12

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

QUARTER 2
Module 9-16

NOTE: Do not write anything on this SLM. Use separate answer sheet.
 LESSON 9: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN, SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING
PROCEDURES

Learning Competency: After going through this module, you are expected to:
 Identify appropriate quantitative research designs; and
 Classify the kinds of quantitative research.

Lesson Proper
Basic quantitative research design can be used to address or match given problems and
objectives.
Three Traditional Categories of Quantitative Research Designs:
 Exploratory Research Design is used to establish an initial understanding and background
information about a research study of interest, often with very few or no earlier related
studies found relevant to the research study. It is described as an informal or unstructured
way of investigating available sources.
 Descriptive Research Design helps provide answers to the questions of who, what, when,
where, and the how of a particular research study. It provides accurate data after subjecting
them to a rigorous procedure and using large amounts of data from large numbers of
samples. This design leads to logical conclusions and pertinent recommendations.
However, the descriptive research design is dependent to a high degree on data collection
instrumentation for measurement of data and analysis. According to Polit and Hungles
(1999), the following research designs are classified as descriptive design:
a. Survey Research Design is usually used in securing opinions and trends through
the use of questionnaires and interviews. It is used in gathering data from
institutions, government and businesses to help in decision-making regarding
change strategies, improving practices, analysis views on choice of products or
market research.
b. Correlational Research is used for research studies aimed to determine the existence
of a relationship between two or more variables and to determine the degree of the
relationship.
c. Evaluation Research is conducted to elicit useful feedback from a variety of
respondents from various field to aid decision making or policy formulation.
1. Formative Evaluation is used to determine the quality of implementation of a
project, the efficiency and effectiveness of a program, assessment of
organizational processes such as procedures, policies, guidelines, human
resources development and the like.
2. Summative Evaluation is done after the implementation of the program. It
examines the outcomes, products or effects of the program. Example, you
want to determine the effect of remedial classes on performance of students
in mathematics in school.
 Causal Research Design is used to measure the impact that an independent variable
has on another variable or why a certain results obtained. A valid conclusion may be
derived when an association between the independent variable and the dependent
variable is obtained. It can also be used to identify the extent and nature of cause and
effect relationship.
Describing sample size and sampling procedure
Sample (n) is a selection of respondents for a research study to represent the total
population (N). Making a decision about sample size for a survey is important.
The following are some reasons for the use of samples:
 Sample saves time compared to doing a complete census which requires more time.
 Sample saves money because it is less costly than conducting a complete census.
 Sample allows particular attention to be given to a number of elements than doing a
census.
 There is a greater error in reporting results of a census caused by inexperienced
interviewers. There is less sampling error in a survey.
 Some research studies in the industry may only performed on a sample of items. For
examples, testing the length of time a battery could last.
Slovin’s Formula in Determining the Sample Size
The following information is needed to be able to determine the sample size using the
Slovin’s Formula.
 Population (N) consists of members of a group that a researcher is interested in
studying the members of a group that usually have common or similar
characteristics.
 Margin of error is the allowable error margin in research. A confidence interval of
95% gives margin of error of 5%; a 98% gives a margin of error of 2%; a 99%
confidence interval gives a 1% margin of error.
N
The sample size can be obtained by the formula N
1+ N e 2
where; n= sample size
N= total population
e=margin of error
Example: Suppose you plan to conduct a study among 1,500 Grade 11 students enrolled in
the STEM track. How many respondents are needed using margin of error of 2%? Given:
N=1500
e=2%
N
Solution: n =
1+ N e2

1500
n=
1+ ( 1500 ) (.02)2
1500
=
1+ (1500 ) (.0004)
1500
=
1+.6
1500
=
1.6
n= 938

Sampling Procedures
 Sampling is a formal process of choosing the correct subgroup called a sample from a
population to participate in a research study. The subgroup shall be the representative of the
large group from where they were selected.

Probability Sampling Procedures

The most important characteristics of probability sampling procedure is the random
selection of the samples. Specifically, each sample (n) or element from the population (N) has
equal chance of selection under a given sampling technique.
 Simple Random Sampling. This is the most frequently used type of probability
sampling technique. This is characterized by the idea that the chance of selection is the
same for every member of the population.
 Systematic Random Sampling. Follows specific steps and procedures in doing the
random selection of the samples. It requires a list of the elements and every nth element
in the list is drawn for inclusion in the sample.
 Stratified Random Sampling. The population is first divided into two or more
mutually exclusive categories based on your variables of interest in the research study.
The population is organized into homogenous subsets before drawing the samples.
With stratified random sampling, the population is divided into subpopulation called
strata.
 Cluster Sampling. Used when the target respondents in a research study is spread
across geographical location. In this method, the population is divided into groups
called clusters which are heterogeneous in nature and are mutually exclusive. This may
be classified as either single-stage, two stage cluster or there also exist multi stage
cluster sampling. Single-stage cluster sampling, all the members from each of the
selected clusters are used in the sampling process. In two-stage cluster sampling, a
subset of elements within each selected cluster is randomly selected for inclusion in the
sample. In multi-stage sampling, more than two steps are taken in selecting clusters
from clusters.
Non-Probability Sampling Procedures
There are situations when the researchers cannot employ random selection. In cases where
probability sampling is not applicable, you may consider some non-probability sampling
alternatives.
 Convenience Sampling. This is a method of selecting samples that are available and are
capable of participating in a research study on a current issue. This method is
sometimes called haphazard or availability sampling.
 Snowball Sampling. Technique where the researcher identifies the key informant about
a research of interest and then ask that respondent to refer or identify another
respondent who can participate in the study. This technique is applicable when
researchers find difficulty in locating special numbers of a population. The chain
referral procedure allows the researcher to reach the desired samples.
 Purposive Sampling. Sometimes called judgmental or subjective sampling employs a
procedure in which samples are chosen for a special purpose. It may evolved members
of a limited group of population.
  Quota Sampling. Gathering a representative sample from a group based on a certain
characteristics of the population chosen by the researcher. Usually, the population is
divided into specific groups.

Enrichment Activity 1: Determine the research design most appropriate for the following
research problems. Use the following letter codes for each of the following research designs:
A. Exploratory B. Descriptive C. Causal
___________1. A description of how parents feel about the K to 12 program implementation.
___________2. The effect of different amounts of fertilizer on the growth of plants.
___________3.What are the causes of drop-outs in school?
___________4. The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of working students.
___________5. Is there a correlation between teacher factor and scholastic achievement of
students?

Enrichment Activity 2: Compare probability and non-probability sampling procedures in

terms of the following aspects.
Basis for Comparison Probability Sampling Nonprobability Sampling

Selective Process
Research Design
Presence of Bias
Generalizability

ASSESSMENT. Write the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which of these Quantitative Research Designs is used to establish an initial understanding
and background information about a research study of interest, often with very few or no
earlier related studies found relevant to the research study?
A. Descriptive Research Design C. Exploratory Research Design
B. Evaluative Research Design D. Causal Research Design
2. You want to conduct a survey of 100 senior high school students in a certain private school.
To get the desired sample size of 100, you can do the selection process either manually or
electronically, ensuring that each student in the population has an equal chance of being
drawn from the total population of senior high school students in that school. Which of the
following procedures best characterize this situation?
A. Stratified Random Sampling C. Systematic Random Sampling
B. Simple Random Sampling D. Sampling Procedures
3. Josh conducted a survey or interview on a captive audience inside a school to obtain a
quick response of public opinion on an issue about election of public officials. Which Non-
Probability Sampling Procedure is used by Josh?
A. Snowball Sampling C. Quota Sampling
B. Purposive Sampling D. Convenience Sampling
4. The following are reasons for the use of samples EXCEPT
A. Technique where the researcher identifies the key informant about a research of
interest.
 B. Sample allows particular attention to be given to a number of elements than doing a
census.
C. Sample saves money because it is less costly than conducting a complete census.
D. Sample saves time compared to doing a complete census which requires more time.
5. Bieboy wanted to conduct a survey in different town of Zamboanga Del Norte. Which of
the Sampling procedure will be the most effective to use?
A. Simple Random Sampling C. Quota Sampling
B. Cluster Sampling D. Sampling Procedures
 LESSON 10. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT AND ITS VALIDITY and RELIABILITY, AND
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

Learning Competency: After going through this module, you are expected to:
 Look for a sample survey questionnaire online; and
 Construct a survey questionnaire related to their chosen topic.

