- He was also the custodian of the House’s property and finance.
- A war fleet was a vital necessity of each house because loss of control of the water ways could
set off the capital from its empire and bring immediate ruin. Slaves were purchased in order to
increase population of the house and often slaves ultimately outnumbered the born free.
- Initially, only royal princes could found or head housed, but in the commercial competition of
the 18th century, either chose its ablest man as leader, or collapsed before its rivals.
 37

- As a result, houses struggled to outdo each other, as other poor houses could not provide a king.
- The House System therefore, promoted men of ability, regardless of their background, to deal
with the economic order of the century.
- As a result, capable and energetic businessmen among the slaves rose to prominence among
the houses.

-The system brought about many advantages mainly to the formerly enslaved commoners:

i). It promoted the rise of those that belonged to the class of the commoners, for example, Jaja,
Nana and Olomu; to challenge the authority of the traditional rulers in the Niger Delta, houses
realised that they had to promote men of ability or they would collapse before their trading rivals,
as a result, ex slaves began to assert their influence in politics.

ii). It brought social cohesion as the houses absorbed people of different origins and tribal groups.

- Therefore, besides being efficient trading bodies, the houses were also ideal organisations for
absorbing and uniting people of different origins and social status

iii). It enabled Jaja to exhibit his exceptional abilities as a trader resulting in his promotion as head of
the Anna Pepple House.

- This era was characterised by the rise of the so-called “new men”.
- Civil wars between the royal families and various commoner families led to a political revolution
in the 1850s when the monarchies were brought under control.

Political Hierarchy of the House Societies

- The houses were organised in layers with the royal princes at the top, followed by the free born
commoners and slaves who had been born in the state and could not be sold.
- At the bottom was a group of purchased slaves who could be sold in times of financial distress.
- In the 19th century, commoners and slaves were becoming house heads, but there remained a
strong prejudice about their election as kings.
- This situation weakened the states and caused those that were shrewd, dynamic and innovative
to easily dominate neighbouring states and hence create more powerful units.
Economic Organisation
- The House System increased economic competition and emphasized the importance of having
men with real ability, economic and military skills to run the affairs.
- The traditional rulers did not often possess such skill and by the mid-19 th century, the house
heads were often more important than kings to the economic well being of rival societies.
- The competition also resulted in men of slave origin becoming eligible for the throne.
- The Houses were like trading co-operations and were in fierce competition with each other.
- Often, the weak were driven into bankruptcy and were thus absorbed by the strong as trade
was at the centre of the Niger Delta economies.
 38

- Shrewd handling of trading activities enabled states which were located closer to the
coast such as Bonny, Kalaban and Calabar to dominate the surrounding regions.
THE RISE OF “NEW MEN”
- Until 1830, Bonny was ruled by King Opobo who belonged to the Anna Pepple House.
- When he died, Bonny had two options:
 To appoint Opobo`s son William Dapa Pebble, who was then only a minor, as his
successor, with a relative executing the kingly duties on the minor`s behalf.
 To find an able commoner to make sure that Bonny would successfully meet the
challenges it might face.

- The royal family therefore elected Alali, a former slave as regent based on his outstanding trade
record.
- He soon faced problems with the British who wanted preferential and favourable trade terms
with Bonny.
- In 1836, he was forced to resign on humanitarian grounds since he had not stopped trading in
slaves.
- Up until 1863, there was political confusion in Bonny, between Alali and Dapa people.
- When Alali died in 1863, they appointed his assistant Jaja who was a commoner and a former
slave.
- The rise of Jaja signified the emergence of “new men” on the block.
- These men were not originally from the royal ancestry, but where formerly commoners and ex-
slaves who were looked down upon.

Reasons for the rise of Jaja

- Jaja was born in Igboland in 1821.
- In 1833, he was probably kidnapped and/or sold into slavery.
- He belonged to the lowest class of Bonny society, which is to say he was an ex-slave born
outside the Anna Pepple House.
- Jaja disliked alcoholic drinks which were imported because he knew their devastating effects.
- Jaja had an outstanding trade record.
- He had strong links with the Igbo, thus leading to intermarriage.
- He had excellent relations with the Igbo oil producers.
- He was able to accumulate a substantial amount of wealth, which he effectively used to gain
influence over the House heads.
- From this, he earned their respect.
- Jaja was fluent in the English language thus the people of Bonny represent and uphold their
interests in the face of European colonial and commercial pressure.
- Jaja was a respectful juju priest and this helped consolidate his relations with the Igbo who got
to respect his religious status.
 39

- He welcomed western education and schools but did not entertain missionaries because he was
a string believer in traditional religion.
Opobo under Jaja
- After his appointment, Jaja was able to absorb other houses using his financial muscle or
strength
- These houses were under serious pressure from Europeans whom they owed huge debts.
- This enabled Jaja to be very powerful and it aroused jealousy and resistance from other house
heads especially from king Manilla Pepple and King Dapa Pepple who felt threatened.
- A former slave named Oko Jumbo led the Manilla Pepple and King George led the Dapa Pepple.
- In 1861, there was a civil war in Bonny involving Oko Jumbo and George Pepple against Jaja.
- This war only stopped after the intervention of the British Consul form Bonny; when peace was
restored, Jaja decided to break away from Bonny and make his own state in Opobo, along the
east near the Imo River and this enabled him to control the trade there.

Why Jaja became famous in Opobo.

- He was able to take advantage of Opobo`s location along the Imo River by imposing tariffs.
- He easily attracted Bonny houses and by 1870, he was able to get 14 of the 18 houses.
- He easily attracted European traders especially the British trading companies who relocated.
- The British Consul in Bonny tried to sabotage the relocation exercise by imposing sanctions on
the British traders in Opobo.
- The Consul also tried to block the movement of British traders to Opobo because that would
allow Jaja to get stronger as the British would have had to operate under Jaja`s law.
- Jaja challenged the British in the Niger Delta.
- The trade rivalry between the British and Jaja became worse as the British attempted to boycott
Opobo and fixed prices on palm oil in attempts to force Jaja to trade under British terms.
- It was all in vain because Jaja joined the Miller Brothers Company that was ready to but the
palm oil under his terms.
- As a result, the British were totally restricted from having direct links with the Igbo people who
were in the interior.
- Jaja further extracted favourable trade terms with the Igbo and this gave Opobo exclusive trade
monopoly
- By the last quarter of the 19th century, Jaja had dominated the trade in the Imo Valley and
Opobo had become the most influential trade centre.
- This forced the British to recognise Opobo in 1872.
- In 1884, the British firms attempted to unite and force Jaja to trade on lower prices, but it was
all in vain.
- Therefore, it was because of Jaja`s refusal and resolute stance to refuse collaboration with the
British, unlike some Niger Delta states, which contributed to his popularity and his subsequent
collapse.
 40

The decline of Jaja`s Opobo.

- Jaja`s decline can be explained in terms of a clash of political and economic interests between
him and the British.
- In attempts to force Jaja to accept British collaboration, the British tricked him.
- The British Consul, Harry Johnson invited Jaja to a meeting on a British warship, the RMS
Goshawk, promising that he would be free afterwards.
- According to Ralph Uwechue (Makers of Modern Africa 1981:230-231) Johnson persuaded Jaja
saying “I hereby assure you that whether you accept or reject my proposal tomorrow no
restraint shall be put on you, you will be free to go as soon as you have heard the message the
government has for you”
- Once on board the warship, he was told he had two options:
i) To either surrender and remain in British custody and surrender Opobo to British rule
and be tried.
ii) Or to leave and be regarded as an outlaw and see his beloved Opobo being bombed by
the British.
- Jaja decided to save his people and thus for trial and surrender.
- He knew that he would not be able to resist the British, and he thought he would also get a fair
trial.
- However the trial was held in Accra, Ghana and the King was found guilty and was deported to
the West Indies in1887 on an annual pension of 800 pounds.
- He later died in 1891 on his way back home and was buried in Opobo.

- His death paved way for the establishment of effective colonial rule over a region that provided
nearly 90 000 pounds from import duties alone.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF JAJA IN AFRICAN HISTORY

I) He successfully challenged British intervention
II) Jaja signifies a social revolution- he was atypical model of the “new men” who
successfully responded to the economic and political conditions of the 19 th century.
III) He had a versatile dynamic and flexible personality, which was open to foreign culture
without compromising his identity.
IV) He was manipulative and took advantage of the situation.
V) He made a successful transition to legitimate trade.
VI) He was a state builder and a nationalist whose prime concern was the preservation of
African independence
 41

VII) Jaja signified the rise of “new men”- the formerly enslaved- to positions of political
authority. His achievements in Bonny earned him promotion as Anna Pepple trading
house leader when he succeeded Alali, he went on to create his powerful Opobo state
after breaking away from Bonny during a civil war in 1869.

- These economic successes forced members of the Bonny senior houses to join Opobo

- M. Tidy argues that Jaja does not qualify as an enlaerger of political scales because he destroyed
the Bonny and went on to replace it with another economically flourishing state
-
- Tidy however further asserts that although this may be so, Jaja was a better example of Africa`s
“new men” who successfully responded to the economic and political challenges of the 19 th
century.
- Jaja accumulated sufficient wealth through palm oil trade and used it to successfully challenge
the existing political structure of Bonny.
- He therefore undermined, at the level of the house, the principle which linked leadership of the
house with direct descent from founder of the state.
- His importance also lay in his ability to preserve African culture and traditions whilst at the same
time he took advantage of western technology and education.
- Jaja was of special importance to Africa because he was able to exploit western technology
without surrendering his African cultural background.
- Besides his western education and good command of the English language, he also upheld his
traditionalistic person (Jaja the priest)
- Jaja refused to allow missionaries into his kingdom and he increasingly posed a threat to the
British who finally removed him from power.
- He was so successful that he, and others like him in the House System stimulated the
imperialistic aims of the British
- Missionaries and traders pressurised the British government to intervene and colonize parts of
West Africa whose rulers stood in the way of their objectives,
- Jaja also built European style homes and sent his sons to be educated in Britain.
- A western type of school was opened in his kingdom
 42

Opobo`s transition to Legitimate Trade

- In 1807 when the British abolished slave trade and imposed strict policing measures, the delta
states were forced to adopt a more legitimate form of trade.
- Unlike other states in West Africa, the Delta states were quick to shift to palm oil trade.
- This was due to a possible number of factors:

a) The Natural rain forest belts

- They had access to the natural rainforest belts, especially the north, which were occupied by the
Igbo and there were abundant palm trees.
- This area was a swamp marsh, had humid conditions and consisted of mangrove forests.

b) An elaborate river network / transport

- They had an elaborate river system or network which made transportation easier and enabled
them to transport large volumes to the coast.
- There were enterprising traders who played the role of middlemen and built am extensive fleet
of canoes.
- They isolated the Igbo from the Europeans.

- They used the canoes to ferry cargo, to patrol and control their monopoly and for transporting
their products to the coast.

c) The presence of European firms before them

- The presence of European firms in 1840 was another reason why it was easier for the Delta
states to shift to legitimate trade.
- There were over 200 companies in the beginning of the 1860s because British companies
absorbed all the other firms and this absorption brought efficiency.
- The British Sir George Goldie secured a royal charter for his company, the Royal Niger Company
in 1886.
- At this point, palm oil prices rose and this ensured survival of the Delta states as it also made
palm oil trade very lucrative such that by the 1850s, the river network became known as the “oil
rivers” because of the high volume of trade taking place there.

d) The Arochukwu traders

- There was a group of master traders known as the ARO traders.
 43

- Through the Arochukwu`s activities, they were able to enjoy monopoly of trade.
- They helped immensely by increasing the volume of trade.

e) Important discoveries
- The discovery of the steam ship and quinine, a medicine which cures malaria, also helped a
great deal.

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1) Assess the achievements of King Glele of Dahomey and Jaja of Opobo and analyse their
significance in African History. (Nov 1994 camb)
2) Explain how, and with what success, Dahomey and the states of the Niger Delta met the
challenge of the abolition of the slave trade. (NOV 1996 CAMB).
3) What changes were made during the pre-colonial period in the political and economic
organisation of Dahomey and the Niger Delta states inorder to meet thye new challenges
and changing conditions? (NOV 1998 CAMB)
4) Why was the transition from the slave trade to legitimate trade accomplished with speedy
and efficiency in either Dahomey and in the Niger Delta states? (NOV 2000 CAMB)
5) Why was Dahomey one of Africa`s most efficient states in the pre-colonial period? (NOV
2002 CAMB).
6) How and why were Dahomey and the Niger Delta States able to make the transition from
the slave trade to legitimate trade quickly and successfully? (Nov 2003 CAMB or Nov 2010
ZIMSEC).
7) Why was the transition from the slave trade to legitimate trade accomplished with speedy
and efficiency in either Dahomey or in Opobo in the Niger Delta? (Nov 2006 CAMB).
8) Why did the slave trade, from and within East and West Africa, continue into the second half
of the 19th century? (Nov 2007 CAMB)
9) With what success did West African states meet the challenges created by the abolition of
the slave trade? (NOV 2009 ZIMSEC).
10) With reference to specic examples, explain why and show how some West African states
managed, and others found it difficult, to make the transition from slave trade to legitimate
trade. (NOV 2011 ZIMSEC).
11) Analyse the significance of Jaja of Opobo in the development of the trading states of the
Niger Delta and West African opposition to colonial domination. (NOV 2011 CAMB).
12)
 44

ETHIOPIA

Background

 At the beginning of the 19th Century, Ethiopia existed as an advanced state of political
fragmentation.
 The once great empire was now split into provinces that were ruled by Rases
(governors) and princess who were largely autonomous.
 The Rases were largely, corrupt, inefficient and impotent.
 Most of the Rases were puppets that were exploited by foreigners in order to extract
natural resources and acquire slaves.
 Ethiopia was also characterised by brigandage (looting and plundering) and lawlessness.
 Rases only exercised authority in their own provinces.
 In spite of this negative situation, there was some potential for Ethiopian restoration
and it rested on three factors, namely the existence of the church, the presence of an
educated elite and the then on-going commercial revival within the land.

a) The church
 Ethiopia was largely a Christian empire; Emperor Azana adopted Christianity as the state
religion.
 From its ancient capital of Axum, Tigre, the church had managed to maintain its national
identity and influence.
 It provided a central point of cohesion for the Ethiopian society.
 The influence of the church was further strengthened by the religious change of the
Islamic revival.

b) The educated elite.

 There existed in Ethiopia educated elite that had the potential to spearhead and
participate in the process of the rebirth.
 The people of this class could form the basis of modernisation for Ethiopian
administration, commerce and social structures.

c) Commercial revival
 The second half of the 18th Century brought in a process of commercial revival especially
along the Red Sea Coast.
 Several European countries sent envoys and this also provided potential for
modernization.
 The actual process of rebirth was spearheaded in the 19 th Century by three emperors,
namely, Tewodros, Yohannis and Menelik.
 45

 During the 19th Century, Ethiopia went through a process of dramatic transformation
that involved the complete change of Ethiopian politics and administration.
 This process brought about three aspects into Ethiopia: unity, modernisation and
independence (ability to uphold their sovereignty)
 It is important to highlight the role played by the three emperors in bringing about this
transformation.

An example of their individual roles, as well as an analysis of their comparative contributions is very
important.

OTHER FACTORS THAT PROMOTED ETHIOPEAN UNITY

1. Natural Barriers/Geography
 Geography played a double role in Ethiopia.
 It provided defensive barriers and also created hindrances to the development of a
highly centralized state
 High mountains protected Ethiopia from invaders.
 These features however isolated Ethiopia from other people and made the people to
continue with their culture.
2. Nationalism
 Ethiopia looked back to their past when they had a glorious empire.
 They looked back to the great empire of Axum and they defended their independence
with determination.
 They developed a national feeling of their past and yearned more for their future glories
(romanticism).
3. Diplomacy
 Ethiopia used its educated elite to communicate with Europeans; that’s how and why
they managed to trade with the Europeans.
 Ethiopians travelled to Europe show and prove that they were civilized; the educated
elite mobilized support from Europeans
4. Strategic Value
 Ethiopia lacked minerals which powerful Europeans nations such as Britain and France
wanted.
 There were no minerals which would attract any European imperialist or colonialist.
 Therefore, there were no rewards for occupying forces.
 During the 19th century Ethiopia went through a process of dramatic transformation that
involved the complete change of Ethiopian politics and administration.
 This process brought three aspects into Ethiopia, namely unity, modernization and
independence (ability to uphold their sovereignty).

TEWODROS II {1855-1868}

 Born in 1819, he was the son of a governor.

 46

 He had a poor childhood but grew up as a brave and adventurous young man.
 He began his career as the Ras of a small province called Qwara.
 From the onset he was determined to bring about unity and modernization to the
Ethiopian society.
 Tewodros engaged in a vacation of brigandage and chronic warfare for three reasons;
these were:
i. To extend Ethiopian frontiers.
ii. To gain supremacy.
iii. To gain recognition.
 The period of uncertainty enabled Tewodros to gain control over the provinces of
Gandaru and Gojam.
 By 1855, he had successfully subdued the Ras or Tigre, who was his main rival.
 With the support of the church, Tewodros was enthroned as Negus Nagasta (Ras of
Rases /King of kings) and declared Emperor Tewodros II.
 He subsequently managed to conquer the province of Shewa to further consolidate his
position.
 Tewodros’ rise to power was achieved through the use of force.
 His coronation by the Patriarch (church head), was designed to justify his new status
and authority.
 On assuming the throne, he introduced some measures to modernize Ethiopia.
1) Church reform
 Tewodros realized that the church was a powerful institution in Ethiopia and was
therefore determined to control it so as to consolidate his position.
 He started by criticizing several church practices hoping to tarnish their images.
 He then targeted the land owned by the church (a third of the country) and the priests
who engaged in irreligious activities; he even commented on the tax exemption enjoyed
by the church.
 Tewodros had come to power partly because of the 1854 alliance with the Abuna (chief
priest) Salama, which won him support from the church.
2) Radical reforms
 All church property was taken over by the state as he wanted to use the church’s wealth
to pay his army and to modernize the country.
 Each church was given land sufficient enough to feed two priests and three deacons and
excess land was given to farmers.
 Excess clergy was required to work and pay taxes.
 As compensation, he forced Muslims to convert to Christianity.
3) Military reforms
 After his rise to power, it was necessary for Tewodros to create and reform an army for
Ethiopia.
 He sought to create a sanding army that was national in outlook and professional in
terms of payment and discipline.
 47

 He wanted to improve the technical standards of the army, for example its strategy and
equipment.
 To improve on these standards, Tewodros was determined enough to establish foreign
links.
 The army was used for both domestic (crushing rebellions) and external purposes.
4) Government administration
 Tewodros created a centralised system of government where he had supreme authority.
 He advanced a semi-bureaucratic structure where Ethiopia was divided into districts and
governors were appointed by him in person.
 He tried to replace the traditional Rases.
5) Taxation
 Having introduced a wide range of reforms in the army and government, it became
mandatory for Tewodros to ensure that his government had sufficient revenue.
6) Modernisation

a. Infrastructure
 He initiated the process of developing Ethiopia’s communication network and he funded
the construction of road networks.
 He did this for two reasons, which were basically economic and military mobilization.
b. The judiciary
 Traditionally the Ethiopian justice system was based on vendetta and direct
compensation.
 Tewodros instead introduced a fair and just judiciary system, in which all homicide
cases and traditional practises were banned.

TEWODROS’ FOREIGN POLICY

 Tewodros was very keen to establish relations with European powers on the basis of
equality.
 He welcomed the German missionaries, Kraft and Stern, who brought in their expertise
in religious and military affairs; they even set up workshops to repair guns.
 After this he invited Italian and British experts.
 His lack of diplomacy however plunged him into a serious misunderstanding with the
British.
 He tried to force the British government to accept the Ethiopian envoys, by imprisoning
the British consul at his capital which happened to be Magdala.
 Therefore the British led an expedition in 1867, under General Napier, to release the
British consul.
 Given Tewodros’ rather unpopular position in Ethiopia, Napier easily stoned Magdala in
1868, causing Tewodros to commit suicide in frustration.
 48

Tewodros strengths and weaknesses

STRENGTHS
 He was a vision-setter because he wanted
to bring about unity (centralization of
power) and modernization (in the
judiciary, in infrastructure, in the church
and in taxation).
 He wanted equitable sharing of state
responsibility.
 He demonstrated military expertise and its
value in achieving goals.
 He helped suppress the slave trade.
WEAKNESS
 Over-emphasis on the army strained
resources.
 His attacks on the church alienated him
from the majority of the people.
 He was cruel, ill tempered, mentally
unstable and this promoted brigandage.
 He lacked diplomatic skills.
 His inability to carry his people along
because he never had a national shared
vision of unity and modernization.
 His power base was limited to northern
Ethiopia only.
 Rival Rases in south were hostile to him.

YOHANNIS 1V (1872-1889)

 He was the Ras of Tigre at first and he had started consolidating his position even during Tewodros’
reign
 He emerged as a major rival to Tewodros’ authority.
 He built his reputation by gaining access to huge quantities of weapons from European trade.
 He had a powerful army that was led by Ras Alula.
 After Tewodros’ reign Ethiopia plunged back into political chaos and fragmentation.
 Therefore, Yohannis engaged into a process of subduing Ethiopia‘s rival Rases and crushing
rebellious sections of the society.
 By 1872, he emerged as the Negusa Nagust.
 To consolidate his position Yohannis was able to make a weak truce with the Ras of Shewa, who was
as powerful as him.
 Yohannis had made an effort to compliment war and diplomacy thus he learnt from Tewodros’
mistakes.

Yohannis’ Domestic policy

Political Unity

 Yohannis’ measures to bring political unity to Ethiopia were more effective than Tewodros’.
 He attempted to blend the people using diplomacy rather than war.
 His political system was flexible because:
-He was interested in bringing about centralization.
 49

-He had a federal system of government in which the governors of the district were allowed a
certain level of authority.
 This flexibility created stronger bonds, less friction and a more efficient system of
administration.

Religious Policy

He implemented over-zealous policies where he made an attempt to force Muslims and Traditionalists
to convert to Christianity.

 His pro-Christian attitude demonstrated religious intolerance.

Taxation

 He tried to broaden the tax base by including all the classes.

 This system of taxation operated inefficient.
 50

1|Page

ETHIOPIA

Background

 At the beginning of the 19th Century, Ethiopia existed as an advanced state of political
fragmentation.
 The once great empire was now split into provinces that were ruled by Rases
(governors) and princess who were largely autonomous.
 The Rases were largely, corrupt, inefficient and impotent.
 Most of the Rases were puppets that were exploited by foreigners in order to extract
natural resources and acquire slaves.
 Ethiopia was also characterised by brigandage (looting and plundering) and lawlessness.
 Rases only exercised authority in their own provinces.
 In spite of this negative situation, there was some potential for Ethiopian restoration
and it rested on three factors, namely the existence of the church, the presence of an
educated elite and the then on-going commercial revival within the land.

a) The church
 Ethiopia was largely a Christian empire; Emperor Azana adopted Christianity as the state
religion.
 From its ancient capital of Axum, Tigre, the church had managed to maintain its national
identity and influence.
 It provided a central point of cohesion for the Ethiopian society.
 The influence of the church was further strengthened by the religious change of the
Islamic revival.

b) The educated elite.

 There existed in Ethiopia educated elite that had the potential to spearhead and
participate in the process of the rebirth.
 The people of this class could form the basis of modernisation for Ethiopian
administration, commerce and social structures.

c) Commercial revival
 The second half of the 18th Century brought in a process of commercial revival especially
along the Red Sea Coast.
 51

Military
 This was an area of particular importance to Yohannis.
 Measures were taken to improve the military in terms of weapons, size and strategy.
 His military reforms were very crucial, because of the external threats Ethiopia in the last half of
the 19th century.
 These measures were largely effective because Ethiopia successfully countered inventions from
Egypt, Italy and Sudan.

Yohannis Foreign policy

1. Egypt
 Yohannis came to power when Egypt was under an ambitious leader, Khedive Ismail.
 He therefore, had to deal with Egyptian territorial expansion, especially along the Red
Sea Coast which had started with the capture of Massawa in 1855.
 With the support of a Swiss explorer, Mazzinger, the Khedive had been successful in
further capturing Bogos [1872] Harar and Berbera [1875]
 Yohannis initially made strong protests to the British to restrain the Khedive.
 With the support of Ras Alula, Yohannis successfully repelled further Egyptian
expeditions between 1875 and 1876.
 In 1884, a peace treaty called Hewet/Adowa was signed.

Terms

 Egypt got Adowa and Yohannis gave up Massawa in return or control over Harar, Barbera and
Bogos.
 By containing Egyptian expansion, Yohannis was able to safeguard Ethiopian independence.

2. Italy
 As the scramble intensified in the 1880s. Europeans began bargaining for territory.
 The British sacrificed their territory on the Red Sea Coast on the condition that the
Italians would refocus elsewhere.
 This b
 British Italian interest over looked Ethiopian European interest.
 Further Italian attempts to expand inland became a direct threat to Ethiopian
sovereignty.
 Yohannis put up a fierce resistance at the battle of Dagoli in 1887, and the Italians were
successfully resisted.
 52

 The Italians took over Massawa in 1885 and Assab in 1882.

 The Italians suspended their aggressive actions because they had struck a bargain with
the emerging Ras Alula, who seemed to be a potential Ethiopian puppet Emperor.

3. Sudan
 In the 1870s,Mohammed Ahmad launched an Islamic Jihad to transform Sudan into an
Islamic state.
 Initially the Jihad was meant to get rid of the Egyptian political influence in Sudan.
 By 1880s Mohammed had successfully gained control over most of the Sudanese
provinces.
 He now wanted to expand the Islamic religion beyond Sudan.
 The expansionist policy ultimately brought Sudan into conflict with Christian Ethiopian.
 There was constant warfare from 1885 which became more intense in 1889.
 With the military support o Ras Alula , Yohannis successfully repelled the Sudanese army
at the battle of Matema in 1889.
 Yohannis died in victory.
 His significance is that, he safeguard Ethiopian sovereignty from Italy, Egypt and Sudan.

Yohannis weaknesses

 In terms of unity he had a weak federal system from which he excluded the provinces of Gonja
and Shoa.
 His religious policies were overzealous. This created tension and therefore weakened the
bonds of unity.
 His contribution to modernisation was minimum because of focusing mainly on foreign policy.
 His over reliance on rival Rases such as Alula, to some extent weakened his own position. This
in a way made his rivals more ambitious and confident.

MENELIK II (1889-1913)

 Since the 1870’s Menelik (Ras Alula) had emerged as a potential strong ruler at his base in
shoa/showa.
 He was an intelligent and hardworking Ras and after Yohannis’ death he easily emerged as the
Negus Negusta.

Menelik’s Qualities

 He had a strong military background.

 53

 He possessed brilliant diplomatic skills, e.g. the truce he signed with Yohannis and the alliance
he signed with the Italians.
 He was a brilliant strategist.
 He showed outstanding statesmanship.
 He was manipulative and shrewd.

Consolidation of power

 He consolidated his position as Ras of Shoa in Ethiopia when:

i. He expanded his territory southwards where he would get slaves for trade and ivory
that he would use for external trade.
ii. He engaged in manipulative diplomacy with powers that would strengthen his position,
e.g. Italy, France and Britain; Menelik was also able to have access to advanced military
technology that made him a formidable military power
 With the Italians Menelik adopted a very cautious and well calculated diplomatic strategy.
 He welcomed Italian diplomats to his court and, in May 1889, he signed the treaty Wichale with
them.
 The terms of this treaty were a vague “friendship” agreement only.
 For Menelik , this friendship agreement meant provision of technical assistance as he got
cannons and rifles from the Italians, thus enabling him to strengthen his military.
 To the Italians, however, this treaty paved the way to make Ethiopia an Italian protectorate and
they hoped to use the treaty to prevent other European powers from diplomatic relations with
Ethiopia.
 The treaty of Wichale was indirectly nullified when Menelik signed simi9lar treaties with the
French and Russians; this made Menelik a “master juggler”.
 Italians protests were futile as Menelik insisted on his independent status.
 In a bid to re-assert Italian advancement in Ethiopia, the Italians attempted to get into an
alliance with Ras Mengesha of Tigre –a rival of Menelik and the son of Yohannis.
 Menelik appealed to the people using patriotism and nationalism and, hence, Ras Mengesha
refused the Italian offer.
 The Italians had no option but to resort to a military expedition which took place in Adowa in
1896.
 The Italians were defeated in this battle.
 54

Reasons for Ethiopian victory and subsequent Italian defeat

ETHIOPIAN STRENGTHS ITALIAN WEAKNESSES

Military
a) Ethiopia had a national army that
outnumbered that of Italy.
b) On the eve of the war, the army increased
as 600 men from Tigre joined them.
c) Weapons were good both in terms of
quality and quantity; the quality of
weapons matched that of the Italians.
d) Leadership skills were good on the basis of
strategy and techniques employed.
Patriotism
 They had unity, commitment and a shared
vision.
Geographical
 There was a ragged terrain and the
Ethiopians had good knowledge of the
area.
Political unity
 Unlike his predecessors, Menelik was able
to foster political unity and created a
united Ethiopian empire which in turn
provided manpower and strength.
Military
a) Italy had less manpower; many people had
deserted the Italians - Ras Mangesha is
one example.
b) Italy had inadequate equipment both in
terms of quality and quantity.
c) Baratieri, the military leader was
incompetent and his strategies and skills
were terrible.
d) Communication and reconnaissance –
mapwork skills- were also bad; their plans
were underestimated thus resulting in a
gross miscalculation.
Also
 The Ethiopian army was able to
manipulate Italian weaknesses- hence
leading to the split of the already depleted
Italian army.
 Being deserted at the last minute by Ras
Mangesha and others caused the Italians
to become vulnerable.
 Baratieri carried out his operation on
unconfirmed rumours.

 According to M. Tidy, “the victory at Adowa, crowned not only the desirable independence but
also the vision of sovereignty initiated by Tewadros and partly consolidated by Yohannis.”
 In 1896 the treaty of Addis Ababa was signed officially recognising Ethiopia as a sovereign state
as well as granting it diplomatic recognition as well.
 From this tripartite treaty Britain, France and Italy agreed to grant Ethiopia sovereign status.

MENELIKS DOMESTIC POLICY

a) Political system
 Menelik implemented a system of administration that was a lot more effective in
promoting centralization of power and a political unification.
 He was an enlightened despot.
 He created a bureaucratic system of government to help him implement policies.
 Addis Ababa became the capital and Menelik exercised greater control over local
rulers in the districts.
 He adopted a cabinet system of government where duties were well defined and
parcelled out to civil services; this was an efficient system.
 55

 He also created civil services that worked on the basis of commitment and servitude
(full commitment on the state ).

b) Modernisation
 The Ethiopian program of modernization had a great French influence.

i. Finance
 He made a number of changes to this sector to make it stronger:
 A new currency was adopted to replace the Austrian currency.
 The banking sector was reformed; the bank of Abyssinia was opened and it
helped with the setting of a modern banking system.
 The revenue system was strengthened and the tax base broadened;in so
doing Menelik covered all people who were productive including all foreign
residents.
ii. Infrastructure
 This relied on foreign funding and expertise, and, thus Menelik employed the Swiss
Alfred Ilg as an advisor.
 There was the construction of modern bridges and a railway from Addis Ababa to
Djibouti which was finally completed in 1917 after Menelik’s death.
 Modern telecommunication systems introduced, e.g. in 1894 the postal services
became modern as it included stamps that were made in France.
 Telegrams were brought in and a printing press was set up.
 These modern infrastructures were designed to link major towns.
iii. Education
 The first public school was established in 1903 and it was called Menelik II School.
 Scholarships were given to students to go abroad and study.
 Previously unfulfilled plans were designed, for example he introduced compulsory
elementary education.
iv. Health
 Menelik strove to improve this sector by introducing a modern health delivery system.
 This included the first hospital that was named after Menelik II.
 In 1908 a compulsory vaccination system was introduced.
 Health personnel from France and Russia were brought in.
v. Other
 Menelik also put in place other plans he hoped to achieve; amongst these were his
hopes to abolish the slave trade and reform the judiciary.
 These last measures were not implemented because Menelik fell ill in 1906, became
paralyzed in 1910 and died in 1913.
 56

 He was succeeded by a 17 year old boy named Lij Iyasu.

 Under Iyasu the political system crumbled and Ethiopia fell into chaos and
fragmentation; this might be considered as a reflection of the inability to sustain
Meneliks reforms.

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12) “Despite the failures of the last years of his reign, Tewodros II made a vital contribution to
Ethiopia`s revival in the 19th century”. How far do you agree with this statement. (Nov 2013
ZIMSEC)
13) Examine the claim that Menelik II was a more successful ruler than Samori Toure. (Nov 2013
CAMB)

Courtesy of Mr. K. Chibaya, senior History Class Teacher at St. Johns Emerald Hill Senior School
(contactable on toll-free number +263 773 095 154)
 57

THE MANDINKA EMPIRE OF SAMORI TOURE

Samori Toure`s background and qualities

-Samori Toure was born in a traditionalist family in what is now the Republic of Guinea.
-this son of a Mandinka peasant was later to create one of the biggest empires in the Western Sudan.
-he later joined a group of long distance Muslim traders known as Dyula / Dulia.
-his trade journeys took him to many parts of the Western Sudan, some of which were experiencing
Muslim revival or jihadist revolutions.
-Between 1853and 1857 Samori spent sometime as a soldier under Sere Burlay of the Sise kingdom in
exchange for his imprisoned mother. Samori quickly rose on merit to be a commander.
-In 1857 Samori broke away from Sise with his unit of soldiers and became an independent mercenary
captain.
-the experience of the trade and the army seem to have prepared Samori for empire building based on
conquest.
-the Dyula traders settled in villages some of which grew into towns and insisted on their independence
from the local people. They built mosques and schools and attracted a scholar class to their towns.
-their towns were Muslim Islands in a sea of Animism
-however, since they lived among non-Muslims who were fellow Mandinkas, they compromised. They
inter-married and and practiced pagan rites along with their Muslim faith. Strict Muslims labelled them
as ‘nominal Muslims, compromisers and sacrificers to many gods.’
-for them trade was more important.
-the experience of Islam revival and expansion in Western Sudan might have influenced them to see the
commercial advantage of large political units.
-Samori’s rise was part of the Mandinka movement towards larger political units.
-Samori traded in gold form Wassulu and cattle from Futa Jalon.
–In the process he visited Freetown.
-He must have came into contact with Umar’s teachings whose disciples and nephew were later to hold
high positions in Samori’s empire.
-Control over trade, allowed the Dyula to accumulate weapons and prepare for jihads.
-Samori contributed to the political disorder in the Sise kingdom that he later used it as an excuse to
build a new state since he had the skills and access to weapons.
-By 1870 Samori had managed to form a large army and within a short time he had taken control of the
small states of Wassulu.
-he established his capital at Bisandugu, proclaimed himself the Almami and captured Kankan.
-By 1886, his empire was the third largest political unit of Western Sudan. [115 000 sq miles]

What facilitated the unification of the Mandinka?