Lesson Proper
Designing the Questionnaire. A questionnaire is an instrument for collecting data. It
consists of a series of questions that the respondents provide answers to a research study.

Step by step approach that will help produce a valid and reliable instrument for gathering
data:
 STEP 1- BACKGROUND. You do a basic research on the background of the chosen
variable or construct. Construct in research refers to a trait or characteristics that you like to
evaluate or measure. Example of construct are weight, height, intelligence levels, level of
satisfaction, aggression, skills, academic achievement or work performance. After
identifying the construct, you can easily state the purpose and objective of the questionnaire
and the research questions as well; only then can you frame the hypothesis of the study.
5 MAIN TYPES OF VARIABLES:
 Dependent Variable. These are variables that you are trying to explain. An example is
student academic achievement in mathematics.
 Independent or Explanatory variables. These are variables that cause, influence or explain
a change in the dependent variables. For examples, some variables which may influence a
student’s academic achievement in mathematics are: mental ability, age, gender, seating
arrangement or educational qualification of parents.
 Control variables. These are variables that are used to test for a possible erroneous
relationship between the identified independent and dependent variables.
 Continuous variables. These are variables defined on a continuous scale. Examples are
times, weight, length, or money.
 Discrete variables. These are variables which can also be counted but must be a whole
number.

 STEP 2- QUESTIONNAIRE CONCEPTUALIZATION

 Choose the response scale to use. This is how you want your respondents to answer the
question in your study. You can choose from the following responses scales:
1. Yes/ No
2. Yes/No/Don’t Know.
3. Likert Scale. Likert Scale is a very popular rating scales used by researchers to
measure behaviors and attitudes quantitatively. Example:

Frequency of Occurrence Frequency of Use Agreement

 Very frequently  Always  Strongly Agree
 Frequently  Often  Agree
  Occasionally  Sometimes  Disagree
 Rarely  Rarely  Strongly Disagree
 Very Rarely  Never
Degree of Importance Level of Satisfaction
 Very Important  Very Satisfied
 Important  Satisfied
 Moderately Important  Unsatisfied
 Of Little Importance  Very Unsatisfied
 Not Important
 Generate the items or questions of the questionnaire based on the purpose and
objectives of the research study. Use these guidelines to develop the questions for your
questionnaire:
a. The questions should be clear, concise and simple using minimum number of word.
Avoid lengthy and confusing lay-out.
b. Classify your questions under each statement based on your problem statement
c. Questions should be consistent within the needs of the study.
d. Avoid sensitive or highly debatable question.
 Choose the types of questions in developing the statements. The types of questions may
be one of the following:
a. Dichotomous Question. This is a Yes/No or Like/ Dislike question where only two
choices are provided.
b. Open-Ended Question. This type of question usually answers the question “why”.
It allows the respondents to give ideas and insight on a particular issue. Example:
What are your favorite movies? (Please specify their titles)
c. Closed Questions. There are also called multiple-choice questions. These questions
may consist of three or more mutually exclusive question from different categories.
d. Rank-Order Scale questions. Respondents are asked to rank their choices on each
statement or item.
e. Rating Scale Questions. Constructing a scale like those examples given for Likert
Scale Ratings.

 STEP 3- Establish the Validity of the Questionnaire. Validity the degree to which a test
measures what its claims or purpose. (Brown, 1996) A valid questionnaire helps to collect
reliable and accurate data. Here are ways to assess the validity of a set of measurements:
a. Face Validity. This is superficial or subjective assessment. The questionnaire
appears to measure the construct or variable that the research study is supposed to
measure.
b. Content Validity. Often measured by experts or people who are familiar with the
construct being measured.
c. Criterion-related validity. This measures the relationship between a measure and
outcome. This can be further divided into Concurrent and Predictive Validity.
Concurrent Validity measures how well the results of an evaluation or assessment
correlate with other assessments measuring the same variables. Predictive Validity
measures how well the results of assessment can predict a relationship between the
construct being measured and future behavior.
 d. Construct Validity. This is concerned with the extent to which a measure is related
to other measures as specified in a theory or previous research.

 STEP 4- Establish the Reliability of the Questionnaire. Reliability indicates the accuracy
or precision of the measuring instrument. Norland (1990) refers it to a condition where
measurements process yield consistent responses over repeated measurements. Here are
some ways to assess reliability of a questionnaire:
a. Test-retest reliability. The simplest methods of assessing reliability. The same
test questionnaire is administered twice and correlation of the two sets of scores
is computed.
b. Split-Half Methods. This is also called equivalent or parallel forms. In this
method, two different test covering the same topics are used and the correlation
between the two sets of scores is calculated.
c. Internal Consistency. This methods is used in assessing reliability of questions
measured on an interval or ratio scale.

 STEP 5- Pilot Testing of the Questionnaire. Pre-testing or Pilot testing a questionnaire is

important before you use it to collect data. Through this process, you can identify questions
or statements which are not clear.

 STEP 6- Revise the Questionnaire. After identifying the problem areas in your
questionnaire, revise the instrument as needed based on the feedback provided the
pretesting or pilot testing.

PLANNING DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES. Data Collections refers to the process

of gathering information. The data that you will collect should be able to answer the question
you posed on your Statement of the Problem.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
A. Observation. This method is used in situations where the respondents cannot answer
the researcher’s questions to obtain information for a research study. It is structured to
elicit information that could be coded to give numerical data.
B. Survey. Quantitative data can be collected using four main types of survey:
o Sample Survey. The researcher collects data from a sample of a population to
estimate the attributes or characteristics of the population.
o Administrative Data. This is a survey on the organization’s day-to day
operations.
o Census. The researcher collects data from the selected population. The collected
data usually used by the government or private firms for planning purposes and
development strategies.
o Tracer studies. This is a regular survey with a sample of those surveyed within
specific time or period.
C. Quantitative Interview. This methods of collecting data involves gathering of
information from a large represented sample. It contains the list of question and answer
options that the researcher will read to the respondents.
Questionnaire. This maybe standardized or researcher made. Sauro (2012) provided the
advantages of standardized usability questionnaire: Validity. Determines how well the
questionnaire measures what is intended to measure. Reliability. Refers to how consistent
responses are to the questions. Sensitivity. Measured by using resampling procedures to see
how well the questionnaire can differentiate at a fraction of the sample size. Objectivity. To
attain this measure, practitioner or experts are requested to verify statements of other
practitioners in the same field. Norms. The standardized questionnaire have normalized
references and database which allow one to convert raw scores to percentile ranks. For a
researcher-made questionnaire that has been developed by the researcher specifically for a
research study, the following should be discussed: (A) the corrections and suggestions made
on the draft to improve the instrument, (B) the different persons involved in the correction and
refinement of the research instrument, (C) the pre-testing efforts and subsequent instrument
revisions, (D) the type of items used in the instrument, (E) the reliability of the data and
evidence of validity, (F) the steps involved in scoring, guidelines for interpretation.

Enrichment Activity 1: A. Look for a sample research instrument/survey questionnaire

related to your research study online. Then, write the URL link on a separate answer sheet.

Enrichment Activity 2: Based on your chosen research study, complete the research template
below. Use a separate answer sheet.
Research Title: ___________________
Background: (What is your study all about?) ____________________________________________________
Response Scale to be used: (Ex. Strongly Agree-Strongly Disagree; Always-Never) ________________
Items: (These are items in your survey questionnaire where respondents express their opinion or
simply put a check mark in your chosen Likert-scale. Write at least 10 items in your survey
questionnaire.
1. ______________________________________ 6. _______________________________________
2. ______________________________________ 7. _______________________________________
3. ______________________________________ 8. _______________________________________
4. ______________________________________ 9. _______________________________________
5. ______________________________________ 10. ______________________________________

ASSESSMENT: Write the letter of the correct answer on a separate answer sheet.
1. Which type of Quantitative Data collection is used in situations where the respondents
cannot answer the researcher’s question to obtain information for a research study?
C. Observation B. Administrative Data C. Survey D. Census
2. Which of the following types of Quantitative Data collection is used by the National
Statistics Office for civil registration system, Bureau of Labor and Employment Statistics
(BLES) COMELEC and other national agencies?
D. Observation B. Administrative Data C. Survey D. Census
3. Jose wanted to know whether his product satisfies his costumers. Which of these types of
Quantitative Data Collection should Josh use?
A. Observation B. Administrative Data C. Survey D. Census
4. “Are you taller than 6 feet?” is an example of_____________________.
A. Dichotomous Question C. Closed Question
B. Open-Ended Question D. Rank Order Questions
5. Maria wanted to establish the reliability of his questionnaire, so he conducts Test-retest
reliability. Which of the following best describe Test- Retest Reliability?
A. The same test questionnaire is administered twice and correlation of the two sets of
scores is computed.
B. This methods is used in assessing reliability of questions measured on an interval or
ratio scale.
C. Determines how well the questionnaire measures what is intended to measure Quota
Sampling
D. This is a regular survey with a sample of those surveyed within specific time or period.
LESSON 11. PLANNING DATA ANALYSES USING STATISTICS AND TESTING
HYPOTHESIS

Learning Competency: After going through this module, you are expected to:
 Draft a statement to construct a scale of measurement; and
 Present written research methodology.

Lesson Proper
Every research methodology requires a data analysis plan. The plan includes specifying
the statistical measures to use and to address the research question. The appropriate methods
of data analysis are determined by the type of data, the variables to be used, number of cases
and the distribution of the variable. The purpose of data analysis to gather useful information
to find solutions to research questions of interest. It may be used to describe data sets,
determine the degree of relationship of variables, determine differences between variables,
predict outcomes and compare variables.

Data Analysis Strategies:

 Exploratory Data Analysis. This type of data analysis is used when it is not clear what
to expect from the data. This strategy uses numerical and visual presentations such as
graphs. Since the research of interest is new, it is possible to find some inconsistencies,
such as missing values, distribution of the data or unusually small or too large values or
invalid data.
 Descriptive Data Analysis. This type of data analysis is used to describe, show,
summarize data in a meaningful way, leading to a simple interpretation of data.
Descriptive data do not allow you to formulate conclusions beyond the data that you
have described. The commonly used descriptive statistics are those that analyze the
distribution of data such as frequency, percentage, measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion.
 Inferential Data Analysis. It tests hypotheses about a set of data to reach conclusions or
make generalizations beyond merely describing the data. Inferential statistics include
test of significance of difference such as the t-test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA); and
test of relationship such as Product Moment Coefficient or Correlation or Pearson r,
Spearman rho, linear regression and Chi-square test.

Levels of Measurement Scales:

 Nominal Scale of measurement is used for labelling variables. It is sometimes called as
Categorical data. The Yes or No scale is an example of nominal data. Some examples of
variables measured on a nominal scale are gender, religious affiliation, race or ethnic
group.
 Ordinal Scale of measurement assigns order on items on the characteristics being
measured. It involves ranking individuals, attitude and characteristics. The order in
honor roll; order of agreement (strongly agree, agree, strongly disagree) or economic
status are some examples.
 Interval Scale has equal units of measurement, thereby, making it possible to interpret
the order of the scale scores and the distance between them. However, interval scales do
 not have “True Zero”. Addition and subtraction are possible but you cannot multiply or
divide.
 Ratio Scale is considered the highest level of measurement. It has the characteristic of
an interval scale but has a zero point. All statistical operations can be performed on
ratio scale.
Common Measures of Central Tendency/Measures of location:
 Mean. Often called the arithmetic average of a set of data, it is the sum of the observe
values in the distribution divided by the number of observations.

 The weighted Mean is necessary in some situations. The formula for weighted mean is
given by,
1.

Where: f= frequency
x= numerical value or item in a set of data
n= number of observations in the data set
 Median. The midpoint of the distribution. It represents the point in the data where 50%
of the values fall below that point and 50% fall above it. When the distribution has an
even number of observations, the median is the average of the two middle scores. The
median is the most appropriate measure of central tendency for ordinal data.
 Mode. The most frequently occurring value in a set of observations. In cases where
there is more than one observation which is the highest but with equal frequency, the
distribution is bimodal or multimodal with more than two highest observations. In
cases where every item has an equal number of observations, there is no mode. The
mode is appropriate for nominal data.
 Measures of Dispersion. Also called as Measures of Variability. The extent of the
spread or the dispersion of data is described by a group of measures.
 Range. It is the difference between the largest and the smallest values in a set of data.
 Average Mean Deviation. Defined as the absolute difference or deviation between the
values in a set of data and the mean, divided by the total number of values in the set of
data.
 Standard Deviation. It is a measure of the spread or variation of data about the mean. It
is computed by calculating the average distance that the average value is from the
mean.

Hypothesis testing is important part of data analysis plan in conducting a research study.
A hypothesis is a preconceived idea, assumed to be true and has to be tested for truth and has
to be tested for its truth and falsity. Two types of hypothesis namely; Null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis. Null Hypothesis is the hypothesis that is always tested by a researcher.
It indicates that there is no difference between the group means in the comparison. Alternative
Hypothesis on the other hand, indicates that there is a true difference between the group
means. The result will show that (1) either there is a meaningful difference the two groups,
thus, you reject the null hypothesis or (2) the difference between the two groups is not large
enough to conclude that the groups are different thus you fail to reject the null hypothesis. If
the null hypothesis is rejected, then the alternative hypothesis is accepted. A measure based on
a population is called a parameter while a measure based on sample is called a statistic.
Statistically Significant means that a relationship between two or more variables is caused by
something other than by random chance. Significant also means probably not true. When the
result is highly significant, it means that it is very probably true. A level of significance means
that there is a chance that the finding is true. Statistical hypothesis testing is used to
determine whether the result of a data set is statistically significant. There are two types of
errors involved in hypothesis testing. Type I error is committed when a researcher rejected a
null hypothesis when in fact it is true. Type II error is the error that occurs when the data from
the sample produce results that fail to reject the null hypothesis when in fact the null
hypothesis is false and should be rejected. Two types of significance test that are usually used
by researchers are called parametric and nonparametric statistics. Parametric test are used for
interval and ratio scales of measurement. They require that the samples and observations are
drawn from normally distributed populations and that the samples and that the selection of
each case should be independent of the other. The population should have equal variances.
Nonparametric test do not specify distributed populations and similarity of variances. It is
used with nominal or ordinal data only.

Steps of Hypothesis Testing

1. State the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is a statement that no difference exist
between the averages or means of two groups.
2. Choose the statistical test and perform the calculation. The researcher should determine
the measurement scale, the type of variable, the type of data gathered and the number
of groups or the number of categories.
3. State the level of significance for the statistical test. The level of significance is determine
before the test is performed.
4. Compute the calculated value. Use appropriate formula for the significance test to
obtain the calculated value.
5. Determine the critical value the test statistic must attain to be significant. The critical
value defines the region of rejection from the region of acceptance of null hypothesis.
6. Make the decision. If the calculated id greater than the critical value, you reject the null
hypothesis. If the critical value is larger, you conclude that you have failed to reject the
null hypothesis.

Enrichment Activity 1: Draft a statement that could be used to construct a scale for measuring
students’ attitude towards research. Use a separate sheet.

Enrichment Activity 2: Write/present research methodology of your chosen study using the
template below. Use a separate answer sheet.