Samori diplomatic and military genius. [to be discussed later]
A resurgence of national feelings: the Mandinka possessed a kind of national spirit through their
common pride in the glories of their former empire of ancient Mali. [14 th century]
-Samori revived their memories of ancient Mali and appeared to be the new Mansa Musa. They were
longing for a revival of the Mandinka greatness.
Dyula background
-the Dyula supported Samori because of his policies and promises of better economic conditions
through the creation of a larger state.
Samori promoted unity and trade by removing a number of customs charges among small states.
 58

He exercised tight control over agriculture and markets and promoted exports so as to be able to import
war material.
Spy system: Samori had a wide network of Dyula acting as his spy system among the French in Futas, the
British in Freetown and the Tokolor on the Niger.

-this helped him to have a successful international diplomacy.

Diplomatic and matrimonial alliances: He expanded his authority into parts of Futa Jalon and Tokolor
territory around Dinguiray by means of diplomatic alliances with the fellow Tijaniyya of the area.
-he made astute matrimonial alliances with some groups such as Toure and Odienne.
His personality: He had a charismatic personality and was therefore liked and respected.
-many could identify with Samori who was a commoner and from a poor family. He attacked and
destroyed the worldly position of the Chiefly class. –Samori promoted equality.
Islam as a unifying factor:
-Samori also appeared as an Islam reformist whose foundation had been laid by Al-Hajj Umar who
preached among the Mandinka.
-the Tijaniyya form of Islam which Samori followed appealed to the Mandinka whose traditional culture
emphasized the dignity and equality of men.
-The Mandinka unity was mainly to be based on law, way of life and thinking of Islam.
Religious leaders took their place alnogside the political and military. Taxation and law were to be based
on Islamic practice.
-in every village, Samori built mosques and schools to promote literacy and Islamic principles.
-To Samori, Islam was more a means to power rather than an end in itself.
-he maintained an impartial attitude about whether one was Islam or not.
NB: Samori was not a radical Muslim reformist; therefore he did not antagonize his people by strictly
enforcing Islam prohibitions except for the “no liquor” rule.His achievements in the religious sphere
were not as notable as his military accomplishments.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION
-the empire was divided into “162 districts of 20 villages each” (Madzingira:2010:72).
-Each district was headed by a chief and two solders known as sofas.
-the districts were grouped into ten large provinces or governments headed by governors who were
either relatives or close friends of Samori.
 59

-the empire was governed by three parallel lines of authority; the traditional, the military and the
religious all headed by the Almami and his state council.
-Village heads were chosen by traditional methods. Their power was limited by the religious leaders
[the Imami and Qadi (Muslim Judge) who administered the law] and the sofa [military and officer
appointed by Samori].
-the sofas had to be individuals of unquestionable loyalty towards Samori.
-they were responsible for raising troops and supplies for the army and harvesting and selling of
products from the Almami’s communal farm.
-According to Thatcher (1990: 31) “this well trained and well equipped army was paid for largely by a tax
on gold and by the sale of slaves”.
-The Almami was the supreme political, judicial and religious head of the empire as well as its military
commander.
-the Imam was a religious leader appointed by Samori based on his religious reputation. He had a crucial
influence on judicial issues since the Mandinka Empire was based on Sharia law.
-Samori’s direct appointees who had no traditional claim to office were subject to his will on promotion,
transfer and dismissal.
The military
-some people viewed the Mandinka Empire as a military state because of the importance and
predominance of military officers [sofa].
-Samori exercised promotion on merit. He rewarded merits and encouraged soldiers to put their talents
at the disposal of the state.

The 3 parallel lines of authority:

1) Traditional (chief) 2) Military (Sofa) 3) Religious (Imami)

Headed by the Almami and state council

- Since education, discipline and national rather than tribal loyalty was emphasized in the army, it was a
fine training ground for political officers.
-Samori himself, possessed exceptional military expertise in terms of strategy, size, equipment and
discipline. He was a brilliant soldier.

Destroying Tribalism
-Samori tried to destroy tribalism by putting people of different ethnical backgrounds into the same
village.
-at each level of government, he saw to it that men of different families and tribes worked together. This
was also done to make sure that there would be no ‘ganging up’ on ethnic loyalty against Samori’s
authority.
-he tried to avoid distinctions between privileged and non-privileged classes by giving everyone the
chance to rise through the army to the highest places in the state.

Samori was an innovator, not a preserver of old customs and institutions.

-he created the essential ingredients of a modern state, a complex administration with an appointed
political service and an efficient and loyal army to carry out the will of the central government.
 60

-he fostered a quite recognized national spirit without which the existence of a state is not likely to last
for long.
ECONOMIC ORGANISATION

Tax Collection
-Samori was able to collect tax which gave him the resources to provide his army. The traders were
taxed and gold which was produced was also taxed.
-Villagers paid tribute in the form of gold and agricultural products.
Trade
-Trade provided tha basis of economic transformationand also economic and political stability. Samori
was a successful trader. He was part of the Dyula trading system.
-Gold was traded for fire arms and ivory brought income needed for paying expenses of the army and
administration.
-Samori expanded trade by eliminating small national boundaries.
-Samori also exercised an element of free enterprise.
Mining
-Mining of gold took place at Bure gold fields (Madzingira: 2010: 74).
-The special metal was used for acquiring weapons especially fire arms.
Tribute
Tribute was paid by vassals and this brought a steady state revenue.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
Religion
-Samori founded his empire on religious basis.Thatcher is of the view that throughout his career Samori
did everything to promote Tijaniyya Islam.
-He renounced the traditional title “Faama” and insisted on calling himself the “Almami” a title used by
powerful Muslim Rulers.
-Samori advocated for the no liquor rule.
Marriage alliances
-Marriage across tribal boundaries were encouraged to break the barriers of tribalism and this gave way
to a sense of national unity. Alliances were signed with Samori`s Tijaniyya brothers in Futa Jalon and
Tokolor.
-Marriage alliances with Toure of Odienne were also signed.
Destruction of the class system
-According to Webster distinction between privileged and non privileged classes were abolished inorder
to give everyone a chance to rise through the army to the highest positions in the state. It is this social
unity that enabled Samori to resist French aggression.

RELATIONS WITH FRENCH

-From the mid 1880s, European political interest on the African continent increased dramatically. This
was the period of the scramble for Africa.
-In West Africa, Britain and France were the most active.
-Samori’s Mandinka Empire stood directly in the path of the French expansion as a result confrontation
between Samori and the French was imminent.
-Samori fully realized the French ambition to conquer the whole Sudan and their military might which he
could not match.
-he looked for ways to preserve the independence of his empire or at least delay its annexation.
-he made an alliance with the British which would give him military [fire arms] and diplomatic support.
 61

-he also hoped to follow a policy of playing off the British against the French. Unfortunately for Samori,
this tactic did not work because the British and the French had already entered into an agreement that
defined their spheres of influence in Africa [As agreed at the Berlin West Africa Conference of 1884-
1885] (Webster: 232).
-the British government was more interested in their Freetown naval base and only wanted to use the
Mandinka to bargain for French concessions elsewhere in Africa.
-Samori was given false hope by the British governor, Edward Blyden, in Freetown who had promised
assistance.
-as a delaying tactic and a way of avoiding future conflicts, Samori signed the Treaty of Bisandugu with
the French in 1886.
–He did not know that he was selling away his country.
-through this treaty, Samori gave up all his territory north of the river Niger in return for French
friendship.
Why Samori signed the treaty
-he thought the Treaty could remove the causes of war or delay war to allow him to strengthen his
position.
-it would give him time to conclude an alliance with the British and buy arms form them.
-it would also eliminate the state of Sikasso and secure control of the trade route supplying horses,
which was controlled by Tieba, the king of Sikasso.

Why the French signed the Treaty

-they also wanted to buy time in order to destroy the Tokolor Empire before challenging Samori.
-they wanted to keep the British out of the Mandinka by claiming that through the Treaty, Samori had
ceded his empire to France.
–wanted to avoid the creation of Anglo-Mandinga alliance.
-The British made an enquiry and Samori informed them that he had not ceded his empire to France. He
requested an alliance with Britain and offered a railway concession as an inducement.
-with this false sense of security from the British, Samori made one of his greatest blunders.
-Between 1887-88 Samori invaded Sikasso, a fortified Islamic city in Western Sudan and lost about
10000 men and all his horses.
-the attack turned Sikasso and other locals against Samori as Samori had invaded an Islamic state. They
signed alliances with the French to be “protected” from Samori.
-the attack tarnished Samori’s reputation since he had invaded an Islamic state.
-the French attack on Segu in 1890 made it impossible for Samori to make an alliance with Segu.
-Samori retrieved the Treaty of Bisandugu [of friendship] and sent it back to the French. THE SEVEN
YEARS WAR HAD STARTED.
-Samori tried desperately to seek alliances with the British or even cede his territory to the British in
Sierra Leone. – He would remain a religious leader in a British protectorate.
-The Sierra Leone government sent an envoy to Bisandugu who raised the Union Jack in Samori’s
southern towns without Britain’s approval.
-the British government had accepted the French of Bisandugu and feared for their own territories in
Africa.
-several envoys were eager to cooperate with the Mandinka but the British gvt was firm in its resolve.
----They prohibited the Sierra Leone gvt from sending further envoys and exporting arms to Samori.
-in 1892, Samori sent an envoy to London to clear the mystery of the British policy.
-Samori was ultimately abandoned to the French and he resorted to war which lasted from 1892-1899.
-he became known as the “Napoleon of Sudan “because of his military strategies.
 62

Mobilization and military tactics

-Samori depended on the army to acquire and later preserve his empire.
-His power rested in the loyalty of the army and not in his authority as a religious leader like Al-Hajj
Umar.
-the ranks of the army were filled mainly with captives who were trained as rifle-carrying infantry men
and were known as sofas.
-these men formed a standing army directly loyal to Samori, while in times of need a conscripted reserve
was also available, as well as a volunteer militia of those who owned horses.
-the army was supplies by a highly organized administration which ensured that supplies of all sorts
were available.
-apart from food, Samori organized groups of metal workers known as "forgerons" to manufacture rifle
parts and other military equipment.
-Forgerons were gun smiths who worked in army workshops.

Strategies
1] Shrewd diplomacy: He tried to play off the British against the French although this was not successful.
2] Military strategies:
a] the scorched earth policy: this was adopted to make up for inadequate artillery. Samori’s army would
burn everything and relocate people leaving the French with no supplies and no one to work for them.
This slowed down and frustrated the French.
b] Guerilla warfare: This was another strategy devised to counter his technical shortcomings. This
strategy involved surprised attacks, raids and retreats.
-it was aimed at frustrating and demoralizing and weakening the French by sabotaging supply lines.
-by avoiding pitched battles (direct fighting), Samori minimized losses but prolonged the period of
resistance with the hope of ultimate success.
c] Mass movement: he divided the army into three divisions. One armed with repeater rifles attacked
the French and retreated. The second group organized the population, evacuating them, leading and
protecting their retreat. The last group conquered and organized the new area in preparation to receive
the people.

-In the process of retreat, Samori attacked Kong for going into an alliance with the French.
-As he moved further South, Samori threatened the British at Asante who in turn gave him a warning
attack in 1896
-by 1898 it was clear that there was no hope for Samori. The French took over Sikasso, Bobo-Diolasso
and Dabakala.
-Samori was exiled to Gabon.

Why 7 years resistance?

Mandinka a military state: had about 90 000 to 100 000 potential soldiers.
-10 000 to 20 000 could be armed at a time.
Loyalty of the army: they respected Samori the Almami as a religious leader and shared nationalistic
feelings. They were all trained, armed, cared for; and there was promotion on merit.
Dyula background: they could source weapons and horses from the traders. Samori had his own
gunsmiths to repair and make guns when necessary.
Quick to organize the army and adopt new tactics: Samori organized his army on European rifle units
with bugle-call signals (a bugle was an instrument blown by a person).
-he abolished cavalry (horse soldiers) and the defense of the mud walled cities.
 63

Guerilla warfare - surprise attacks, ambushes, cutting communication lines and scorched earth policy
were all adopted.
-Samori sent men as spies to train in the French armies.

Why was Samori defeated?

Military inadequacies: In spite of changed tactics, the French still had superior weapons.
Divisions in the empire: the empire was founded by a jihad with forced conversions in the North.
-the Sikasso siege was a big mistake by Samori. Instead of fighting fellow Mandinkas, Samori should have
concentrated on the French.
-the French could use divide and rule and supply Sikasso and the North with weapons.
Lack of Allies: Samori tried Ahmadu and Asante but failed.
Kong and Sikasso also refused to make alliances with Samori. Other leaders were jealous and hostile to
Samori who finally became isolated.
Starvation: According to Shillington, starvation, finally defeated Samori’s army. Having moved to
Dabakala, they could not get food from the traders and they also suffered from the effects of the
scorched earth policy.
Berlin Conference: It made it impossible for him to play off the British against the French. The French
would have to establish effective occupation; they would not trade and go.
Trade routes
- He lost the trade routes in Freetown and could not retreat further into Asante because the British were
in Asante.

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1) In what way did the rise and fall of the Mandinka empire illustrate important features of, and
developments in, African history? (NOV 1994 CAMB)
2) Describe and explain the response of one of the following to Europeans in Africa: Samori Toure,
ruler of the Mandinka empire; Mutesa 1, Kabaka of Buganda; Lewanika, King of the Lozi. What
were the results of your chosen ruler? (NOV 1996 CAMB).
3) Explain Samori Toure`s long resistance against the French and his final defeat in 1898. (NOV
2000 CAMB)
4) Account for Samouri Toure`s long resistance to French imperialism. Why was he defeated in
1898? (NOV 20O3 ZIMSEC).
5) Analyse the means by which Samori Toure built the Mandinka Empire and identify its main
features. (JUNE 2004 CAMB)
6) Explain why Menelik II succeeded, and Samori Toure failed, to preserve their respective
kingdoms against European invasion. ( NOV 2004 ZIMSEC)
7) Account for Samori Toure`s success in building the Mandinka Empire. Analyse its main political,
economic and social features. (NOV 2007 CAMB)
8) Show the importance in the history of their res[pective regions of the careers of any two of the
following:
(a) Mkwawa of the Hehe
(b) Lobengula of the Ndebele
(c) Lewanika of the Lozi
(d) Jaja of Opobo
(e) Samouri Toure of the Mandinka (NOV 2008 ZIMSEC).
 64

9) Explain the successful establishment of Samori Toure`s Mandinka empire in the Western Sudan.
Did its strength lie more in the political or in the economic field? (NOV 2010 CAMB).
10) Compare and contrast the politican and social systems of the Asante with that of the Mandinka
Empire in the 19th century. (NOV 2012 ZIMSEC)
11) With reference to one African state or people, analyse the strengths and weaknesses of African
resistance to European control during this period. (NOV 2011 ZIMSEC)
12) Examine the claim that Menelik II was a more successful ruler than Samori Toure. (NOV 2003
CAMB)
 65

THE SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF AFRICA

Background

The partition of Africa by European countries took place in the last quarter of the 19 th century (1875-
1900). There were changing conditions in Africa as well as in Europe which led to the scramble and
partition of Africa. It would be probable that the expansion of European missionary and commercial
activities in Africa were going to lead to the establishment of colonial rule. The British government first
created conditions necessary for legitimate trade and Christianity so as to curb slave trade. Therefore,
there were changing conditions in Africa when legitimate trade was introduced as the products of the
Africans which included gum, palm oil, rubber, and groundnut secure very much benefits to the
Europeans. It was because of the trade of the industrial revolution in Europe that the Europeans
industrialist saw it necessary for the African countries to be colonized so as to prevent the shortages of
raw materials.

Europeans had established some conditions in Africa in the first half of the 19 th century and before, but
the last quarter of the century saw an unprecedented expansion of European colonization. By 1914 the
entire African continent except Ethiopia and Liberia had been colonised. The suddenness of this
movement has led to it being known as the scramble for Africa. As Britain developed industries she
began to invest in India and other countries. She decided to colonize Africa so as to continue making
profits.

And the 1880s the world economy recovered. France and German began investing by colonizing Africa
Britain and Portugal responded by declaring ownership of many colonies, hence the idea of scrambling
or fighting for resources or colonies. European actions during the partition of Africa should also be
explained in reference to the African background as it is influenced by African conditions.
 There were divisions in African states. There were many civil wars caused by succession
disputes for example in ItsekirilandAs wars broke out, the European invaders took advantage of
the political divisions to play off one side against the other thus establishing their own rule.

AFRICA’S MILITARY WEAKNESS

 European countries also made colonies in Africa and were able to defeat the African states in
war because they had superior weapons. They used machine guns, maxim guns and other
sophisticated guns.This was an added advantage on their part to partition Africa since African
armies were militarily weak.
 Most African armies did not abandon their outdated traditional military practices. Hence forth
the background of Africa made it very much possible for the scramble and partition of Africa to
occur.
CAUSES OF THE PARTITION OF AFRICA
POLITICAL FACTORS
Many

1. Nationalism
A wave of aggressive nationalism and imperialism swept across Europe allowing the formation in 1870-1
of the larger new nations, that is, Germany and Italy both which was eager to acquire colonies to
 66

increase their status and influence in international affairs since the Britain and France had colonies
already.
Nationalists in Germany and Italy wanted colonies too.