Research Title: _____________________________________________________________________

Research Design: __________________________________________________________________
Sample Size and Sampling Procedure: ______________________________________________
Research Instrument: ______________________________________________________________
Data Collection Procedure: _________________________________________________________
Statistical Treatment: ______________________________________________________________
 ASSESSMENT. Write the letter of the correct answer on separate answer sheet.
1. The teacher of PE and Health records the height of each students in Senior High School.
Which level of measurement is being used by the teacher?
A. Nominal C. Interval
B. Ordinal D. Ratio
2. The EIM grade 12 students listed the video games played by students in Dapitan City
National High school. Which measurement scale should they use?
A. Nominal C. Interval
B. Ordinal D. Ratio
3. Which of this measurement scale should a meteorologist use if he wanted to compile a list of
temperatures in degree Celsius for the month of May?
A. Nominal C. Interval
B. Ordinal D. Ratio
4. Which of the following can be describe as a nominal variable?”
A. Annual Income C. Annual Sale
B. Age D. Geographical location of a firm
5. Research hypothesis are:
A. Formulated prior to a review of the literature.
B. Statements of predicted relationships between variables.
C. B but not A.
D. Both A and B.

LESSON 12. COLLECTING DATA USING APPROPRIATE INSTRUMENTS

Learning Competency: After going through this module, you are expected to:
 Collect data using an appropriate instrument.

Lesson Proper
There are various types of instruments you may use to collect data for evaluation. The
choice of appropriate instruments depends on the type of data to be collected, the question to
be answered, the time frame and the resources. The method of data collection should not only
be appropriate but also effective. Data collection is very important in the analysis of data.
There are two different methods to gather information: Primary or Secondary. Primary data
collection uses surveys, interviews, questionnaires, test, observations, checklists and rating
scales. Secondary data collection is conducted by obtaining information found in journals,
books, annual reports, websites and other publications available for public use.

A. Collecting Data through Surveys

Sample Survey on “Students Satisfaction on Students in a Private Secondary School”
Dear Students, Thank you for being a respondent for this survey. Please help us improve
our services by completing this survey.
1. What is your overall satisfaction rating with our school services?
Very Satisfied
Somewhat satisfied
Neither satisfied or dissatisfied
Somewhat dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied
2. Please explain your answer ___________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
3. Please rate your level of satisfaction in the quality of student services provided by your
school.
5-Very Satisfied 4- Somewhat Satisfied 3- Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
2-Somewhat Dissatisfied 1- Very Dissatisfied
5 4 3 2 1
Registrar’s Office
Canteen
Student Information System (SIS)
Comfort Rooms
Classroom Ventilation
Cashier’s Office
College/Department staff
4. Please rate the following personal goals of going to Senior High School (SHS) in order of
importance from 1 to 6 with 1 indicating most important goal, 2 second most important
goal and so on.
___________To pursue college education
___________To be employed after graduation
____________To enhance my self-esteem
____________To become a useful citizen
____________To develop good attitudes
____________To be socially and intellectually mature
B. Collecting Data through Interviews
Sample Research on “Students’ Perception About Use of ICT in Learning Mathematics”
Sample Interview Guide for Students
1. What is your favourite subject/s?
2. Why do you like the subject?
3. What is your least-liked subject/s?
4. Why do you dislike the subject?
5. How is your favourite subject taught by your teacher?
6. How is your least-liked subject taught by your teacher?
7. Which method/strategy do you find interesting?
8. Does your teacher use ICT in teaching mathematics?
9. Which ICT devises do you frequently use? Graphic calculator? E-learning?
10. What are the ICT activities that you perform inside the classroom? Outside the
 classroom?
11. Which of these activities are helpful to you?
12. Given the number of minutes you spent in learning mathematics, how many percent
do you spend for ICT hands-on math activities?
13. Do you find the use of ICT in learning mathematics interesting?
14. From a scale of 1 to 10, (with 1 as the lowest and 10 as the highest), at what level do
you assess the effectiveness of ICT integration in learning mathematics?
15. Does ICT integration in learning mathematics improve your academic performance in
mathematics?

C. Collecting Data through Questionnaires

Sample Questionnaire A
Directions: Below are questions on the Parents-Teachers Association (PTA) involvement in
the school development programs of Francisco Felix High School in Cainta, Rizal.
Please put a check mark (/) or fill in the blanks on some necessary information asked for.
Name: (optional) ___________________________________________________________________
Status of PTA membership: Officer Member
1. What is the level of your involvement in the following school development programs
using the following scales:
5- Highly involved
4-Moderately involved
3- Somewhat involved
2- Slightly involved
1- Not at all involved
A. Decision Making 5 4 3 2 1
1. Resolving issues on matters arising during PTA meetings
2. Pertinent matters on school development program involvement
B. Support to School Programs
1. Organization of the PTA
2. Sports development activities
3. Intramural Activities
4. School Activities
5. Cultural Programs
6. Beautification programs
7. Environmental Awareness
8. Academic Competitions
9. Clean and green campaign
10. Waste management
11. Climate Change
12. Field Trips
C. Fund Raising
1. Sourcing out donations
2. Fund-raising activities
3. Book donations
4. Contribution of Construction materials
5. Free labor and repair
D. Extension and Community Involvement
1. Livelihood program
2. Environmental Education
3. Health and Nutrition
4. Population Education
 5. ICT Literacy
Sample Questionnaire B
Directions: Please use the following scale to measure the quality of your school life as
senior high student. Put a check mark (/) on your choice.
5-Strongly Agree
4-Agree
3-Neither agree nor disagree
2-disagree
1- strongly disagree
Quality of School Life 5 4 3 2 1
1. Teacher support for my well-being
2. Teacher support for my academic success
3. Good appearance of school
4. Good appearance of classroom
5. Safety at school
6. Enough chairs in the classroom
7. Good ventilation in the classrooms
8. Enough books in the library
9. Clean and quality service of canteen
10. Respect from other students
11. Having friends in school
12. Enough playground in school
13. Satisfaction with teachers
14. Satisfaction with grades
15. Overall satisfaction with life in school

Enrichment Activity 1: Using the social media platform, send the questionnaire below to at
least ten (10) SHS students. Then, consolidate the data collected on a separate answer sheet.
Questionnaire on Senior High School (SHS) Implementation
Name of Respondent:__________________________________________________________________
Type of School: Public Private
A. Basic Information
1. Which track/s in SHS did you enrol in?
Academic Technical-Vocational Sports Arts and Design
2. What strand, if academic/ technical-vocational?
Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS)
Accountancy, Business Management (ABM)
Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)
Liberal Arts or the other course/track
Technical-Vocational
Home Economics
Agriculture-Fishery
Arts and Trades
Information and Communication Technology(ICT)
3. Adequacy of Resources
Instructions: Please check the appropriate rating scale that corresponds to your
evaluation of each statement.
3-highly adequate
2- adequate
1-inadequate
Resources 1 2 3
 1. Availability of Self-learning modules
2. Availability of teachers and staff
3. Availability of disenfectants
4. Number of meetings with parents and students

Assessment. Write the letter of the correct answer on a separate answer sheet.
1. A good questionnaire should accomplish all of the following EXCEPT:
A. Contextualize the information collected.
B. Express the study objective in the question form.
C. Provide questions that ensures that all objectives are met.
D. Create harmony and rapport with the respondent.
2. The following statements are all true in designing the data-gathering instrument EXCEPT:
A. The “don’t know” or “no opinion” response should always be available to respondents.
B. The quality of the information gathered is indirectly proportional to the quality of the
instrument designed to collect data.
C. The quality of the information is directly proportional to the quality of the instrument
designed to collect data.
D. Structured-undisguised questions are most commonly used in research today.
3. Choose the most appropriate statement. Observations used in research are an example of
___.
A. A methodological research C. A qualitative data collection method
B. A process of reviewing data D. A method of collecting data
4. Which of the following can we use to gather primary data?
A. Surveys C. Rating scales
B. Interviews D. All of these
5. Which one of the following is a data collection method?
A. The Case Study C. Positivism
B. The Onion D. The Interview

LESSON 13: DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

Learning Objective. After going through this module, you are expected to:
 Provide textual interpretation; and
 Present data in tabular form.

Lesson Proper
To be able to create and present an organized picture of information from a research
report, it is important to use certain techniques to communicate findings and
interpretations of research studies into visual form. Presentation of data refers to an
exhibition or putting up data in an attractive and useful manner such that it can be easily
interpreted. The common techniques being used to display results are tabular, textual and
graphical methods.
A. Textual presentation uses words, statements or paragraphs with numerals, numbers to
describe data. They can be used independently to describe the data when there are very
few quantities or numbers. They can also be used to compare data using paragraphs for
the discussion. The discussion about the presentation of data starts off with the most
raw and vague form which is the textual presentation. This is commonly used when the
data is not very large. The data should not be voluminously represented in tables or
diagrams. It just has to be a statement that serves as a fitting evidence to our qualitative
evidence and helps the reader to get an idea of the scale of a phenomenon.
Example: There are 42, 036 barangays in the Philippines. The largest barangay in
terms of population size in Barangay 176 in Caloocan City with 247 thousand
persons. It is followed by Commonwealth in Quezon City (198, 295) and Batasan
Hills in Quezon City (161, 409). Twelve other barangays posted a population size of
more than a hundred thousand persons.
B. Tabular Presentation of Data Tables presents clear and organized data. A table must be
clear and simple but complete. A table facilitates representation of even large amounts
of data in an attractive, easy to read and organized manner. The data is organized in
rows and columns. This is one of the most widely used forms of presentation of data
since data tables are easy to construct and read.
Components of Data Tables:
a) Table Number: Each table should have a specific table number for ease of access and
locating. This number can be readily mentioned anywhere which serves as a reference
and leads us directly to the data mentioned in that particular table.
b) Title: A table must contain a title that clearly tells the readers about the data it contains,
time period of study, place of study and the nature of classification of data.
c) Headnotes: A headnote further aids in the purpose of a title and displays more
information about the table. Generally, headnotes present the units of data in brackets at
the end of a table title.
d) Stubs: These are titles of the rows in a table. Thus a stub display information about the
data contained in a particular row.
e) Caption: A caption is the title of a column in the data table. In fact, it is a counterpart if a
stub and indicates the information contained in a column.
f) Body or field: The body of a table is the content of a table in its entirety. Each item in a
body is known as a ‘cell’.
g) Footnotes: Footnotes are rarely used. In effect, they supplement the title of a table if
required.
h) Source: When using data obtained from a secondary source, this source has to be
mentioned below the footnote.
Example of a good table:
Table 1 Ages of individuals in Various Employment Sectors:
Tabular Presentation with Textual Analysis:

C. Graphical Method of Presenting the Data. A graph or chart portrays the visual
presentation of data using symbols such as lines, dots, bars or slices. It depicts the trend
of a certain set of measurements or shows comparison between two or more sets of data
or quantities. It is very useful in simplifying the presentation of research reports.
 Line Graph:

 Double Line Graph has two lines connecting points to show continous change in
the data over time.
 Bar Graph uses bars to compare categories of data. It may be drawn vertically
or horizontally. A vertical bar graph is best to use when comparing means or
percentages between distinct categories. The categories are measured
independently and compared with one another. A horizontal bar graph may
contain more than 5 categories. A bar graph is plotted on either the x-axis or
 y-axis.
 Pie Charts or Circle Graphs is usually used to show how parts of a whole
compare to each other and to the whole. The entire circle represents the total
and the parts are proportional to the amount of the total they represent.

13%
40%
17%

30%

Enrichment Activity 1. Based on the table below, interpret the data in your own words. Use
a separate answer sheet.
Profile of Students According to Grade Level:
 Grade Level Frequency Percentage
Grade 7 60 20%
Grade 8 54 18%
Grade 9 51 17%
Grade 10 45 15%
Grade 11 90 30%
Total 300 100%
Enrichment Activity 2: Present the following data using a table. Use a separate sheet of
paper.
“The students’ socio-economic statuses based on the monthly family income are
categorized into three groups: above average, average or middle and below average. Those
students whose family income falls on the below average category consist of 75 or 25% of
the respondents. There are 174 or 58% whose combined monthly family income falls on the
average or middle bracket. The remaining 17% or 51 falls above average combined family
income.
Assessment. Write the letter of the correct answer. Use a separate sheet of paper.
1.LESSON
Which of 14-15: USINGisSTATISTICAL
the following an appropriateTECHNIQUES
display to showIN ANALYZING
interest DATA
rates over the past 3
weeks?
A.Learning
Bar Graph C. Line Graph
Objective. After going through this module, you are expected to:
B. Circle Graph D. Histogram
 Solve mathematical problems using statistics.
.
LESSON PROPER
There are many instances in your life when you try to determine if some characteristics
are related with each other. On a higher level, you also want to measure the degree of their
relationship or association. You usually associate height and weight, budget and expenses
and other aspects in life which may be related with one another. The relationship between
variables can be measured statistically by various correlation methods.
Correlation Methods:
A. The Scatter Diagram. (Also known as scatter plot, scatter graph, and correlation
chart) is a tool for analyzing relationships between two variables for determining
how closely the two variables are related. One variable is plotted on the horizontal
axis and the other is plotted on the vertical axis. The pattern of their intersecting
2. What is the name
points of the graph
can graphically above?
show relationship patterns. The scatter diagram gives you a
A. Line plot C. line. graph
picture of the relationship between variables A B
B.Figure
bar graph
1: D. frequency table 50 30
3. Which of the kind of graphs use percentage/s? 45 27
A. Line Graph C. Pie Chart 40 24
35 21
B. Bar Graph D. Histogram
30 18
4. The bar graph shows the number of animals sold at a pet store in one week. How
25 15
many animals were sold?
20 12
15 9
10 6
5 3

In Figure 1, the points are plotted to show the relationship between the values listed
under column A which are plotted on the x-axis and the values listed under the column B
which are plotted on the y- axis. Observe from this data the increase of 5 units in the
A.items
225 animals
in column A, there is a corresponding C. 265 animals
increase of 3 units on the items
B.listed
315 animals D. 325 animals
on B. You will also observe that the points fall along a straight line A B
5.running
Carol has a candy
from bar. 50%
the lower left oftothe candy
the barright
upper was given
of thetoscatter
her mom, 25% was
diagram. given to
This 50 3
her friend and carol kept the rest. What graph do you use? 45 6
illustrate a perfect positive relationship. When commputed, the coefficient of
A.correlation
Pie chart is equal to 1. C. Bar graph 40 9

B. Line graph D. Data table 35 12

Figure 2: 30 15
25 18
A B
20 21
50 24
15 24
45 21
Figure 2 is the opposite of figure 1. You will notice that for every 40 18
10 27
increase of 5 units in A, there is a corresponding increase of 3 35 23
5 30

units on B, the points also fall along the straight line but this 30 18
time it runs from the upper left hand part to the lower right of 25 11 the
scatter diagram. This is an example of a perfect negative 20 10
15 7
10 4
5 2
relationship. When computed, the coeffecient of correlation is equal to -1.
Figure 3:

There are some situation in life wherein the relationship is not perfect. Figure 3, above is
a graphical presentation of a scatter diagram wherein the points are not falling along the
straight line but the line is still apparent. This figure illustrates a very high
A B
positive correlation between two sets of points. 50 8
Figure 4: 45 20
40 6
35 15
30 5
25 20
20 9
15 8
10 16
5 8

The scatter diagram in Figure 4 shows the point scattered in all directions.
This is an illustration of a low negative relationship.
 When the points are evenly distributed all over the scatter diagram, that will
indicate that there is no relationship.