2. A Desire to Gain and Maintain National Prestige

It was the desire for national prestige which propelled France in a race for colonies in Africa
French armies had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian war (1871) and had lost provinces of Alsace
and Lorraine. France wanted to regain prestige by acquiring colonies and possibly also gain a larger
overseas empire.
Countries such as Britain also needed colonies to maintain their glory and prestige and also to maintain
their political supremacy.
The strength and power of a country was not only explained in ots economic but also political strength.

3. Strategic Reasons
France occupied Tunis largely out of fear that Italy might otherwise occupy the north western coast.
Similarly Britain invaded Egypt in 1882 not to put down Arabic Persia nationalist revolts but mainly to
retain control of the Sues canal and protect its import sea route to India.
Britain decided to remain in Egypt because she feared the growing power of Russia and afraid that
Russian fleet might enter the Mediterranean from the Black sea.
In addition the German chancellor Otto Von Bismarck wanted African colonies to use as pawns in his
diplomatic chase game in Europe.

4. Military Motives
Many military officers especial in France and Britain also put pressure on European governments to
acquire African colonies
There was not enough fighting in Europe in the 19 th century for the European military officers were
seeking glory and rapid promotion so they consequently pressed for colonial wars.
The officers also felt that because of the lack of modern weapons among Africans, there were less
dangers as in Europe.
In France military men such as Faidherbe, De Brazzer and Galliene sought expansion of the French
empire in Africa.
In Britain soldiers such as Wolseley, Kitchner and Luggard also did the same. Africa was used as a testing
ground for weapons.
They were also wanted to acquire more soldiers for their armies.

5. Government in Europe Were Also Strongly Influenced By Public Opinion, the Press and Colonial
Societies To Seek Colonies In Africa

In France, where there was larger pressure from public opinion that persuaded the French assembly to
ratify the de Brazza Makoko treaty in 1882.
In Germany pressure from Karl Peters’ society for German imperialism and public opinion led to
Bismarck abandoning his previous policy of opposition to colonization since he was afraid of losing votes
in the elections. Thus creating protectorates in South West Africa, Togo etc
In Britain a society called Primrose league encouraged a conservative party to support imperial policy.

6. There Was Also The Need To Maintain A Balance Of Power

In Europe, no country was supposed to have more colonies than the others.
Since European countries were already fully occupied, his governments decided to partition Africa.
 67

This however resolved the issue of major wars and conflicts amongst the European countries, thus
solving ground for European problems

7. Individual Initiatives
Kitters
Goddie
J Rhodes

ECONOMIC FACTORS
It was propounded by the likes of Lenin and Hobson who believed that the scramble and partition had
no other motives or explanation besides economic considerations.
Industrialization in Europe was responsible for the colonization of Africa because of the following
factors:

1. Need for Raw Materials

Industrial revolution led to greater competition for raw materials like minerals and cash crops
European nations such as Germany, France, Italy and Portugal were beginning to catch up with British
programme of industrialization in the last quarter of the 19 th century leading to an intense competition
for the limited resources.
The raw materials cloud no longer be found on the European continent and the solution was to look for
the raw materials outside Europe. Hence the decision to effectively occupy African colonies
After the discovery of the Kimberly diamond field in SA in the 1860s and the Rand gold fields in the 1880
encouraged the Europeans to seek mineral wealth in other parts of Africa.

2. Need for Markets

European businessmen also began to look to Africa fir markets in which to sell settlers manufactured
goods.
The European market was flooded with goods which cloud not be consumed. In fact there was
overproduction asunder consumption of goods.
The solution was to look for markets elsewhere and Africa was the solution e.g. the market in Zanzibar.

3. Need for Investment

Another economic push factor was the need to invest in settler’s capital
Europe was no longer viable for investment because of intense competition for the low consumption
rate so Africa was conducive place for European capital.
Europeans invested in the British Royal Niger co, BSAC etc

4. They Wanted Labour In Africa

Since they had establish ed there in industries in Africa, they wanted Africans to work in them and they
paid little.

5. Need to protect trading

Social factors
Spreading Christianity
The Eurocentric writers believed that the colonization of Africa was motivated by humanitarian issues
Missionaries are believed to have played a major role in encouraging the establishment of European rule
in Africa.
 68

It is believed that they wanted their governments to put a stop to the wars between African to the end
of slave trade.
It is also believed that missionaries wanted to protect Africans from attacks by Moslems in places like
Malawi and Uganda and destroy the authorities of traditional rulers like Jaja of the Niger delta thus
making their evangelization easier.

Civilization
It is also believed that Africa was colonized to spread ‘’light to the dark’’. Many europens believed in a
civilizing mission in Africa because they were supervior to the other races in the world.
Similarly in 1899 on English poet Rud yard Kipling wrote a poem. “The whitemen’s burdaen about the
supposed duty of Europeans to rate other people in order to civilize them.

3) Population Growth
Population growth in Europe also influences Europe and governments to occupy African territories.
The Germans actually write a place in the sun which to Africa to inhabit their growing population
Africa was regarded as a land without people where as Europe was regarded as a people without land.

4) Darwinism Theory Motivated the Europeans

Charles Darwin propounded at “God his mandated the strong to rate the weak so it because natural at
Europeans being the strong were suppose to occupy Africans who were weak” Survival of the fittest
This might have influenced some European governments to exercise their power over the weak nations
who in this case were the Africans. Educations the Africans

5) Favourable Climatic Conditions

There were good climatic conditions in Africa which attracted the Europeans e.g. in Zimbabwe, South
Africa etc

THE BERLIN WEST AFRICA CONFERENCE

It was proposed by Portugal and later on called by Bismarck

It was held in Berlin, Germany from 15 November 1884 -26 February 1885
According to Boahen (1990:15), “the news that such a conference was to be held increased the intensity
of the scramble.”
It is also important to point out that the conference did not mark the beginning of the scramble
Accordingly the conference did not “cause” the partition.
NB: it was just on attempt to control a process that was already in motion
At the conference a number of European countries were invited e.g.
Surprisingly the nationals concerned (the Africans) were not invited

Aims of the Berlin Conference

 To discuss on how the sub divide Africa
 To decide on the political future of Africa
 To allocate each other’s sphere of influence
 The rates to be followed in the occupation of Africa
 To settle disputes with in Africa
 Discuss freedom of commerce especial in the Congo

Agreements of the Berlin Conference

 69

European states agreed to the following:

To respect or acknowledge each other’s spheres of influence
Free navigation of Africa’s major rivers e.g. the Niger, Congo, Bernue and their tributaries
To effectively occupy their respective spheres of influence (principle of effective occupation)
To sign treaties with African chiefs so as to get their consent before occupation
To discourage the ill-treatment of Africans (abolishing slave trade)

Effects of the Berlin Conference

Renowned historians such as Adu Boahen, Davidson and A.G Hopkins have argued that the Berlin West
Africa conference was largely responsible for accelerating up the occupation process (scramble for
Africa). The Berlin conference must be held responsible because the partitioning of Africa became a
scramble soon after the Berlin convention e.g. most south central states were colonized immediately
after 1885 for example. Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Zambia
The news that there was going t be such a conference accelerated the scramble as explores,
missionaries, concession seekers, hunters etc were dispatched with the purpose of penetrating into
their mother country’s would be spheres of influence
The agreement arrived at in Berlin were also responsible for accelerating the scramble

1) Principle Of Affectivity
The principle of affectivity stated at European powers did hold colonies only if they actually
possessed them. In other words if they had treaties with other African leaders, if they flew their
flags there and if they established an administration in the territory to govern it a police force to
keep order.
The colonial power also had to make use of the colony economically e.g. by the construction of
roads, bridges, railways lines, mining minerals, farming etc
If the colonial power did not do these things, another power did do so and take over the
territory
Therefore the principle was introduced to stop powers from setting up colonies in name only.
It therefore became important to get leaders to sign the treaties and to have a presence
sufficient to protect the area

2) Free Navigation
The statesmen at Berlin agreed to the free navigation of Africa’s major rivers e.g. the Niger,
Congo etc
Free navigation of major rivers facilitated/necessitated the penetration of the African interior by
all powers concerned
Given that there were no roads linking the coast with the interior the major rivers were the only
possible highways the imperial powers could use the penetrate Africa
Therefore the opening up of all the major rivers to European fortune seekers sped the
occupation process as all powers accessed the internal parts of Africa freely

3) Treaty Signing
The European statesmen agreed that European fortune seekers were to sign treaties with
African chiefs in order to get their consent
As a result of the agreement European expeditions were dispatched to persuade these
traditional rulers into signing treaties
In some cases they were allowed to use force wherever necessary, e.g. in the case of Msiri king
of Ratanga in congo in 1891. Within a few years a number of treaties were signed with African
 70

chiefs e.g. the De-Brazza Makoko Treaty, Rudd Concession, Grobler treaty, Lochner treaty with
Lewanika.
When the Portuguese (in Mozambique) heard of Rhodes activities treaties with Lobengula they
claimed ownership of the land between the Zambezi and the Limpopo using their treaty with
Mutapa Mavhura as evidence
Within a few years most parts of Africa were colonized except Liberia and abbysinia
By 1902 90% of all the African land was under European control
The larger part of the Shara was French; the Sadan remained firmly under joint brutish Egyptian
ruler ship with Egypt being under British protection before becoming a British protectorate in
1914
The Boer republics were conquered by the U.K in the boer war from 1899-1902
Morocco was divided between the French and the Spanish in 1911 and Libya was conquered by
Italy in 1912
The official British annunciation of Egypt in 1914 ended the colonial division of Africa
By this point all of Africa with the exception of Liberia and Ethiopia was under European rule

4) The Berlin Conference Established So Different Political Geographical Regions In Africa

Many of the borders established at this conference are still in existence today
The general act of the Berlin conference formalized the scramble for Africa
The conference used in a period of heightened colonial activity on the part of the European
powers, whilst simultaneously eliminating most existing forms of Africa autonomy and self
governance
The arbitrary boundaries the Europeans imposed often divided an enthusing and also brought
enemies under the same government and causing strife that still exists today
Among the many of the borders established at is conference are still in existence creating
conflicts among the people of descendants trying to take colonies of areas which once belonged
to their ethnic groups creating sometimes deadly conflicts in recent years
The 14 European powers that held the Berlin conference had no considerations for the people
of Africa
The borders created havoelior conflict in 1884-5 when these new lines split ethnic groups and
communities

LEOPOLD II AND THE CONGO

Henry Morton Stanley explored the Congo River basin from around 1874-77 and in the process he
helped to remove myths associated with the African interior
From 1879-85 Stanley returned to Congo not as a report between envoys from Leopold with the secret
mission to organize a Congo state, which should became known as the Congo freestate
At the same time, the French marine officer Prerre De Brazza travelled into the Congo basin and raised
the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881 in what the currently the republic of Congo
Even before Leopold ascended the Belgian throne he had an appetite for colonies especially after
Holland’s java huge profits especial in the Far East colonies
After realizing that prospects for colonies in the east were doomed

Leopold Kined His Attention To Africa

He however, knew from the start that his quest for colonies would have to be a personal affair not a
national one since his country men saw overseas territories as a waste of resources
By the time Leopold became king in 1865 he had travelled widely and he had studied African exploration
 71

In 1870 he formed the African international association whose aim was to establish commercial and
scientific stations in central Africa
These were to be attached to missionary station and protected by military garrisons
Leopold’s intentions were enable such that by 1979 station were established at the White Fathers
missions at Tobara and Lake Tanganyika to enhance effects at abolishing the slave trade
Leopold’s honeymoon was short lived as he ventured into profit making
The answer was his prayers came in 1879 in the form of Stanley

1) The Role Of H.M Stanley

Stanley the journalist who had meet Livingstone at Ujiji in 1871, had tried to carry on Livingstone
work by exploring the laulaba area. He had travelled down the Congo and he believed that area
should be developed.
The British government did not give Stanley the full support he desired in 1879; Stanley made an
agreement with Leopold. In return for a large sum of money he would acquire the Congo for the
Belgian monarchy and so he returned to the Congo
Between 1879 and 1884 Stanley travelled in and around Congo establishing road and river
communication and in the process he built a solid base in the Congo basin for Leopold’s future
commercial enterprise
However he was not the only one in the field
De Brazza was in 1992 abstaining a treaty from chief Makoko of the Teke whose lands were of
the Congo
In this treaty Makoko apparently cleared his territory to France
Leopold suddenly became aware of all his affords in the Congo might be to no avail if he did not
1st assume political control of the area
Stanley was consequently instructed to make treaty with the Viri chiefs of the river and this he
did

2) Leopold’s diplomatic moves

Leopold realized that his acquisition of the Congo might be opposed by the other powers
notably France, German, America and Britain
He therefore, displayed grate diplomatic skills
Possible French apposition was taken care of by a secret treaty which Leopold made with them
promising France that she would have the Congo if he was unable to run it
He hand in the mean time already led the French to believe that he would be unable to govern it
owing to his financial difficulties
German support was obtained by show of favourable views on Bismarck’s claims on other parts
of Africa
Leopold secured America support when his American secretary Stanford told the American
government that Leopold’s main aim in the Congo was the abolish the slave trade
Lasting opposition to Leopold’s manoeuvres in the Congo came from Britain was deeply worried
about the positions of her merchants in the Congo and about the safety of Baptist missionaries
etc
In February 1884 Britain signed a treaty with Portugal giving the Portuguese control of the
Congo estuary this cutting Leopold off from the coast
Leopold responded by offering profitable contracts to British traders and by promising Britain
that he would be more understanding in the Congo and either the French or the Portuguese
 72

In the face of this persuasion Britain abandoned her agreement with Portugal between would
not give full support to Leopold’s claims over the Congo
When the Berlin conference meet in November 1884, hm. Stanley argued a strong case for
Leopold
He insisted that the treaties he had obtains from the Viri chiefs were absolutely valid since the
chiefs had undisputed rights over the land which they held through long ages of succession and
by divine right
Leopold hand spent considerable efforts trying to convince the European powers that he was
just the man to control the Congo promising to end the slave trade in the area and to keep the
Congo River open to legitimate trade to all the major powers
He won at the conference be queathed personally to him the entire Congo basin down to the
Congo Zambezi watershed
His territory thus undivided the mineral rich area of Katanga it was to be known as the Congo
frees state
Leopold used claims of humanitarian and civilization this hide his real aims and make his claim to
the Congo respectable at the Berlin conference
His choice of H.M Stanley as his main agent in the Congo with his history of reason and violence
against black people, reinforced this view as does the fact that within a few years liberal
governors and put in a tough Belgian army commander as administrator general of Congo till
1912.

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Why did the European partition of Africa accelerate after 1875? (NOV 1994 CAMB)
2. For what reasons did European countries take part in a scramble for Africa in the last
quarter of the nineteenth century? ( NOV 1996 CAMB)
3. What dod you understand by the term ‘informal empire’? When, how and why was
this replaced by ‘formal empire’ (NOV 2000 CAMB)
4. Why was the Berlin West Africa Conference called in 1884? What were the results of
its decisions for the colonial powers and for Africa? ( NOV 2001 CAMB)
5. What social, political and economic conditions in Europe and Africa encouraged the
partition of Africa. (NOV 2003 ZIMSEC)
6. What do you understand by the terms ‘informal empire’ and ‘formal empire’ in
Africa. When and why did the later replace the former? (NOV 2003 CAMB)
7. How and why did the interest of European powers in Africa change between 1875
and 1900? (JUNE 2004 CAMB)
8. Why did the partition of Africa occur in the last quarter of the 19 th century and not
before? (NOV 2004 ZIMSEC)
9. Why, and with what results, did Bismarck convene the Berlin West Africa Conference
in 1884? (NOV 2005 CAMB)
10. What steps did European powers take to ensure a smooth acquisition of territories in
Africa between 1875 and 1900? (NOV 2005 ZIMSEC)
11. For what reasons did the European powers partition Africa in the nineteenth century?
When, and why, did the partition become a ‘scramble’? (NOV 2006 CAMB)
12. Why was the Berlin Wedst Africa convened in 1884? How did its decisions affect
colonial powers and Africa? (NOV 2007 CAMB)
 73

13. “Without the occupation of Egypt, there is no reason to suppose that the scramble
for Africa, would have taken place”. To what extent do you agree with this
statement? (NOV 2008 ZIMSEC)
14. To what extent did the British occupation of Egypt stimulate the scramble for Africa?
(NOV 2009 ZIMSEC)
15. What do you understand by the terms informal empire and formal empire in Africa.
When and why did the later replace the former? (NOV 2010 ZIMSEC)
16. To what extent was tha Partition of Africa caused by the Christian missionary factor?
(NOV 2011 ZIMSEC)
17. ‘The Berlin West Africa Conference was important for the impetus it gave to the
European occupation of Africa.’ How valid is this statement? [November 2012,
ZIMSEC]
18. How far did the Berlin West Africa Conference of 1884 change the role of Europeans
in Africa? [November 2012,CAMB]
19. “Without the occupation of Egypt, there is no reason to suppose that the scramble
for Africa would have taken place”. To what extent donyou agree with this statement.
(NOV 2013 ZIMSEC)
20. “1884-5 marked the transition from informal partition to scramble for colonies by the
European powers”. Evaluate the importance of factors within Africa which brought
about this change. (NOV 2013 CAMB)
 74

THE FIRST CHIMURENGA / UMVUKELA 1896-1897

Introduction

- It is surprising that some eurocentred historians refer to the event as a rebellion or an uprising
although it was a real war of independence.
- The whites of the colonial period wanted to refer to the war as a rebellion or an uprising so that
the outside world ant their mother country believes it was only a small part of the population
that had risen or rebelled against the government. They did not want Britain to intervene or
take it seriously because they wanted to continue ruling Zimbabwe.
- It was in fact a real war of independence fought by the Ndebele and the Shona to be freed by
the British despots. It was a war because it included almost the whole country and many people
died in the war. Over a hundred whites in the first week and if it wasn’t a war the British should
not have asked for reinforcements from South Africa.
- The Ndebele waged a war against the settlers and they call it “UMVUKELA” but the Shona call it
“CHIMURENGA”.
- The word “Chimurenga” means war of liberation and comes from a well known Shona fighter
and hunter called Murenga Sororenzou Pfupajena. Today “chimurenga” is closely associated
with the liberation of the majority or masses.

NDEBELE GRIEVANCES or CAUSES OF THE FIRST “UMVUKELA”

1) Confiscation of cattle
The whites seized Ndebele cattle in large quantities such that the Ndebele were dispossessed of
their wealth
Originally the Ndebele possessed more than 280 000 cattle, but soon after the loot by the
whites and police rationings there were 40 390. Moreover after the forfeitures, rinder-pest and
risings only 13 983 head belonged to the Africans in the whole of Southern Rhodesia. (T.O
Ranger)
Some of the cattle which remained with the Ndebele were branded “CC” meaning Cattle
Company
Seeing that they would lose all their cattle, the Ndebele waged a war in 1896. It had never been
properly understood as to which cattle belonged to Lobengula and which were the private
property of individuals. The Company confisticated a lot and this proved unjust to the African
viewpoint.
Philip Mason: The question of cattle “was a matter which for any Bantu people lay very near at
the core of self degradation or desperate violence…”
2) Introduction of Taxes
The introduction of various taxes by the whites also contributed to the war.
Among the Ndebele a hut tax of ten shillings had to be paid by every adult male. The taxes were too
vast for Africans, hut tax, animal tax, dog tax, poll tax etc. The taxes were introduced in order to
raise money for the Company which was bankrupt due to the costs incurred in 1890 by the Pioneer
Column and in the Ndebele war of resistance/ independence and administration costs.
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The taxes were also imposed to force Africans to work for the settlers. Africans were angered
because some of the cattle taken were dedicated to ancestral spirits.
3) Forced Labour
The Ndebele did not quickly respond by working for the whites after the introduction of the various
taxes. Some sacrificed to sell their animal wealth in order to pay for tax rather than work for the
white tyrants. Others chose to work in South Africa.
The whites therefore turned to forced labour and importing workers especially from Malawi and
Zambia (Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia). Forcing the Ndebele to work for them meant
introduction of slavery.
The settlers wanted cheap native labour. A.J Wills: “Anything remotely like forced labour, however,
was an anathema to the British government particularly now at a time when the working class trade
union movement was becoming a force in the land.” Those who were employed worked for many
hours under harsh conditions, were given very low wages and were even heavily punished by the
whites.
The Ndebele could not tolerate such a situation and therefore waged a war in 1896
4) Abuse of Women
The abuse of women by the whites angered the Ndebele. Some married women were raped and
other men lost their wives forever. The whites who took African girls did not pay for them and this
destroyed the hope that the parents could get lobola.
Although the whites could take any African (Ndebele) women, any black man who admired a white
woman was to be arrested and punished. Africans were not allowed to look very closely at a white
woman.
5) Ndebele Confidence
The Ndebele were not disarmed after the 1893 war and the confidence that the Ndebele would
restore their supremacy over the whites encouraged them to rise up in1896. About half the
Ndebele army had not taken part in the 1893 war and therefore the regiments that hadn’t fought
the colonialists wanted to fight at that time.
The Ndebele believed that in the 1893 war they had been beaten but not defeated because
thousands had not fought at all.
6) Land
Soon after the Anglo-Ndebele war the whites went on to peg farms on the Ndebele`s traditional
fertile land. The Ndebele were forced to go and live in the newly created Gwai and Shangani
reserves. The soils were poor and the areas hot, dry and infested with tsetse flies and mosquitoes.
T.O Ranger and A.J Wills agreed that the Ndebele regarded the reserves as cemeteries and not
homes.
Some of the Ndebele refused to go to the reserves and chose to pay rent (were subjected to rental
charges, eviction etc). Therefore the full implications of the “helotage and servitude to a chance
made master” were hardly grasped by 1896 since few white farms had been occupied by the time
the rising broke out. Even the whites themselves knew the reserves were not suitable for human
occupation.
T.O Ranger: ”SIR RICHARD MARTIN ( British Deputy Commissioner in 1897 commented that the
area (reserves) allocated to the Ndebele were badly watered, sandy and unfit for settlement,
 76

therefore unsuitable for native location” He went on to say that the lad commission should have
recommended that land already pegged for whites be nevertheless set aside for the Ndebele.
The Ndebele used to occupy 21 million hectares of land but the Land Commission of 18 July
1894 only allocated them 1.4 million hectares.
T.O Ranger: “The Senior Induna, Gambo, protested at the Indaba of June 1897 that one cause of
dissatisfaction and unrest is that after we have lived for so many years we are told that a
Whiteman has purchased it, and we have to go”
This simply shows that they were now overcrowded, and their livestock had poor grazing
pastures as they were easily overgrazed. Many people died because of Malaria, Sleeping
Sickness and hunger as the land could no longer produce food and the cattle also died because
of Nagana.
Therefore land was inadequate by 1896 and the Ndebele waged a war to rescue themselves and
correct the imbalance.
7) Abuse of power by the Black Police.
According to Hugh Mashall Hole, one of the causes of the Ndebele uprising was the abuse of power
by the Matebeleland Native Police in the recruitment of labour.
It is said that the AmaHole classes excessively abused their power when they were employed as
policemen. However the claim might have been aimed at a long term divide and ruling system so as
to create an ever standing rivalry between the Shona and the Ndebele.
T.O Ranger: An Induna told Selous ‘I have no complaints to make against the white policemen, but
the black policemen really give me trouble’
If it was true that the AmaHole recruited in the police harshly treated the Ndebele, it is therefore
true to say that the Amahole were employed and therefore only acted according to instructions
from their masters not that they sensitively wanted to punish their fellow Ndebele brothers
8) Natural Disasters.
The natural disasters which occurred in the country from 1895-6 helped in precipitating the war.
There was an outbreak of locusts, rinderpest followed by hunger. In 1895 the heavy rains fell and
drowned or washed away the crops.
C.J.M Zvobgo: “ A new kind of locusts, more destructive than any ordinary specie called ‘intete za
makiwa’ – the white man’s locust had appeared in swarms , darkening the sky, turning large tracts
of veldt into barren wastes and eating up the crops upon which the black population depended on
for food. New, the rinderpest, a new unknown disease, crossing their borders and already strewing
their pastures with the carcasses of their cattle.
High Marshall Hole wrote “Anyone who has had the experience of the Peculiar regard in which
African natives hold their cattle will appreciate the bitter feelings engendered among the Matebele
by this action
In order to prevent the spread of the rinderpest, Government Veterinary Offices advocated the
destruction of all herds of cattle affected by the disease and in the process thousands of healthy
cattle were shot. The natives were also not allowed to eat the dead animals
The Ndebele regarded the shooting of newly registered cattle as an act of spite on the part of the
Whiteman.
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The Ndebele shouted “The Whiteman’s locusts, the Whiteman’s rinderpest and the Whiteman’s
drought.
The spirit mediums Mlimo and Mkwati told the Ndebele that unless the whites were driven away
and killed, the natural disasters would continue and they would continue to suffer even in their
mother country.
9) The Jameson Raid
-The Jameson Raid was an immediate cause of the war.
- Soon after the discovery of gold at the Witwatersrand by the Boers in Transvaal, the British
wanted to control the Transvaal.
-The British workers in the Transvaal wanted to revolt against the Boers on 31 December 1895 to 1
January 1896.
- Rhodes being the Cape Administrator planned with Jameson to fight the Boers at the time of the
strike.
-Jameson left Zimbabwe with 600 soldiers for South Africa and left only 34 soldiers throughout
Southern Rhodesia.
-However news about the two’s plans reached Paul Kruger before Jameson’s arrival such that
Rhodes had already decided to stop him about the plans.
- Jameson therefore continued with his journey southwards while Kruger was making all necessary
preparations and Rhodes has dropped the plan.
- Therefore the result was that Jameson was ambushed and captured with all his men at Doornkop-
some 65 men were killed, injured or reported missing.
- Knowing that almost all the policemen had gone out of Zimbabwe, the Ndebele decided to wage a
war at the time when the settlers were not well-defended.
- The whites did not expect a war from the Ndebele, they had the opinion that “the people had
gone a wonderful change since Lobengula’ s time and were so submissive that anything in the
nature of a revolt seemed out of question” (T.O Ranger)

THE WAR IN MATEBELELAND

- The Ndebele rising began on 23 March 1896 when they killed 7 white men at Elkin Trading
Centre near Essexvale.
- Those who were killed include Native Commissioner(Mr. Bentley), Mr. Elkins and three others,
Ottens, Ivers and Thomas Maddocks ( Manager of the Nellie Reef Mine) [ For descriptive course
and names of the deceased and how they were killed read C.J.M Zvobgo pg 126]
- Within the first week, one hundred and forty three whites had been killed.
- Stores. Mines and farms plus isolated settlements were targeted. C.J.M Zvobgo: The Zambezi
Mission Record states that by April the Ndebele had gathered their forces and were preparing
to close in on Bulawayo. Had the rebels pressed speedily forward and combined to deliver a
general attack or at least to invest the little fortress on every side, it is stated the consequences
of the beleaguered inhabitants might have been serious in the extreme. It was fortunate
however that at such a critical moment no leader appeared amongst the Ndebele (rebels) with
sufficient ability to take in the situation at a glance, or powerful enough to assume supreme
 78

command and impose an intelligent plan of concerted action upon the numerous herds into
which the fighting men of the nation were divided.
- The settlers who managed to escape fled to Bulawayo, Gwelo, Belingwe and Mangwe where
laagers were hurriedly built
- In order to rescue the settlers, the available policemen pressed towards Matebeleland into the
remote farms and mines.
- Britain sent Major General Fredrick Carrington and South Africa sent Plumer to defend the
whites with some 800 troops armed with maxim guns and with horses.
Ndebele Mistakes
1) They neglected to block the southern route- this was the gateway to the South- the road from
Bulawayo South-East to Tati and the regions beyond. This was a fatal error of judgment for it
allowed the settlers to communicate with Bechuanaland and the Cape and it was over that very
route(road) that in the early days of May, Colonel Plumer hurried with reinforcements and
supplies to the relief of the hard pressed population
2) They disregarded caution and patience.
-“It is certain that the first act of revolt was premature, and preceded by about a week the date
which the nation was to rise as a single man and exterminate the white intruder” (C.J.M
Zvobgo)

NDEBELE ACHIEVEMENTS
- The Ndebele achieved something in terms of military tactics.
- They learnt a lot from the 1893 war. This was greatly shown by white casualties – 143 in the
first week.
- “So militarily speaking, the rising in Matebeleland was largely a matter of a revived regimental
system and also improved one it terms of tactics” (T.O. Ranger)
- A number of settlers from Bulawayo in April cabled “The Matebele soldier of today is very
different from the Matebele soldier of 1893. Large numbers of them are armed and they seem
to have plenty of ammunition. There is no doubt that there has been a great deal of rifle
practice by them for the last two years. They will not make rushed en masse but take shelter in
a good situation… So far their tactics placed our men at an utter disadvantage”
British/ London Response
- The British especially the settlers in Rhodesia wanted the war to be seen by outsiders as only a
rebellion which is being conducted by only a very small portion of the population. They spread
the word that the rebels were not the exact Ndebele.
- “ The Times ( London) reported on March 28 that ‘ the natives who are making the
disturbances are not the true Ndebele but the Amahole and the Mashonas and on the same
day Pall Mall Gazette reported that the rebels were not the Ndebele but their enfranchized
subjects” (T.O. Ranger)
- These reports were corrected as the commitment of ‘the true Matebele’ became obvious but
they may serve to remind us of the important part played on the rebellion(war) by these other
groups
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- By September 1896, the Ndebele concluded that outright victory over the whites was no longer
possible and wanted a negotiated settlement.
- Rhodes too was ready to negotiate because a long drawn war would not only be expensive but
would also result in loss of life for the Company forces.
- “ The conquest of the Ndebele was followed by a considerably harsher and more intensive
colonial pressure even more than in Mashonaland” (T.O. Ranger)
- Everyone was surprised to hear that the Mashonas in Mashonaland were also waging a war
against the settlers.
THE INDABA AGREEMENT
- After the battle of Ntabazikamambo, Rhodes was “ determined to seize the first chance of
negotiations or to manufacture a chance if none arose”
- By then, he had given up all the hope of achieving a “total and unconditional victory because a
prolonged Umvukela would bankruptcy or would force the British government to turn the
country into a protectorate. What followed were a series of peace talks known as the Great
Indaba between Rhodes and the Ndebele Indunas.
- The Indaba was held near the Matopo Hills
- By chance some of the Company’s scouts met an old woman who proved to be a Matebele
royal widow and Rhodes took the opportunity to arrange a meeting with the leaders.
- On 21 August Rhodes went five miles into the Matopos where he held the first ‘indaba’ with
some 40 indunas.
- He was accompanied by Dr Saucer, and old friend, Vere Steut, Correspondent of the Cape
Times, Johan Colenbrander who acted as interpreter and two servants.
- Knowing that negotiations would be extremely slow, Rhodes made his camp at this spot and
remained there for two months.
- Some of the present indunas that were at the agreement were Samabulana, Mlugulu, Sikombo,
Khomo, Nyamanda and Phliso and there were also some 10 Company appointees.
Rhodes’ Promises:
# He promised that all the Company forces should be disbanded except for a small permanent
police force
# That some of the indunas should be officially recognized and be given salaries by the
government.
#Rhodes assigned indunas good land for settlement.
# Rhodes donated 2300 000kgs of grain and also seed supplies
- He also promised to redress the grievances against the Company.
In Return:
# He insisted that a;; the weapons should be given up
# All who were responsible for the numerous murders should be handed over for trial
- “Gradually Rhodes won the confidence of the Matebele who accepted these terms on 13
October at a final indaba attended by all important chiefs” (P.E.N. Tindall)
 80

SHONA GRIEVANCES / CAUSES OF THE FIRST CHIMURENGA

1) Restriction of trade with the Portuguese

- The Shona had carried out trade with the Portuguese from the time of the Mutapa state back
in the 15th Century.
- The whites who came in the 1890s banned the traditional important and prosperous trade and
that’s why every Shona chief was greatly hurt by the whites who claimed to be their masters.
- “There is no doubt that this interference with a long established and valued commerce was
another factor in African hostility to the new regime” ( T.O. Ranger)
2) Poor Administration
- Since their arrival, the whites had nothing like well established laws.
- Each and every white settler could punish his offenders as he/she wished.
- In March 1891, one Hudson of Bechuanaland Exp Company wrote to Colquheun to report that
as a result of theft from his stores in Mazowe, he had raided the kraal of one of Goredema’s
headman, burnt his huts and exacted a fine of five cattle.
- “It was common knowledge he told Colquheun, that if they refused to give redress or in any
way notice of the alleged thieving on more than one occasion by a whiteman from whiteman
asserting that there was no law in this country… and had asserted that you had no authority
and could not protect whiteman and their property… I am sure you would agree with me that I
was only doing my duty to my syndicate.”
- Colquheun could not agree…”the steps taken were really improper”…but Hudson’s syndicate
was managed by Major Frank Johnson, leader of the Pioneers and nothing could be done to call
for account for taking the law into his own hands. Undoubtedly, other whites were doing the
same thing in other areas of Mashonaland.
- The whites themselves were not good administrators mostly because most of them were
ruffians who could not read and write
- Actually they were savages that’s why they always acted against the Law and Britain was afraid
of allowing them to rule by themselves (self governments) .
- Milner wrote in 1897 “Rhodes is a good developer but not a good administrator”
- Rhodes was a great gambler- the sending in of an ill-prepared and ill-led Pioneer Column was a
gamble, the concentration of the push to the sea despite the threat of the Ndebele action in
the rear was a gamble, the war of 1893 was a gamble, so supremely was the Jameson Raid of
1895. And so was his failure to build up a native department to control and conciliate the
African peoples of Rhodesia. It was of course an unsuccessful gamble for which the price was
paid in1896.
- “The blacks have been scandalously used, wrote Milner. A lot of unfit people were allowed to
exercise power or at any rate did exercise it especially with regards to the natives.”
- To prove that the whites were true ruffians, they allowed the natives whom they regarded
savages to exercise power- it therefore also serves to illustrate that they were poor
administrators
 81