Type of Correlation:
1. Simple Correlation. This is a relationship between two variables. The
relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable is usually
measured.
A. Linear Correlation. This means that a change in one variable is at a constant
rate with respect to the change in the second variable. The correlation between the
variables may either be showing direct or inverse relationship.
 Direct- for every increase in one variable, there is a corresponding increase in
the second variable.
 Inverse- for every increase in one variable, there is a corresponding decrease in
the second variable.
B. Curvilinear Correlation. This means that a change in one variable is not at a
fixed rate. It may be increasing or decreasing with respect to the change in the
other variable.
 2. Multiple Correlation. It involve more than two variables. The relationship
between a dependent variable and two more independent variables is usually
measured.
A. Non-Linear Correlation. The relationship is non-linear correlation is similar to
curvilinear correlation. However, in this correlation more than two variables are
involved.
B. Joint Correlation. This correlation between the dependent variable and two or more
variables is changed with the addition of another independent variable.
3. Partial Correlation. This is a relative measure of a relationship between the dependent
variables and a particular independent variables, without considering the effect of the
other independent variables under study.
The Coefficient of Correlation. To obtain the quantitative value of the extent of the
relationship between two sets of items, it is necessary to calculate the correlation coefficient.
The values of the coefficient correlation ranges between +1 to -1. Zero represents no
relationship.
1. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r). It is derived by Karl
Pearson. It measures the linear relationship between two variables. Therefore, to be able to
determine linearity, it is important that a scatter diagram be constructed prior to the
computation of the Pearson r.
Pearson’s Formula:

Example 1: The scores of ten randomly selected senior high school students on the
mathematical portion of the National Admission Test (NAT) and the mathematical ability
part of a university admission test were recorded as follows:

 The sign of the coefficient of correlation indicates the direction of the relationship
between the two variables. A Positive Correlation Coefficient means that the individuals
obtaining high scores in the first variables tend to obtain low scores on the second
variable. A Negative Correlation Coefficient means that for every increase in one
 variable, there is a corresponding decrease on a second variable. Or a decrease of one
variable brings about the increase on the second variable. The absolute value of the
correlation coefficient indicates the extent of the relationship.

2. SPEARMAN RANK ORDER COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION (Spearman Rho). The

statistics being used on ranks or position is the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient
represented here by 𝒓 𝒔. It is a measure of relationship between two variables by ranking
the items or individuals under study according to their position. It represents the extent to
which the same individuals or events occupy the same relative position on two variables.
The following Formula may be applied:

The formula requires that you get the differences in ranks of the individuals from the
two variables, then you square and add the squared differences and substitute the
resulting values in the above formula.

Example: The scores obtained by fifteen (15) randomly selected senior high school teacher
graduating batch of junior high school students who took the an admission test
administered in English were recorded. The same students took a similar test with a version
in Filipino. Determine the correlation coefficient between the two sets of scores obtained by
the students using the Spearman rank Correlation Coefficient formula:

Solution:

Interpretation: There is high correlation between the two sets of scores obtained by
students in both test.
 SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS. Linear regression is the simplest and
commonly used statistical measure for prediction studies. It is concerned with finding an
equation that uses the known values of one or more variables, called the independent or
predictor variables, to estimate the unknown value of quantitative variable called the
dependent or criterion. It is a prediction when a variable (Y) is dependent on a second
variable (X) based on the regression equation of a given set of data.
Three major uses of regression analysis:
1. Causal analysis –establishes the possible causation of changes in one variable by
changes in other variable.
2. Forecasting an Effect –predicts or estimate the value of a variable given the values of
other variable.
3. Linear Trend Forecasting –imposes a line best fit to time series historical model. The
general form of the linear function is 𝑌 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 Where: a = is called the Y-intercept of the
line ◦ b= is the slope of the line called regression (the rate of change of Y per unit change
in X).
Example: Randomly selected Grade 11 students took a 50-item mathematics aptitude test
before they began their course in Statistics and Probability subjects.
1. What linear equation best predicts performance (based on first grading test scores) in
Statistics and Probability based on performance in the mathematics aptitude? If a student
made a score of 45 on the math aptitude test, what score would we expect the student to
obtain in Statistics and Probability? How well does the regression equation fit the data?
CHI-SQUARE(𝑥2 )
The Chi square is the most commonly used method of comparing proportions. It is particularly
useful in tests evaluating a relationship between nominal or ordinal data. Typical situations or
settings are cases where persons, events or objects are grouped in two or more nominal categories
such as “Yes-No” responses, “Favor-Against- Undecided” or class “A, B, C or D”.
Chi-square analysis compares the observed frequencies of the responses with the expected
frequencies. It is a measure of actual divergence of the observed and expected frequencies. It is
given by the formula: 𝑋 = Σ(𝐹𝑜 − 𝐹𝑒)2 𝐹𝑒
Where: 𝐹𝑜 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝐹𝑒 = (𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)(𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) 𝑁(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)

Illustration:
Consider the nomination of three (3) presidential candidates of a political party. A, B and C. The
chairman wonders whether or not they will be equally popular among the members of the party.
From this the hypothesis of equal preference, a random sample of 315 were selected and
interviewed which one of the three candidates they prefer. The following are the results of the
survey:
Candidates Frequency
A 98
B 115
C 102

For chi square significance, use the table value Critical value = 5.991 Decision rule: Reject 𝐻
𝑜 𝑖𝑓 𝑋 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 > 5.991, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 𝑜 Conclusion: Since 1.505<5.991, do not
reject 𝐻 𝑜. There is no sufficient evidence or reason to reject the null hypothesis that the
frequencies in the population are equal.

Chi-Square as a Test Independence: Two Variables Chi-Square can also be used to test the
significance of relationship between two variables when data are expressed in terms of
frequencies of joint occurrence. 𝐹𝑒 = (𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)(𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)
𝑁(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)
Example: Suppose one want to know if there is a relationship between gender and school
choice. A sample of 100 female and 100 male freshman students were asked individually for
their school choice. Test the null hypothesis of no significant relationship between the
students gender and school choice at 5% level of significance.

Calculating the 𝑋2 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒:

𝑋2 = (42−54)2 54 + (58−47)2 47 + (65−54)2 54 + (435−47)2 47 =10.53
Degree of freedom =(row-1)(column-1) =(2-1)(2-1)=1
Critical Value = 3.841
Since the computed value 10.53 is greater than tabular value 3.841.
Decision: There is a significant relationship between the students gender and school choice.

Answer:

One Sample z-Test. This test is used when we have a random sample and we want to test.
If it is significantly different from a population mean or we compared a single sample mean
( 𝑋) to a known or hypothesized population mean(𝜇). This test can be used only if the
background assumptions are satisfied such as Sample observations.
ONE SAMPLE Z-TEST formula: 𝑧 = 𝑋−𝜇 𝑜 𝑠 𝑛 where: 𝑠 = (𝑥− 𝑥)2 𝑛−1
𝑋 = sample mean ◦𝜇 𝑜= population mean ◦𝑠=population standard deviation ◦N-number of
samples
Example: A company who make cookies, claims that its product have a mean life span of 7
days with standard deviation of 2 days. If a random sample of 50 cookies is tested and one
found to have a mean life span for only 4 days. Test the claim at the 5% level of significance.
Computational Procedure: 1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis. ◦𝐻 𝑜: 𝑢 = 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐻𝐴 ≠ 7 2. State Alpha ◦ 𝛼 = 0.05
3. State Decision Rule: One-tailed Test: 𝑧 > 𝑧 𝑎; 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 𝑜 ◦ Two-Tailed Test: 𝑧 > 𝑧 𝑎 2;
𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 𝑜
4. Calculate Test Statistic 𝑧 = 𝑋−𝜇 𝑜 𝜎 𝑛 = 4−7 2 50 = -10.6066
5. State Results (use z table to get the critical value) 𝑧 𝑎 2 → 𝑍0.05 2 → 𝑍0.025 = 1.96 −10.6066
> 1.96, 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 𝑜
6. Conclusion: Therefore the company who makes cookies have mean life span of not equal
to 7 days.

ONE SAMPLE T-TEST. The One sample t-test is used when we want to know whether the
difference between a sample mean and the population mean is large enough to be
statistically significant, that is if unlikely to have occurred by chance. This test can be used
only if the background assumptions are satisfied such as the population mean and standard
deviation must be known and the test statistics should follows a normal distribution.
ONE SAMPLE T-TEST formula 𝑡 = 𝑋−𝜇 𝑜 𝜎 𝑛 where: 𝜎 = (𝑥− 𝑥)2 𝑁
𝑋 = sample mean ◦𝜇 𝑜= population mean ◦𝜎=population standard deviation ◦N=population
◦n-sample
Example:

Computational Procedure:
1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis. ◦𝐻 𝑜: 𝑢 = 4.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝐴 ≠ 4.5 ◦
2. State Alpha ◦df = n-1 =10-1=9 ◦ 𝛼 = 0.05
3. State Decision Rule ◦ One-tailed Test: 𝑡 > 𝑧 𝑎; 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 𝑜 ◦ Two-Tailed Test: 𝑡 > 𝑧 𝑎 2 ;
𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 4. Calculate Test Statistic 𝑡 = 𝑋−𝜇 𝑜 𝑠 𝑛 = 5.2−4.5 0.4831 10 =4.583
5. State Results (use z table to get the critical value) 𝑡 𝑎 2 𝑛−1 → 𝑡0.05 10−1 → 𝑡0.0025 = 2.263
4.583 > 2.262, 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 𝑜
6. Conclusion: Therefore the grade point average of the 10 pupils is different from the
populations GPA

Independent Sample z-test: Equal Variance Not Assume.