- Feeling themselves strong, feeling themselves in touch with the South African colonies, whites
in Rhodesia whether settlers or administrators did not pay their cautious respect to African
military potential which characterized colonial regimes to the north.
- It was because of poor administration by the Company it ended up imposing harsh taxes on the
Africans, abusing women and forcing labor.
- Shimmin Isaac wrote that “There is no doubt that in many cases the native felt he had no rights
whatever, and that even a rude justice was denied him. The majority of whitemen in the
country are good fellows…But there is a small section of the community who have taken the
law into their own hands and whose treatment of the native is strongly condemned…In my
opinion and the opinion of a large number of people, the incapacity and misgovernment of the
Company had a great deal to do with the rebellion”
- “In November 1897 Milner went to Rhodesia to see things for himself. He found it an ‘eye
opener’ – ‘things in Rhodesia are in a pretty handsome mess administratively’ he wrote in
December. ‘it is a bad story’”
3) Tax
- The Shona were also subjected to various taxes like what was done to the Ndebele
- So as to divide and rule, the whites often used the Ndebele to collect tax among the Shona
- The Ndebele were raiding Inyati rivers Mashona villages along the Umfuli, Inyati rivers low
down towards the Zambezi. On investigating they found that the Ndebele were collecting
tribute from the Shona and that they were in possession of certificates from Colenbrander
reading “The bearer is to collect tribute from the Natives in the Zambezi and Inyati according to
the custom of the country and bring it to me”
- The introduction of a hut tax of ten shillings per month angered the Shona
- They were forced to pay tax in form of grain. Cattle, goats at first, but later on cash was
introduced.
- Failure to pay meant that livestock would be taken by force.
- According to Ranger, “few Shona paramounts recognized the rights of the Company to demand
tribute from them and accepted that they were under the Company’s protection
- Rev John White also pointed to the unjust manner in which hut tax was collected as one of the
causes of the Shona rising”
- Sometime after they thought they had gained control of they found that their demands on
African people for tax or labor or land could provoke a bitter armed reaction which could only
be defeated with reinforcements brought from Europe eg the Shona and Ndebele 1896-7 wars
4) Women Abuse
- In Mashonaland , Shona girls and even married women were raped by white men and police
boys.
- No lobola was paid by the whites.
- Looking at white women lustfully would lead to a hail sentence for the Shona.
- Widespread use of Company officials of punitive police expeditions against the Shona in settling
disputes between white farmers, prospectors and traders on the other hand and the Shonas on
the other hand.
 82

- One such an expedition was sent to Lomagundi District in 1894 to punish Chief Mazvimbakupa,
they arrived at the Wesleyan Methodist Mission at Hartley during a Sunday Service. The police
arrested seven chiefs and ordered them to accompany them to look for Mazvimbakupa. Whne
the chiefs attempted to escape after and order not to, 3 of them were shot. Rev George Eva
swore that these chiefs were “absolutely innocent of Coopers’ death”. The leader of the police
was promoted from Sub- Inspector to Inspector of Police
- The whites blamed the Company for what happened and added that the burning of huts and
raping of women in the Lomagundi district were common occurances.
5) Forced Labour
- When the settlers saw that they couldn’t do all the work on their own they forced young boys
to work for them.
- Chiefs were forced to hand over men to the settlers.
- A clause in 1897 Native Regulations for S.R had made it compulsory for chiefs to provide labor
for public works if required to do so and though it was cancelled on the insistence of the
Secretary of State the following year, it remained one of the duties if the District Commissioner
to aid in supplying labor for the mines.
- The whites introduced forced labor mainly because the local Shonas did not wish to work for
the oppressors as they were paid low wages.
6) Spirit Mediums
- The spirit mediums of Nehanda and Kaguvi persistently encouraged the Shona to drive away
the white intruders/tyrants.
- The Chimurenga had been labelled by eurocentric historians as catavistic and millenarian
because of the important role of the traditional prophets and priests known as Svikiro.
- Elleck Mashingaidze wrote that the Shona people of the Mazowe valley were told by the
mediums to listen carefully to missionary teaching and to drive out the whites and then advised
them once more to send their children to mission schools to gain what they called ‘white
wisdom’
- David Beach, Julian Cobbing and Ranger agree that in the 1896-7 wars in S.R, the mediums
were of much restricted influence than allowed and that the spirit of Mwari participated in the
risings at all
- In early 1896 supplicants to Mwari were told in the God’s name “these white men are your
enemies. They killed your fathers, sent the locusts, this disease among the cattle and bewitched
the clouds so that we have no rain. Now you go and kill these white people and drive them out
of our father’s land and I will take away the disease from the locust and I will send you rain.”
- The Africans were told that they had nothing to fear because Mwari being on their side, would
turn the white man’s bullets to harmless water.
7) Land
- Land was a major cause of the war. When the colonialists settled in Mashonaland, they took
land from the Shona and the Shona lived as squatters on their own land.
- All fertile land was seized and the whites pegged their farms.
 83

- The whites pegged their farms and made mineral claims recklessly such that the Shona were
concentrated in gulley, rocky and unfertile land and they were too much overcrowded and
their cattle had few grazing grounds.
- Although they persistently asked for more land none was given to them but the whites
reserved land for their unborn babies.
- ‘Land was alienated in the most reckless manner wrote’ Milner, to companies and individuals…
Rhodes and his principal agents… feel what a millstone they had tied round their necks with all
these syndicates, holding thousands of square miles which they are doing nothing to develop.
- ‘Land is our great difficulty’ wrote Lord Grey on May 26 th 1897, ‘It has all been given away. I will
not give away another acre until the native question has been settled.
8) Natural Disasters
- In 1895-6 the Shona were affected by a severe drought which was greatly encouraged by the
natural disasters.
- Swarms of locusts ate all crops and everything in their path
- This was followed by some unknown rinderpest which claimed thousand of cattle.
- The surviving cattle were shot by troops in trying to eradicate the disease.
- The cattle were to be buried and no one was allowed to eat the cattle and this angered the
Shona who were told by the spirit mediums that the problems were caused by the whites.
- However research shows that the rinderpest had started among rhinoceros in present day
Tanzania and had encroached and spread toward southern Africa.
- In early 1896 the supplicants to Mwari were told in God’s name “these white men are your
enemies They killed your fathers, sent the locusts, this disease among the cattle and bewitched
the clouds so that we have no rain. Now you go and kill these white people and drive them out
of our father’s land and I will take away the disease from the locust and I will send you rain”
- On 30 January 1896 Fr F Richartz wrote from Chishawasha “ We are struggling at present
against a severe famine, brought about by the ravages of the locusts… The native crops are
already partly destroyed by the young locusts. During this year there are far more numerous
and there no doubt a severe famine is to be expected. Our natives are beginning already to
starve”
- Rinderpest also struck Mashonaland and by 20 May Richartz said that between 4-5000 head of
cattle had died in and around Salisbury. The Shona associated these disasters with the coming
of the Europeans.
- The Shona therefore waged a war so that these disasters would come to an end.
9) Absence of Settler Troops in Mashonaland.
- Soon after the Ndebele struggle began the settler troops who were few were rushed to
Matebeleland to rescue the endangered white life
- When the Shona realized settler troops were out in Matebeleland they waged a war.
- The Shona actually took advantage of the absence of Settler troops in Mashonaland to attack
the whites ( they were opportunists)

Points to note about the war

 84

- Stanlake wrote this on 2 December 1986. “We are supposed to be at peace with the natives …
No one can go six miles off the main road without being fired from behind the rocks…. In some
cases they are afraid to down their arms as from experience that the white man cannot be
trusted.”
- Because if the guerilla warfare introduced by the Shona, the whites dynamitted the caves. The
Shona could not submit.
- Stanlake was convinced that diplomacy would be more effective than dynamite.

Features of the First Chimurenga 1896-7

- It was dominated by two cults
1) The Mwari Cult- Matebeleland
Examples – Mkwati and Umlugulu
2) The Mhondoro Cult- Mashonaland
Examples-
Kagubi- the medium was Gumboreshumba who worked with:
i) Chinamera
ii) Zvimba
iii) Mangwende
iv) Rusike
v) Nyandoro
vi) Seke
vii) Chikwaka
viii) Mashayamombe

Nehanda- the medium was Chagwe who worked with:

i) Hwata
ii) Chiweshe
iii) Negomo
iv) Seke
v) Nyamweda
vi) Nyanduru
- The communication system was different from that of Matebeleland
- In Mashonaland, they used fires and the war cry (chimurenga)
- Nehanda and Kagubi mediums were killed on Wednesday 27 April 1898
- 11 prisoners were also killed
- In May 1898, 21 condemned Ndebele prisoners were also executed in the Bulawayo Prison.
- In November 3 more executions were made and these included the famous chief, Gutu.
- Hundreds of people died in the First Chimurenga
- Estimates show that 450 Europeans died while 188 were wounded.
- Among Africans an estimate 8000 died.
 85

- Of the 450. 372 were resident settlers representing one tenth of the white population in the
colony. The remainder were imperial troopers or mercenaries

- Mangwende was conquered in September 1897 but his militant son Muchemwa together
with a few councillors continued with the resistance until 1903
- Fr A Boos ( Jesuit Priest at Chishawasha) characterized the Shona risings as a war of
heathenism against Christianity
- The Shona risings revealed many things Boos said, “ It has for instance given us a deeper
insight into the workings of the native mind than we before possessed and has convinced us
that their prejudices against our holy religion are not so deep rooted as we imagined”

Points to Note
- “In any clash between African and European interests of beliefs Europe now possessed both
the material means- steam powers, medical power- to impose its will upon Africa, and the
moral strength- the certainty that European civilization would prevail and also that it was in the
interest of the African population that it should do so.” (F.D Fage 1990)
- If the missionaries started schools so that the Africans could read the Bible, Africans learnt, and
demanded even more schools so that they could use some of Europe’s knowledge to ensure
their own self preservation and advancement.
- L.G Binger a French in the Volta Basin wrote that “ If the European should ever come here, he
should come as a master”
- Livingstone’s two major exploring ventures in 1852-6 and 1858-64 quickly unleashed a flood of
European interest in the interior of East and Central Africa. Initially this was an essentially
scientific and humanitarian interest, but it quickly became and imperial interest as well.
- Livingstone wanted to inject Christianity, commerce and colonization into the heart of the dark
continent
- In 1965, the Soviet historian A.B Davidson called upon scholars to refute the long cherished
European view that “Africans regarded the coming of the colonists as good fortune, as
deliverance from fratricidal wars, from the tyranny of neighboring peoples from epidemics and
periodic starvations” in which people who did not resist were described as ‘peace loving’ and
those who resisted were described as ‘blood thirsty’
- They rejected the only correct explanation which regards rebellions as just wars for liberation
which is why they were supported by the overwhelming majority of the Africans.
- Research shows that there were no so called WAR-LIKE, raiding states and so called PEACEFUL
trading and cultivating ones since all states had some crucial interests or values which they
were prepared to defend if necessary by armed resistance.
- Jacob Ajayi wrote that, “the most fundamental aspect of the European impact was the loss of
sovereignty … Once people lose the sovereignty and are exposed to another culture, they lose
at least a little of their self confidence and self respect; they lose their right of self steering,
their freedom of choice as what to change in their own culture or what to copy or reject from
the other culture.”
 86

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FIRST CHIMURENGA

- It sharpens the intelligence of present day leaders- they make sure not to make mistakes
committed by their forefathers.
- It represents courage of the Zimbabweans- they fight against oppression
- It encourages us to defend our heritage- our forefathers died while fighting for this country
therefore we should continue defending it from all types of imperialism (like father like son)
- It makes us proud of our legacy- it signifies that this country belongs to us as it has a long
standing history in which our forefathers fought for it.
- It encouraged our fathers to fight the Second Chimurenga- it encouraged us to continue with
the struggle to take over our country.
- It reflects the true colors of imperialism- the settlers were quickly aided with reinforcements
from the chief imperialists showing that it is well designed.
- Shows the importance of unity against one opponent- the Shona and the Ndebele resisted one
after the other such that they did not cause much havoc among the whites. If they were to
revolt all throughout the country one day, maybe they might have defeated the whites for they
were in very small numbers.
- The whites feel humiliated- especially understanding that, any of them were killed and Africans
were in need of their heritage.
Results of the First Chimurenga
- The Ndebele and Shona were defeated.
- Many people were killed- about 143 whites in the first week
- Shona people hiding in caves were bombed
- The whites used the scorch-path policy.
- The Africans lost their independence.
- Mashonaland and Matebeleland were conquered.
- The British government became more strict on the settlers in Rhodesia.
- B.S.A.C became bankrupt.
Role of spirit mediums in the causes and course of the first chimurenga?
Spirit mediums like those of Nehanda and Kaguvi are said to have been very active in providing
religious justification for the Chimurenga. they are said to have mobilised resistance to the
Europeans claiming the gods were n
-

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1) With reference to the Ndebele – Shona Rising and the Maji Maji Rising identify the main
features of post pacification primary resistance movements. Compare and contrast the results
of the two risings, both for Africans and the colonial powers. (NOV 2000 CAMB)
2) Analyse the main features of post pacification primary resistance with reference to the Ndebele
– Shona rising and the Maji Maji rising. Compare and contrast the results of these two risings.
(NOV 2003 CAMB).
 87

3) What were the similarities and differences between (a) the causes and (b) the results of the
Hehe and Maji Maji Risings in German East Africa (JUNE 2004 CAMB).
4) Discuss the causes, nature and results of the Ndebele- Shona uprising of 1896- 1897. (NOV 2005
ZIMSEC)
5) Compare and contrast the Ndebele – Shona Rising (1896-1897) and the Maji Maji Rising (1905-
1907) with reference to their causes and results. (NOV 2007 CAMB).
6) Explain why the people of Tanganyika rose against the Germans in 1905. What effects did this
have on the people of Tanganyika? (NOV 2008 ZIMSEC).
7) What were the main features of the Shona- Ndebele Uprising of 1896-97? Assess the results of
the Uprising. (NOV 2009 ZIMSEC).
8) Analyse the main features of post pacification primary resistance with reference to the Ndebele
Shona risings and the Maji Maji Rising. Compare and contrast the results of these two risings.
(NOV 2010 ZIMSEC).
9) Analyse the causes of the Maji Maji Rising (1905-07). What changes in German colonial policy
followed? (NOV 2010 CAMB).
10) How important was the role played by the spirit mediums in the outbreak of the Ndebele Shona
rising of 1896 – 1897? What were the results of these risings? (NOV 2011 ZIMSEC).
11) The Ndebele Shona Rising of 1896-1897 can be classified either as a “post pacification revolt” or
as “the inevitable result of local problems”. Which analysis do you prefer? Give reasons for your
answer. (NOV 2011 CAMB)
12) Compare and contrast any two examples of opposition to colonial rule in East and Central Africa
between 1885 and 1914. (Nov 2013 CAMB)
13) Analyse the causes and nature and nature of the Shona and Ndebele Uprisings of 1896- 1897.
(Nov 2013 ZIMSEC)
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THE MAJI MAJI RISING 1905-1907 (TANZANIA)

 Maji –Maji means water –water.Maji is a Swahili name for water.

 The war gets its name because of the belief among Africans that magic portion of water, oil
and millet seeds would turn Germany bullets into water. The prophet Kinjikitile Ngwale
offered the holy water from the river Rufiji.
 It was the most important armed resistance against Europeans in East Africa.
 It is an example of POST PACIFICATION PRIMARY RESISTANCE.

AFRICAN RESISTANCE

 According to Mwijage (2004:137) “resistance means a phenomenon where by Africans became

hostile to European encroachment”. It is grouped into two; that is, passive and armed
resistance.
 Passive Resistance mearnt unarmed opposition. This was often depicted through the non
cooperation of Africans in business and politics among other areas.
 Armed resistance mearnt that the “African rulers led armed soldiers to oppose the European
invaders from imposing themselves in their territories” (Mwijage: 2004: 137-138).
 The terms originated with T.O Ranger`s study of central and East Africa.
 According to Ranger resistance manifested in ways ranging from protest and non –compliance
(Passive resistance) to revolt and ending in the emergence of movements of national liberation
in the post Second World War era. The two main types of armed resistance were as follows:
1) Initial Primary Resistance
 According to Eric Stokes it connotes the forcible ,instinctual attempt of an unmodified traditional
structure to extrude a foreign body. It involved those who instantly put up a fight against
European rule and it occurred upto 1914.
 In Tanganyika John IIffe has shown that relatively few policies reacted in such a purely negative
and irrational terms to German penetration.
 Initial primary resistance was the confrontation against the establishment of colonial rule. The
battle was waged by the native community armies, and the religious, political and military
leaders, for example, Kabarega of Bunyoro, Samouri Toure of Mandinka, Menelik 11 of Ethiopia
or Nana of Itsekiriland.
2) Post Pacification Primary Resistance
 Eric Stokes defines it as a resistance which “engages the total society , the traditional power
structure having been removed or profoundly modified” .
 The post pacification resistance generally involved many participants and covered large areas.
 It involves new forms of leadership mostly religious nature.
 There is mass commitment and unity through hatred of western rule.
 Examples include the Maji maji uprising (1905-1907) on the Tanzanian mainland, the Nama
and Herero uprising (1904-1907) in Namibia and the Shona and Ndebele uprising (1896-1897)
in Zimbabwe.
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3) Post Pacification Secondary Resistance

 Secondary resistors “occurred in those areas where the rulers at the beginning
welcomed Europeans without recognizing that they were endangering their
independence, later when they realized the peril, they felt that they must rebel”
(Mwijage: 2004: 138).
 Examples include Jaja of Opobo, Lobengula of Matebeleland, Kabaka Mwanga of
Buganda and Prempeh 1 of Asante.

ECONOMIC CAUSES of the Maji-Maji

Forced Labour

 Africans were forced to work in public works. The Germans produced the 12 day`s labour tax
which was payable annually by all adult males.
 Germans used forced labour to build brick administrative buildings and farm houses in
plantations.
 The conditions of service were often humiliating and inhuman.

Land

 Land was alienated to European companies. Land was bought very cheaply and sometimes the
government ordered the Africans to sell land to the companies.
 In 1910, for example ,the colonial administration annexed all unoccupied land on the false
assumption that it was ownerless.
 The Germans introduced a cash crop economy in which they confiscated fertile land from its
citizen owners.

Taxation

 According to Mwijage (2004:151) “The natives were compelled to pay taxes that could help to
finance or run the central colonial government administration, social amenities, and
infrastructure, including schools buildings, offices, roads and railways”.
 The taxation system forced people to travel distant places in forests to collect bees wax and
rubber ,which they could then sell to earn a few coins to pay the tax.
 This meant neglecting food production .Failure to pay the tax resulted in a severe punishment
and social humiliation
 A man that failed to pay tax was jailed and flogged in public regardless of his adulthood or status
in society until a relative paid on his behalf.
 The Akidas and Jumbes who collected tax imployed the iron hand including the expropriation of
cattle, property and goats and that evoked bewilderment and deep rooted hostility that ignited
the war.

The Cotton Programme

 90

 The Germans forced people of the South –East to grow cotton for textile industry in Germany.
 Cotton was unpopular because it required hard work , considerable growing time ,picking and
protection from Vermin ,especially birds and wild pigs
 Cash crops decreased acreage for food crops .Africans were forced to work on German owned
plantations and to work under Jumbes (headman)
 The 1903-04 harvest was so poor that the workers were not paid at all. According to Tidy
(2005:154) “the beginning of the Maji –Maji rising coincided with the beginning of the 1905
cotton picking season”.
 Workers were given very low wages and worked under severe conditions (The Zaramo refused
low wages). The use of force made a rebellion possible

SOCIAL CAUSES OF THE MAJI-MAJI

Activities of German Christian Missionaries

 They (Christian Missionaries) ordered the administration to burn the sacred huts of traditional
priests on the grounds that these were havens of ‘witchcraft’ though often the traditional priests
were strong opponents of witchcraft.
 This understandably upset the people who had been holding these as true religions.
 Besides, the Germans had imposed the policy of dismantling African customs, including initiation
and circumcision, and substituted them with Western ones.
 The Maji Maji uprising was therefore waged by the people inorder to restore their degraded
culture.

Abuse of Women
 The Ngindo were angry because of the abuse of their women by mercenary soldiers in the
German army.
 The Wangindo husbands were furious with the German sleeping with their women. As this
behavior was tantamount to adultery, which in Ungindo was punished by death for the
offender, war against the Germans became inevitable.

The Ngoni wanted to revenge

 The Ngoni like the Ndebele were the most powerful society of south-eastern Tanganyika.
 They wanted to revenge Boma Massascre of 1897 when their political leaders and generals had
been treacherously imprisoned or butchered by the German administration.
 They had been the dominant political and military group before German occupation so they
resented the reduction of their status.
 Chobruma, the Ngoni king, had a personal reason for fighting the Germans because they had
given protection to a young Ngoni man who had seduced one of his wives.

Spirit medium

 The spirit medium played an important role in contributing to the war.

 91

 Maji-Maji means water-water which was used to protect men against German bullets (immunity
to German bullets).
 Spirit medium especially Kinjikitile carried the war message. Spirit mediums acted as focal
points of inspiration and leadership.
 According to Mwijage (2004:152) Kinjikitile “inspired a high spirit courage, determination and
morale of resisting by sprinkling magic water on peoples` bodies before the war, giving the
Africans false confidence that the Germany bullets would be ineffective and could turn into
water. Tragically, this belief was untrue”.

POLITICAL CAUSES of the Maji-Maji

Advent of Arab Akidas (poor administration)

 The Germans imposed Arab Akidas among the Wamatumbi.
 The Arab Akidas were hated by historically because they were previously involved in
slave trade and slavery. The Germans were now using Arab Akidas to administer and
look after areas such as Chumo, Kibata, and Samanga etc.
 The Akidas used their positions to retaliate against the Wamatumbi.
 Therefore, the Wamatumbi waited for the right time to retaliate against poor
administration.

Loss of independence

 The arrival of the Germans in 1900 turned Tanganyika into German East Africa.
 The coming of the Germans meant loss of independence of the South Africans.
 Germans ruled with an iron first as evidenced by exploitation and oppression in the plantations.
 To make matter worse Africans were forced to part ways their peasant economic system and
join German methods especially plantations.
 Therefore, economic instability accompanied by the desire of liberty the Africans made war
inevitable.

The tradition of resisting foreigners

 The tribes of Southeast Tanganyika had cultivated the long tradition of cohesion versus foreign
intrusion.
 They opposed the Ngoni and the long distance Arab merchants, who constantly invaded them
and interfered with their day to day routine of life.
 Thus this cultural practice of resisting the intruders assisted them against German imposition.

THE COURSE OF THE WAR

 The Maji maji rising started in July 1905 when the Pogoro of Kitope disagreed to pick cotton
 The plantations, missions, administrative bomas and Swahili shops were all captured and
besieged.
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 Many German plantation owners, missionaries and government officials were assassinated.
 The coastal town of Samanga, near Kilwa, was attacked and set on fire.
 In September, the Ngoni entered the battle. They were however easily suppressed when the
Germans pinned down resistance and assassinated the Ngoni resistors in the great massacre of
Ngoni at Uwereka.
 The strength of the uprising was weakened as Chabruma the Ngoni chief was killed.
 The final blow came in 1907 when many died due to the ineffectiveness and false protection
given by the magic water.
 The uprising ended when Kinjikitile Ngwale and Gama, the paramount chief of the Southern
Ngoni, were arrested and butchered.

Results / Impacts of the war

1. Heavy loss of life on the African side – at least 75000 Africans died. The Germans got
reinforcements from Somaliland, New Guinea and the Germans progressively destroyed
the uprising. They were further assisted by the British navy. This war resulted in the
depopulation of Southern Tanganyika.
2. Discredit upon African traditional religions- especially when it was proven that the Maji
did not provide protection from bullets. Faith alone exhibited serious shortcoming as was
evidenced by German fire powder. The Africans learnt the futility of depending on fake
religious beliefs.
3. It provided an experience of united mass action that would be drawn upon by later
political leaders. The nationalistic movement that was inspired by the Maji Maji survived
upto the period of the 20th century, when Africans struggled for their independence. It
was the nationalistic spirit implanted by the Maji Maji that aided the nationalistic
movement. Ultimately, Tanganyika attained independence under the leadership of Julius
K. Nyerere.
4. Many Africans changed methods of dealing with Germans-instead of resisting many
started acquiring European skills using them to better their positions in their own
societies.
5. The German government was forced to rethink its colonial policies. Bernard Dernburg
(Colonial Minister in 1906) undertook important changes in the colonial administration,
for example, eradicating abuses such as excessive corporal punishment and forced labour
and this made colonialism more acceptable to Africans. Albrecht Von Rechenburg the
governor aimed at preventing events like the Maji-Maji from occurring again through
reforms and economic incentives for example, markets for cash crops, he encourage
African agriculture. Africans were also given an option to participate in cash crop
production or not.
6. Killing of religious priest for example Kinjikitile. Kinjikitile and his assistant were hanged on
the 4th of August 1905.
 93

7. The end of the war had mixed fortunes for the East Africans- colonialism was imposed,
taxation, forced labour, the command cotton program was abandoned, African education
was promoted.
8. There was the spread of large scale famine and starvation due to the scorched earth
policy that was employed by the Germans to suppress the uprising. Villages, homes and
farms were completely destroyed. As a result there was large scale migration. The
survivors affected by famine after the war deserted the areas and found their new
settlement at the coastal areas.
9. The Maji –Maji eventhough unsuccessful unified so many people from different ethnic
groups. Earlier resistance had been tribal in organization and method but the Maji Maji
embraced many tribes. Therefore, its major success might be that it marked an important
stage which further inspired the Africans to fight colonialism later.

Causes of the defeat

1. The Germans suppressed the uprising by eradicating their base and eradicating what supported
the fighters. This was accomplished through a scorched earth policy in which they destroyed
their villages and farms, thus starving the resistors.
2. The Germans had superior automatic weapons such as machine guns. The Matumbi had only 8
000 guns which were obsolete. They were armed with bows, arrows, and spears that were
unequalled with the weapons of the Germans.
3. Lack of modern military techniques: the Maji Maji soldiers were only unified by religious
sentiment while they were poorly organized without modern military strategy and technique.
Apart from superior weapons the Germans had too much military strategies.
4. Poor military communication: There was poor communication between different tribes that
were engaged actively in the battle. Each tribe fought in isolation. Their leaders too differed in
grievances and motives.
5. The Maji Maji did not spread to larger areas thus was unable to incorporate larger powerful
communities like the Hehe and Nyamwezi.
6. The Germans made an alliance with some African chiefs against the resistors, for example, some
of the Hehe joined the Germans because their traditional rivals the Ngoni, Pogoro and Sagara
were resisting Germans. Similarly Chief Kiwanga of Mahange, collaborated with the Germans in
1905 as a token for their assistance to smash Mkwawa in the 1890s.

Similarities with the First Chimurenga

[Nature of the rising]

 It covered a large area –most of South East Tanganyika, South of the line from Kilosa to Dar-es-
Salaam.
 The wars were mass revolts involving all the people including women and children.
 It united many separate ethnic communities in a single movement.
 94

 In both “risings” the Europeans used the scorched earth policy inorder to suppress the rising. In
Tanzania Von Gotzen instructed his troops to move through the country destroying crops,
removing and burning any grain already harvested and destroying villages in the same way the
British destroyed Shona and Ndebele villages.
 It was dominated by charismatic and revolutionary religious prophets rather than hereditary and
conservative traditional political leaders. In Tanzania the people were united by the Kolelo snake
god cult, a spirit possession and witchcraft eradication cult that passed rapidly over clan and
ethnic boundaries. Like Mwari the Kolelo cult involved priest interpreters of an oracle.

NB: Kolelo cult transformed from a purely religious to a political movement mostly because of the
nature of Germany colonization in Tanganyika.

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTION

1) With reference to the Ndebele – Shona Rising and the Maji Maji Rising identify the main
features of post pacification primary resistance movements. Compare and contrast the results
of the two risings, both for Africans and the colonial powers. (NOV 2000 CAMB)
2) Analyse the main features of post pacification primary resistance with reference to the Ndebele
– Shona rising and the Maji Maji rising. Compare and contrast the results of these two risings.
(NOV 2003 CAMB).
3) What were the similarities and differences between (a) the causes and (b) the results of the
Hehe and Maji Maji Risings in German East Africa (JUNE 2004 CAMB).
4) Compare and contrast the Ndebele – Shona Rising (1896-1897) and the Maji Maji Rising (1905-
1907) with reference to their causes and results. (NOV 2007 CAMB).
5) Explain why the people of Tanganyika rose against the Germans in 1905. What effects did this
have on the people of Tanganyika? (NOV 2008 ZIMSEC).
6) Analyse the main features of post pacification primary resistance with reference to the Ndebele
Shona risings and the Maji Maji Rising. Compare and contrast the results of these two risings.
(NOV 2010 ZIMSEC).
7) Analyse the causes of the Maji Maji Rising (1905-07). What changes in German colonial policy
followed? (NOV 2010 CAMB).
8) Compare and contrast any two examples of opposition to colonial rule in East and Central Africa
between 1885 and 1914. (NOV 2013 CAMB)
9) Analyse the causes and nature of the Shona and Ndebele Uprisings of 1896- 1897. (NOV 2013
ZIMSEC)
 95

COLLABORATION
This was a process whereby the African leaders would cordially receive or invite the Europeans, whites,
assimilated their ways of life, and acted as hand in gloves for the establishment of colonial rule.
Collaboration can be divided into: (a) Adaptation / Career Collaborators (b) Mercenary method (c)
Non- confrontation.

a) Adaptation / Career Collaborators

These collaborators entered into agreement with foreigners inorder to receive trading profit and
persued the opportunity of being promoted and nominated to serve in the colonial government. They
earned many rewards as a token of assisting Europeans establish colonial rule. Examples include
Lewanika of the Lozi.

b) Mercenary Method

These leaders thought that by entering and making treaty of friendship with the foreigners, the
intruders could assist them suppress their traditional foes. Examples include Chief Maleale of Malangu
on Mt Kilimanjaro made an alliance with the Germans because they would assist him against the
intimidation posed by his traditional foe Mkwawa, Chief of the Hehe.

c) Non –Confrontation

It was actualized by centralized societies including the Bemba, Lunda and Lozi. They did not oppose the
invaders, for they were unprepared for confrontation. In exchange the Chiefs received a portion of
taxation, for example, Lewanika took ten percent of the collected tax in Lozi during British rule.

LEWANIKA OF THE LOZI

Lewanika`s full name was Litunga Lewanika and he was King of the Lozi of Barotseland. The kingdom
was located in presentday Western Zambia.

 Lewanika`s position was different from Lobengula`s because of a number of reasons. There are
also a number of similarities between the two.
 Lewanika just like Lobengula faced threats from all over. Lewanika faced threats from the Boers,
Portuguese, British as well as from Ndebele raiders.
 Lewanika wanted to preserve his position by alliances with Europeans.
 He established good relations with European missionaries for instance Coillard, who advised him.
He also used European presence to educate his people.
 Lewanika`s situation was different from Lobengula`s. There was no gold in Barotseland as in the
anticipated Second Rand in his territory.
 He was aware of European strength as he was well informed by his people working in the
Kimberly mines.
 96

 Unlike Lobengula, Lewanika did not wait like a fly waiting to be caught by a chameleon. Instead
of Europeans coming to seek concessions, he made the initiative.
 He was clever to learn from Khama of Tswanaland who had secured protection from the British
in 1883. Besides, Lewanika made use of his advisor Coillard to write a letter to the British asking
for rights of Barotseland in its entirerity to the British.
 Lewanika thought that he was dealing with the Queen`s represantatives. He thought he was
getting protection from foreign attacks.

THE LOCHNER TREATY

The concession was signed between Lewanika and the BSAC representative F.E Lochner on 27 June
1890. Lochner was accompanied by Khama`s regular messenger Makaatsa to Lewanika and was fully
supported by Coillard was a close missionary to Lewanika. Makaatsa was later bribed by Lochner.

Agreements

Lewanika was promised protection from foreign attacks. He feared the Ndebele raids the most.

1. Lewanika was also promised £2000 per year and according to A.J Wills, “a royalty on mineral
exported under the concession” was also to be given to Lewanika.
2. Technical schools were to be built for the development of Lewanika`s country.
3. The company also pledged NOT to “interfere in any matter concerning the Kings power and
authority over any of his subjects” (Madzingira :2010:153).
4. There was also to be an escorted British resident to reside permanently at the King`s court.

In return the King granted:

1. No administrative rights.
2. “The sole, absolute, exclusive and perpertual right and power” to search for, dig and win and
keep any and all minerals in Barotseland (Madzingira:2010: 153).

 No permission whatsoever was sought from a number of other independent chiefs of the
Lunda, Ila, Tonga or Toka.

NB: The significance of the Lochner concession was that the Lozi had taken an independent initiative to
open a window on the modern world with results which affected the history of Central Africa.

THE AFTERMATH OF THE CONCESSION

When Lewanika reralized that he had been cheated and was dealing only with a private company and not
the British government he became “crazy with anger” (Madzingira :2010:152).

 He initially repudiated the concession but later acknowledged it when facing threats from the
Portuguese.
 In October 1897 Lewanika got what he wanted as Robert Corydon arrived as the British resident.
He however came without the £14 000 which the company now owed the King according to the
terms of the Lochner Treaty.
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 By 1900, the British were in control of Barotseland even though Lewanika maintained his
sovereignity as he was the permanent Chief of Barotseland.
 Eventually, Lewanika`s politics of survival finally failed as the British established indirect rule
and gradually Lewanika was powerless.

BENEFITS OF COLLABORATION

Lewanika wanted his to learn the white man`s superior skills.

 He wanted his people to be better equipped to deal with the increased number of Europeans who
were bound to appear.
 In March 1887, the first Paris Missionary Society at Sefula was inaugurated.
 Lewanika`s children and nephews learnt at the private school.

As a result of collaboration Lewanika or Lozi or Barotseland benefited a lot because:

1. Technicals schools were established.

2. Postal services were developed.
3. Lewanika established good relations with the British.
4. Trade
5. He was able to retain his power (although it was short lived).
6. He got the protection from the British
7. Peaceful existence with the Europeans—Diplomatic relations with the British were
established.

WHY DID THE AFRICANS COLLABORATE?

Africans collaborated because of reasons ranging from disunity, insecurity, poor organization, religious
influences and archaic weapons.

1. Some of the societies allied with the foreigners because they were incapable to hold out against
the invaders and they saw that it was fruitless to fight, as they were weak militarily. King Glele of
Dahomey is quoted as saying, “He who makes the gunpowder must win the war”. This compelled
him to befriend them.
2. Some African leaders sought an alliance with the Europeans as they considered that it was one of
the means of avoiding confrontation and keeping off their rival neighbours, for example the Yao
of Southern Tanzania sought friendship with the Germans against Chief Mkwawa of the Hehe
and the Fante made friendship with the British because of the hostile attitude of Asante.
3. Others collaborated as they hoped to gain from the Europeans or even acquire arms from them.
4. Some collaborated because they desired to have the atmosphere of peace and promote human
development, for they had been subjectd to constant warfare that disrupted the harmony and
evolution of economic sectors like trade in their societies. They hoped that by collaborating with
the whites, they might have superior armies through military assistance and suppress their
enemies for example the Fante were constantly tortured by the Asante.
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5. Some collaborated with foreigners for they were of the idea that this would provide them with
favoured opportunities in colonial governments. For example, the Creoles of Sierra Leone invited
British colonial rule because they hoped that the British might give them unlimited opportunities
in the field of trade, evengelisation and provide them top posts in the new government.
6. Some African societies had been devoured by internal squabble pertaining to successions, hence,
Africans associated with Europeans inorder to defend themselves against their rivals for political
domination.
7. Individuals made friendship with the invaders because they were opportunistic self-seekers
hoping to acquire wealth, prestige, rewards and loot.
8. Most rulers of Africa collaborated because they were ignorant of the Europeans` intention. They
were lured into a false sence of security by presents and bribes and were sometimes persuaded ti
sign treaties beyond their understanding. The European presentation and language led them to
believe that the Europeans were genuine friends and offered them the alliance for which they
longed. Examples include Lobengula of the Ndebele, Jaja of Opobo and Samouri Toure of the
Mandinka. These people collaborated with the Europeans, but the moment they realized European
intentions, they took up arms and went to war but it was too late.
9. Missionary enterprises in Africa led to African collaboration with the Europeans. Some European
missionaries persuaded the people that resistance mearnt backwardness. The missionaries feared
that the resistors` souls were at stake. Before colonialism very few missionaries were successful
in Africa such that the missionaries advocated for colonialism inorder topave way for missionary
work. Christian converts aided the Europeans in signing treaties in which Africans ceded their
territories and independence. These Africans often became the first benefiaries of colonialism.