It is used for testing two means when the variance is known and T-test if the variance is
unknown. If Equal Variances Assume: 𝜎1 2 = 𝜎2 2 = σ 𝑧 = (𝑋1−𝑋2)−(𝜇1− 𝜇2) 𝜎1 2 𝑛1 + 𝜎2 2
𝑛2
Example: Employees at public universities work 11.3 hours per week on the average with a
standard deviation of 9.5. At private universities, the average working time for employees
is 9.7 hours, with a standard deviation of 8.9 hours. The sample size for each is 500. Is there
a significant difference between the average hours of the public and private universities?
Perform a hypothesis testing using 5% level of significance to find out.
Computational Procedure:
1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis. ◦𝐻 𝑜: 𝑃𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑐 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑎: 𝑃𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑐 ≠
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒 ◦
2. State Alpha : 𝛼 = 0.05 ◦
3. State Decision Rule ◦ One-tailed Test: 𝑧 > 𝑧 𝑎; 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 𝑜 ◦ Two-Tailed Test: 𝑧 > 𝑧 𝑎 2 ;
𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 4. Calculate Test Statistic 𝑧 = (𝑋1−𝑋2)−(𝜇1− 𝜇2) 𝜎1 2 𝑛1 + 𝜎2 2 𝑛2 = 11.3−9.7 −0 9.5
500 + 8.9 500 =1.9444
5. State Results (use z table to get the critical value) 𝑡 𝑎 2 𝑛−1 → 𝑡0.05 10−1 → 𝑡0.0025 = 1.96
1.9444 < 1.96, 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝐻 𝑜
6. Conclusion: Therefore, there is no significant difference between the average hours of the
public and private universities.

Independent Sample T-Test: Equal Variance Assumed. The independent- measures

hypothesis test allows researchers to evaluate or to compare the mean difference between
two populations using the data from two separate samples. Generally, 𝜎2 is unknown and
is being estimated from the data. Hence, the t-test is used. If Equal Variances Assume: 𝑠1 2
= 𝑠2 2 𝑡 = (𝑋1−𝑋2)−(𝜇1− 𝜇2) 𝜎1 2 𝑛1 + 𝜎2 2 𝑛2
Independent Sample T-Test: Equal Variance Assumed. It is used for testing two means
when the variance is known and T-test if the variance is unknown. If Equal Variances Not
Assume: 𝜎1 2 ≠ 𝜎2 2 𝑡 = (𝑋1−𝑋2)−(𝜇1− 𝜇2) 𝜎1 2 𝑛1 + 𝜎2 2 𝑛2 Remember degree of freedom:
df=𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2
70. Example Suppose we put people on 2 diets “the fruit diet and the bread diet”.
Participants

ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE. One way analysis of variance is used when you
want to compare the means of more than two groups. This test can be used only if the
background assumptions are satisfied such that it has independent random samples,
population are normal and population variance are equal. F= 𝑀𝑆 𝐵 𝑀𝑆 𝑤 𝑆𝑆 𝐵 = 𝑛 𝑖=1 𝑘 (𝑦1
− 𝑦)2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑆 𝑤 = 𝑖 𝑘 𝑖 𝑖=1 𝑘 (𝑦𝑖𝑗 − 𝑦𝑖)2 Where: 𝑀𝑆 𝐵= 𝑆𝑆 𝐵 𝑘−1 𝑀𝑆 𝑤 = 𝑆𝑆 𝑤 𝑁 – 𝑘
Summary Table of One Way Anova:

Example: A teacher is concerned about the level of knowledge possessed by PUP students
regarding Philippine history. Students completed a senior high school level standardized
history item. Academic major of the students was also recorded. Data in terms of percent
correct response is recorded below for 24 hours. Is there a significant difference between the
levels of knowledge possessed by PUP students regarding Philippines history grouped
when grouped according to their academic major? Compute the appropriate test for the
data provided below and used 0.05 level of significance.

Computational Procedure: 1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis. ◦ 𝐻 𝑜: 𝐸𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

= 𝐵𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐵𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 ◦ 𝐻 𝑎: 𝐴𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝐵𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝐵𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙 ◦ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 ◦
2. State Alpha : 𝛼 = 0.05 ◦
3. Degrees of freedom = 𝑑 𝑓1 = 𝑘 − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3 (within groups) ◦ 𝑑 𝑓2 = 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 24 –
4 = 20 (between groups) ◦ 3. State Decision Rule ◦ One-tailed Test: 𝑓 > 𝑓𝑎; 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 𝑜 ◦ Two-
Tailed Test: 𝑓 > 𝑓𝑎 2 ; 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻 𝑜
Computing the Sum of Squares:

Summary Table of One Way Anova:

Conclusion: Therefore, there is no significant difference between the levels of knowledge

possessed by PUP students regarding Philippine history when grouped according to their
academic subject.

Enrichment Activity 1. Answer the guide questions below. Use a separate answer
sheet.

Guide Questions:
1. What is the value of α as the intercept?
2. What is the value of β as the slope of the line?
3. Write the regression equation.
4. State the relationship between the grades in statistics y and scores in the test x. Why?
Explain mathematically.
5. Give your interpretation about the relationships between x and y variables based on the
results.
6. Predict your grades if you got a score of 60, a score of 75.

EVALUATION. Write the letter of the correct answer. Use a separate answer sheet.
1. Given IQ scores are approximately normally distributed with a mean of 100 and standard
deviation of 15, the proportion of people with IQs above 130 is:
A. 95% C. 5%
B. 68% D. 2.5%
2. Randomly assigning treatment to experimental units allows:
A. population inference C. both types of inference
B. causal inference D. neither type of inference
3. A national random sample of 20 ACT scores from 2010 is listed below. Calculate the
sample mean and standard deviation.
29, 26, 13, 23, 23, 25, 17, 22, 17, 19, 12, 26, 30, 30, 18, 14, 12, 26, 17, 18
A. 20.50, 5.79 C. 20.85, 5.79
B. 20.50, 5.94 D. 20.85, 5.94
4. Using the data in question 3, calculate the 95% confidence interval for the mean ACT
score based on the t-distribution.
A. -∞ to 23.05 C. 18.07 to 23.63
B. -∞ to 23.15 D. 18.22 to 23.48
5. The intercept in linear regression represents:
A. the strength of the relationship between x and y C. the expected y value when x is
zero
B. the expected x value when y is zero D. a population parameter

LESSON 16: DRAWING LOGICAL CONCLUSION FROM RESEARCH FINDINGS

AND FORMULATING RECOMMENDATIONS

Learning Objective. After going through this module, you are expected to:
 Formulate conclusions from research findings; and.
 Develop good and effective recommendations