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Explain the response of two of the following to the encroachment of Europeans on their territory:
Mkwawa of the Hehe; Mwanga, Kabaka of Buganda; Lobengula, King of the Ndebele; Lewanika,
King of the Lozi. ( NOV 2002 CAMB).
2. Why, and with what results, did Lobengula resist the British but Lewanika seek their protection?
(NOV 2004 CAMB).
3. “Africans who resisted Europeans, lost; those who collaborated, gained”. Examine the truth of
this assertion with reference to events in East and Central Africa. (NOV 2005 CAMB)
4.
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THEORIES OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION / RULE

There were four different policies initiated by European governments in the governance of their colonial
possessions in Africa. These were:

1. Assimilation
2. Association or Partnership or Paternalism
3. Indirect rule
4. Direct rule

Assimilation
The word assimilation means absorbing. Tidy (1986: 114) defines assimilation as ‘’the absorption of the
African to a European culture and European acceptance of the African as a partner in government,
business and missionary enterprise.’’It It embraced the idea of developing Africans as imitations of
Europeans. It was inspired by the noble ideas of the French revolution; the egalitarian principles of the
revolution, that is, liberty, equality and fraternity. The system was in use prior to the spread of social
Darwinism and was specifically practiced in Senegal and Algeria.

The policy was not spread into the hinterland and lasted only until the racial superiority theories of the
late 19th century began to undermine relations between the French and the Africans.

Assimilation worked on four different levels in French colonies:

(a) Administrative Assimilation

This was a policy where there was no distinction administratively between the metropolis and
the colonies, that is France and its colonies. This meant that the people of the communes were
to be treated as if they lived in France, just in distant departments and each of the communes
was run exactly as if they were in France with elected municipalities, mayors and so on.
(b) Political Assimilation
This gave the people of the communes the right to have a representative sit in national
assembly in France although until 1914, this representative was normally elected from the white
Frenchmen who lived in the communes.
(c) Economic Assimilation
Was whereby economies of the colonies were be integrated into economies of the metropolis.
This economic intergration had long lasting effects.
(d) Personal Assimilation
Was whereby French citizenship was conferred on the people living in the Communes of
Senegal. It was the Frenchification of Africans. According to Okoth (1996:211) personal
assimilation was “part of the French` civilizing mission`”. The African people who lived in the
four communes of Dakar, St Louis, Govee, Rufisquewere given theopportunity to speak French ,
live under French law and receive French political and civil rights. Children born in the
communes were treated as if they had been born in France, automatically becoming French
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citizens. Beyond the communes, if one wanted to be awarded a French citizenship, there were
certain criteria which had to be met such as (1) French literacy (2) being able to show proof of
ones loyalty to France and (3) having served in the French civil service for a certain number of
years. In about 100 years.Only about 80 000 people from the four communes became French
citizens while about 2 000 from beyond the communes did as well. The policy of assimilation
was re-thought and was later abandoned because of a number of reasons. Assimilation faced a
number of problems and was abandoned for association.

Reasons why Assimilation was abandoned / Why Assimilation failed.

(1) According to Mwijage (2008: 190) “the policy was resisted at its grassroots in France. French
scholars and politicians expressed their views that it was unwise and unrealistic for Africans to
be transformed into Frenchmen. They forwaded the notion that Africans are a distinct people
and far away from Europe, with their own culture and traditions that needed to be esteemed
and preserved”.
(2) Politically speaking, the existence of the Assimilated colonies and their representation began to
develop into a thorny issue. The assimilated people were often too ‘’vocal in their criticism‘’
(Okoth: 1988: 21) of French policies and this became embarrassing. Therefore, “The policy was
denounced by the French as devoid of vision, for it was ---digging its own grave. The French
opposed it for Assimilation might poison colonial acquisition since it would eventually
expropriate France of its sources of labour and raw materials” (Mwijage: 2008: 190). If handled
on equal basis the African representatives were likely to influence whites in decision and policy
making.
(3) Assimilation was largely uneconomic. According the African the same treatment as the
European was “considered uneconomical squandering of French funds that was likely to
overburden taxpayers in France”. The policy of Indirect rule was considered inexpensive and
could facilitate colonial exploitation.
(4) As French trade began to expand, it became evident that in some instances assimilating the
people with whom trade was being carried out disrupted the way of life of the people and the
efficiency of the trading system. There was also the fear that the assimilated traders would
outmanoeuvre the French traders undermining their profits. It also became clear that if the
colonized people were to be truly assimilated, part of the metropolitan budget would have to be
spent on affording these people the same education, culture and social benefits accorded to the
people who lived in France.
(5) As the French continued in their quest to conquer new lands and people, they came across
states which were completely different in their religions, moral and cultural beliefs to the
French, that it became clear that there was very little chance of assimilating these people. These
culture differences were a stumbling block for the French-some African kingdoms had a culture
fabric that was impossible to untie thus assimilation never infiltrated into these area.
(6) The growth of social Darwinism and other theories which advocated the superiority of white
people over blacks began to take hold of much of Europe. Thus the idea of assimilation began to
be questioned. If the policy was to be practiced in all French colonies, the truth would be that
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there would be more black French people living in Africa than there would be white French
people living in France. An idea which was not welcome from a nationalist perspective.
(7) Religious differences
West Africans were mostly Muslims and not Christians. This difference in it religion made
difficult for the French to assimilate Africans.
(8) Culture problem
The French were concerned with the cultural difference between French and the colonies. There
were languages differences that were a stumbling block to any meaningful application of the
assimilation policy e.g., French and the colonies operated under different legal system in matter
of marriage, inheritance and land cases and forceful implanting of the French system in Africa
where they were neither understood nor accepted became a burden. This culture disparity was
enormous and may French men began wondering whether it was realistic or worthwhile trying
to assimilate Africans.
(9) Natural Problems
For Africans to enjoy the same privileges as the French, needed to open up the interior through
constructing roads, railways etc. this policy of ‘’ opening up’’ the country was indeed
appropriate to start the Frenchification of Africans. The system was intended to link the river
Niger with important ports or common areas such as Dakar, Conakry, Abidjan and
Cotonou.Thisplan led to a number of problems especially tropical disease to the extent that the
French were reluctant to undertake the projects.
N.B So was the French who began to abandon the theory of assimilation and began to adopt
association more.

British Assimilation

Britain practiced assimilation in West Africa around Freetown, Lagos Bathurst,Fante areas of the Gold
coast. Here Africans were given given the status of being British subjects and lived under British legal,
educational, political and religious system. The people who were the products of this system were
Englishmen who could hold office ‘’at all level in the judiciary, the school system and the civil service up
to and including the position of acting Governor’’ (Webster: 1896: 212). The situation changed because
of the spread of racist theories between 1880 and 1900. Assimilation was abandoned and the policy
indirect rule was adopted with serious consequences for the so called ‘’Black Englishmen’’ e.g. .in 1892,
Sierra Leone’s civil was 50% Creole and by 1917 was only 10% Creole.

Portuguese Assimilation

In theory the Portuguese followed the policy of assimilation from the beginning but it was never really
implemented with much verve. The greatest stumbling block to true assimilation was the fact that the
Portuguese were so involved with slave trade & therefore could not really develop colonies, assimilate
and then condemn the people to slavery. It was also extremely difficult to achieve the requisite level of
education and culture knowledge in order to be assimilated as the Portuguese did not invest much in
the field of education in their colonies. Ultimately, a handful of Africans were awarded assimilado
status.
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Association / Paternalism
According to Mwijage (2008: 180) association “was adopted when the French colonial authorities
realized that assimilation was not only not practical but also unacceptable in many parts of their
territory. It was a sort of partenalism where the French took direct control of their spheres of influence
outside Senegal”. Association was adopted by the French after the failure of Assimilation. For its
advantages you turn to the disadvantages of Assimilation as discussed above.

Indirect Rule (British Policy)

It means using a form of government that was already in existence in the African Societies. It meant
ruling through chiefs and tradition institutions. Therefore, it was a marriage of convenience between the
European colonisers and traditional African rules. Indirect rule supposed that African society was static.
It aimed at preserving African culture and traditional institutions. It was a cheap way of administering a
colony. Britain had a few administrators and therefore decided to train African Chiefs.

General Application

Indirect rule was applied at local government level but did not apply to central government. The system
revolved on the African chiefs who formed the basis of the African government. The chief appointed all
who were responsible to him. The chief was responsible to the British resident who remained in the
background (so the chief was more of a stooge). The Chief and his officials presided over the law courts
which applied the African law. Chiefs’ agents levied taxes part of which were sent to the central
government and the remainder was used at local level to build roads, markets, cemetery facilities,
schools and even salaries for local authorities (officials). British officials oversaw the collection of taxes
and operation of courts through chiefs. Indirect Rule worked successfully in areas where chief’s
authority was acceptable to the people. Indirect Rule was successful in Nigeria where Lugard
successfully implemented it. Orders from the British officials were to appear as emanating not from
them but the chiefs who had no option but to obey all orders given to them. Thus, some historians for
example Assa Okoth argued that Indirect Rule was more of a myth than a reality since the chief did not
make independent decisions but simply acted as a medium of British administration.

Why the British favoured Indirect Rule

(1) It was cheap or not expensive as compared to direct rule. Indigenous rulers did not have to be
paid high salaries. Administrative expenses were low especially considering that in most of the
areas traditional African administrative structures were well set up, for example, the Caliphate
in Nigeria. Its success in Nigeria was largely because ‘’ of the pre-existing authority of the emirs
was respectable, legitimate institution through whom the British could work while keeping in
the background.’’ (Tidy: 2001: )
(2) Lord Lugard and his disciples believed that Indirect rule was the best way of preparing the way
for eventual Africans self –governance. To Lurgard, Indirect rule was a way of tutoring /
mentoring Africans to self- rule. This point brings out the white superiority complex. They
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wanted to develop Africans economically, socially, and politically Lurgard once wrote that the
attitude of the resident is that of a watchful advisor rather than an interfering agent.
(3) The British in particular had very little knowledge about land, people and culture. Lurgard
himself confessed that the people did not know the culture of West Africa. It was rather
convenient to use the local people. Lurgard realised that it would be impossible for him to rule
the conquered people without making use of their own rulers in whom they had faith. He
therefore appointed new emirs to the thrones left vacant as a result of the Caliphate wars of
1903 which had led to the death of some of the emirs and the removal or banning of others who
had refused to cooperate with the British.
(4) Indirect Rule gave the appearance of minimum interference in African affairs. This was partly
because the British lacked manpower to staff all the colonies. There was less interference or
disruption of the social order as very few whites were involved in the exercise. The British
government had 42 officials for the whole protectorate. The number included doctors and non-
administrative officers, but of the approved only 31 had been sent to Nigeria.
(5) Some historians argue that the British adopted indirect rule because of the nature of the treaties
they signed.
(6) The scarcity of British officials (refer to 4)

Weaknesses of Indirect Rule

(1) Indirect rule encourage stagnation and discouraged progress and reform. European rulers, for
example,. Lurgard had little faith in African ability to reform and develop without European help.
Lurgard in particular disliked Western educated Africans. Africans whether educated or not were
the subordinates. Therefore,indirect rule was weak as it alienated the educated African elite who
were given no role in it.
(2) Indirect rule was unsuitable as a foundation for future self-government. Conservative elements in
traditional government were removed and in Northern Nigeria it was a barrier to modernisation.
Traditional rulers were puppets of the British government thus Bishop Tugwell of Nigeria referred
to it as ‘’Direct Rule by Indirect means.’’
(3) Could only be effectively applied to centralized communities for, example, Fulani- Hausa,
Ngwato, Lozi etc. It was less applicable to decentralised communities such as Igbo, Tiv in Eastern
Nigeria and most Kenya communities. In some cases the British used (semi-imperialists / sub-
imperialists) warrant chiefs to govern on their behalf. The British successfully used the Lozi to
rule their neighbours on behalf on the central government. It however led to serious protests and
unrest in areas where there were no traditional chiefs and the British authorities appointed
warrant chiefs to act as substitutes.
(4) It permitted no, place for the western educated Africans, whose numbers increased steadily with
the spread of missionary education. The western educated Africans looked upon Lugard as the
symbol of the worst-aspects of British imperialism.

Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria-Sokoto Caliphate (British success)

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It was a success for the British in the sense that they were able to maintain law, peace and order.
Political organisation of the caliphate suited well with the British policies. The society was the divided
into emirs who collected taxes. After conquering Nigeria, Lugard confirmed all the co-operative emirs
and used them as local government. They were allowed to govern in their own way. Under colonial
rule, very few emirs were disposed than before the colonial rule. British support could keep any
unpopular emir in power. The British allowed the traditional rulers to practice corruption and
injustice. The colonisers did not interfere in religion as Islam remained important and popular.

Indirect Rule in Yoruba land

Lugard’s belief that indirect rule would be implemented anywhere proved false. In Yorubaland the
people had a centralized government headed by the Oyo. Lugard thought that he had found a system of
government similar to that in Sokoto. The British attempted to make Oyo the chief for central authority
but the Yoruba refused. The refusal of the Yoruba to accept the Oyo as their chief was the main cause of
the Oyo-Yoruba wars in the 19th century. In the 1890s the British had recognized Ibadan as one of the
most important or powerful states in Yoruba land and yet they were trying to make it subordinate to
Oyo. The educated elite played a crucial role in Yoruba land. In Ibadan, the educated were advisers to
the chiefs. Thus, this group clashed with Lugard leading to his eventual failure and ultimately the failure
of Indirect Rule in Yorubaland.

Direct Rule

Direct Rule meant rule by direct means. The colonial power was directly involved in the administration
of the states. Chiefs were not recognized. Administrative structures like those in Europe were set up.
There are no examples of direct rule in Tropical Africa. These policies, that is, Direct and Indirect Rule
were often used in conjunction with each other. It required a large population of European
administrators to implement direct rule. However, in white settler colonies such as, South Africa, South
Rhodesia, Kenya and Algeria direct rule was not generally applied. In some cases, both were ‘’mixed’’.
Few Africans who lived in mines or some urban centres could be said to have been under the direct rule
of Europeans. The British favoured Indirect Rule more than Direct rule largely because it was cheap.

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1) ‘’ Convenience and self-interest rather than principle led British to adopt a system of indirect
rule in most of her African colonies’’ How far do you agree.
2) Show how and explain why Indirect Rule took different forms and enjoyed varying success in
different British territories. (NOV 1994 CAMB)
3) How and why did both the British and the French systems of colonial administration in West
Africa change in this period? (NOV 1996 CAMB)
4) When and why did the British adopt the system of Indirect Rule to administer most of their
African colonies? What were the strengths and weaknesses of this system? (NOV 2000 CAMB)
5) When and why did the French replace their policy of “assimilation” by that of “association”?
How did the later differ from the former? (NOV 2001 CAMB)
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6) “The British system of Indidrect rule had more advantages than disadvantages as compared to
assimilation in governing Africa”. Discuss. (NOV 2003 ZIMSEC)
7) In French colonial territories, what were the differences between the administrative systems of
‘assimilation’ and ‘association’? When and why did the French move from one to the other?
(JUNE 2004 CAMB).
8) What was the French policy of Assimilation? Why did they abandon it for Association? (NOV
2004 ZIMSEC)
9) When, why, and to what extent did the French replace their system of ‘assimilation’ by that of
‘association’? What were the differences between the two systems? ( NOV 2006 CAMB).
10) Compare and contrast the British system of Indirect Rule with the French system of Association.
(NOV 2008 ZIMSEC).
11) “In theory, the French policy of Assimilation had a lot in its favour, in practice, it proved
unworkable and it was gradadually abandoned.” How valid is this statement? (NOV 2009
ZIMSEC).
12) When and why did the British adopt the system of Indirect Rule as the favoured system of
administration for their African colonies? What were the strengths and weaknesses of this
system? (NOV 2010 ZIMSEC / NOV 2007 CAMB).
13) Why did Lugard`s system of Indirect Rule work more successfully in Northern Nigeria than in
other regions of that country? (NOV 2010 CAMB).
14) Why did the French adopt a policy of “association” or “paternalism” in their West African
colonies? How similar or different was this policy to Indirect rule? (NOV 2011 CAMB).
15) Assess the contribution made by Indirect rule to development in West Africa. (NOV 2011
ZIMSEC).
16) Explain the French policy of Assimilation. Why did the French abandon the policy of Assimilation
for Association in administering their colonies in West Africa. (NOV 2012 ZIMSEC).
17) How similar and how different were the British policy of Indirect Rule and the French policy of
Association. (JUNE 2013 ZIMSEC).
18) How far do you agree that convenience and self intrest rather than principle explain Britain`s
policy of indirect rule in her African territories? (Nov 2013 CAMB)
19) Compare and contrast the British system of Indirect rule and French system of Association as
practiced in West Africa. (NOV 2013 ZIMSEC)