Lesson Proper
Conclusion represents inferences drawn from the findings of the study. The
number of conclusions coincide with the number of specific findings. It should not
contain any number or measurements. If there are tested hypothesis in the study, the
rejection or acceptance of hypotheses are placed under conclusions. Since the conclusion
is the final result, it should give the final impression and it should summarize the
learnings from the study. It leaves the reader in no doubt that you have answered the
questions posed in your paper. It is a wrapped-up of the entire project and its
completeness. A conclusion is, in some ways, like your introduction. You restate your
thesis and summarize your main points of evidence for the reader. You can usually do
this in one paragraph. Concluding paragraphs should be clear and sum up what you
have presented in your research without sounding redundant. An effective concluding
paragraph can also add impact to what you have presented in your paper. Including a
conclusion in your research paper can be important to remind your readers of the
strength and impact of your argument. Concluding statements in your paper can also
help to refocus the readers’ attention to the most important points and supporting
evidence of your arguments or position that you presented in your research.
Conclusions can also serve as a basis for continuing research, creating new ideas to
resolve an issue you highlighted in your paper or offering new approaches to a topic.
Types of conclusions for research papers. Depending on your research topic and
the style of your paper, you may choose to write your conclusion according to specific
types. The following information can help you determine which approach to take when
you write your conclusion:
A. Summarizing Conclusion. This is typically used for giving a clear summary of
the main points of your topic and thesis. This is considered the most common form of
conclusion, though some research papers may require a different style of conclusion.
Common types of research papers that call for this kind of conclusion include
persuasive essays, problem and solution research, argumentative papers and scientific
and historical topics.
B. Externalizing Conclusion. It presents points or ideas that may not have been directly
stated or relevant to the way you presented your research and thesis. However, these
types of conclusions can be effective because they present new ideas that build off of
the topic you initially presented in your research. Externalizing conclusions get
readers thinking in new directions about the impacts of your topic.
C.Editorial Conclusion. In an editorial conclusion, you are presenting your own
concluding ideas or commentary. This type of conclusion connects your thoughts to
the research you present. You might state how you feel about outcomes, results or the
topic in general. The editorial conclusion can work especially well in research papers
that present opinions, take a humanistic approach to a topic or present controversial
information.

STRATEGIES FOR WRITING AN EFFECTIVE CONCLUSION:

1. Conclusions are intertwined with the introduction. Example: Introduction ◦Reproductive
health education is one area of research that should be tackled in schools. High school
students should be exposed to innovative ways of disseminating and communicating
issues or reproductive health education of high school students shall be the focus of the
study.
Conclusion ◦The high school student respondents are not fully aware and have little
knowledge in reproductive health education on the following areas: social and gender
related issues, family planning and other clinical services.
2. Conclusions are inferences and generalizations are based upon the findings. Example: Based
on a research study on “Factors Affecting the Career Choices of High School students”
two conclusions can be drawn from the findings of the study. Conclusion 1: Males
prefer technology-based courses while females prefer business-related course.
Conclusion 2: There is a significant difference between the career choices of male and
female high school respondents.
3. Conclusions should be specifically answer the questions posted in the “Statement of the
Problem” of your research study. Example: If the profile of the respondents will be used to
test for variation on other measures, here are some examples of possible conclusions.
◦Conclusion 1: Majority of the respondents are aged 12-16 and mostly are males.
Conclusion 2: Respondents of the study are mostly Catholics. ◦Conclusion 3: Among the
profile of the respondents, age and gender are significantly related to achievement in
mathematics.
4. Conclusions should contain facts or actual results from the inquiry or research study.
Conclusions should never be based from implied or indirect implications of the findings.
Example: In a research study on the “Evaluation of Mainstreaming Special Education
(SPED) for Visually Impaired of Deped, results indicated that teachers are not majors of
SPED and that the facilities are inadequate to support the program.
Other Guidelines in Writing Conclusions.
1. Conclusions should be clearly, concisely and briefly stated.
2. Conclusions should be original and accurate.
3. Conclusions should not introduce new arguments, new ideas or information not
related to your research study.
4. Conclusions should leave the reader with an interesting final impression.
5. Conclusions should refer only to the subjects or population of your research study.
6. Conclusions should contain categorical statements. Refrain from using words like
perhaps or maybe or those words that would imply unresolved issues.
7. Conclusions should not contain apologetic statements for unresolved problems in the study.

Recommendations are arguably the most important part of the analysis phase—
this is where you’ll suggest specific interventions or strategies to address the issues and
constraints identified in the assessment. Recommendations should directly respond to
key findings arrived at through data collection and analysis. A process of prioritization
is essential to narrowing down findings, and once this is done, recommendations should
be developed that align with the most important findings. Formulating
recommendations is easy, provided the findings and conclusions have been fully
explained and completed. Remember that recommendations should be based on the
findings of the study and not be based on your own beliefs or biases. They should not be
too broad to lose its relevance to the exact topic of your research study.
Characteristics of Recommendations:
1. Relevance to the study. It should be related to your study and useful to the topic.
2. Logical Reasoning. It should be well thought with valid reasons.
3. Feasibility and attainability. It should be practical, workable and achievable.
Purposes of Recommendation:
1. Policy Recommendations. A policy serves as guideline in promulgating certain
regulations in various sectors of society. Researchers can use the findings of their
research studies to effect change in policies already being implemented.
Example: Teachers should be encouraged to conduct research work and collaborate with
other teachers in the preparation of modules, guides and other instructional materials.
2. Recommendations for Future Research directions. It is also ideal present and discuss
actions or off-shoots of your research for further study of validation purposes. You may
present or discuss additional research which you were not able to include in your
research but worth doing.
Example: More research on the effects of playing computer games must be conducted in
the future.
3. Recommendations to some problems discovered in the research study.
Example: Hire more qualified teachers in the area of science and technology.
4. Recommendations for improvement or change.
5. Recommendations for the continuance of a good practice.

Enrichment Activity 1. Read carefully and analyze the research problem below. Then,
write a possible conclusion and recommendation to address the issue based on the given
areas. Use a separate answer sheet.
The canteen owner of a big school conducted a research on possible reasons on the
decline in the number of students entering and buying in the canteen.

1. Price of Food
2. Quality of Food
3. Competition with the other food court in the vicinity

Assessment: Write the letter of the correct answer. Use a separate answer sheet.
1. The final chapter of the thesis/section of the report of the research contains:
A. the conclusion and recommendation of the study C. the appendices
B. the methodological framework D. the analytical
framework
2. The overall conclusion that the researcher comes to with regards to the research is:
A. A response to the research methodology used in the research project.
B. A response to the result of data collection in the research project.
C. A response to the means of data analysis used in the research project.
D. A response to the research question or statement of response to the overall aim
of the research.
3. Which of the following is NOT one of the three main points you should include in
your conclusion?
A. Reiterating whether or not you were able to support your hypotheses with the
data you collected and analysed with either the quantitative or qualitative analyses.
B. Providing the reader an idea of how the research could have been improved
and if new questions based on the research findings have emerged.
C. Creating a new control variable that will alter the findings in order to conform
to your hypothesis
D. Containing a discussion of how the findings from the research can be
generalized to other cases.
4. What is the purpose of the conclusion in a research report?
A. It explains how concepts were operationally defined and measured.
 B. It contains a useful review of a relevant literature.
C. It outlined the methodological procedures that were employed
D. It summarizes the key findings in relation to the research question
5. A new process enables ordinary table salt to be fortified with iron. This advance could
help reduce the high incidence of Anemia in the world's population due to a deficiency
of iron in the diet. Salt is used as a preservative for food and a flavor enhancer all over
the globe, and people consume salt in quantities that would provide iron in significant
amounts. Which of the following is the appropriate conclusion for this statement?
A. Fortifying table salt with iron could help reduce the high incidence of anemia
in the world's population due to a deficiency of iron in the diet.
B. People consume salt in quantities that would provide iron in significant
amounts.
C. A new process enables ordinary table salt to be fortified with iron.
D. This advance could help reduce the high incidence of anemia in the world's
population due to a deficiency of iron in the diet.

Answer Key
Module 9 Module 13
1. C 1. A
2. B 2. C
3. D 3. C
4. A 4. D
5. B 5. A
Module 10 Module 14-15
1. A 1. D
2. D 2. B
3. C 3. D
4. A 4. C
5. A 5. C
Module 11 Module 16
 1. D 1. A
2. A 2. B
3. C 3. C
4. D 4. D
5. C 5. A
Module 12
1. C
2. B
3. D
4. D
5. D

References
Prieto, N., Naval, V., and Carey, T. (2017). Practical Research for Senior High School: Quantitative.
Philippines. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Practical Research in Daily Life 2 – Grade 12

Quarter 2 – Module 9-16
First Edition, 2021
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Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio

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