Cristy A.

Dalire BSE 3A

Biochemistry

PRELIM EXAMINATION

Essay Type:

1. Differentiate between micronutrients and macronutrients. What elements do the letters

CHONPS stand for ?

Answer :

Macronutrients are those nutrients that the body needs in large amounts. These
provide the body with energy (calories). It is measured in terms of grams ( e.g 1 gram of protein or
fat).These provide the energy that aids the body’s metabolism.These are present in large quantities in
potatoes, nuts, fish oils, fish, milk, cheese, meat and rice. Examples of macronutrients include proteins,
carbohydrates (starch) and lipids (fats). Macronutrients are also referred to as major elements. It is too
much consumption of macronutrients can lead to several heart diseases, obesity, increase of blood
sugar levels and diabetes. While,

Micronutrients are those nutrients that the body needs in smaller amounts. It is
measured in much smaller units such as milligrams and micrograms. Green vegetables and fruits that are
chock-full of vitamins and minerals contain an abundance of micronutrients. These help to prevent
diseases and nurture growth and repair of the body. The deficiency of macronutrients can lead to
diseases like marasmus and bone disease. Micronutrients are found in a variety of foods, including
vegetables, spinach, fruits and even eggs. Some examples of micronutrients include minerals such as
calcium and iron, antioxidants and vitamins such as vitamin B-6. Micronutrients are also known as trace
elements. Too much consumption of micronutrients, such as vitamins, can cause nerve and liver
damage. The deficiency of these nutrients can lead to diseases like goitre, anaemia and rickets.

The term CHNOPS is a mnemonic acronym for the six main chemical elements that
make up living things. They are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), phosphorus (P) and
sulphur (S). When we talk about CHON, we are referring to the first four chemical elements on this list.
They CHNOPS are all of paramount importance in the field of exobiology. CHON are also found
in type C asteroids. They are the ones that most frequently collide with the Earth.

Cristy A. Dalire BSE 3A

2. Compare and contrast passive and active forms of transport. Give at least two examples
each.
Answer :

Active transport. The movement of molecules across the cell membrane, pumping the
molecules against the concentration gradient using ATP (energy) is called Active transport
.Energy is required which is in the form of ATP.The movement of molecules is from low
concentration to high concentration which means they move against the concentration
gradient.Active transport requires carrier proteins. It is classified into two categories, like
primary active transport and secondary active transport. Endocytosis, cell membrane/sodium-
potassium pump & exocytosis

Examples

1. A a sodium pump, glucose selection in the intestines, and the uptake of mineral ions by plant
roots.

2. Sodium-potassium pump (exchange of sodium and potassium ions across cell walls) Amino
acids moving along the human intestinal tract. Calcium ions moving from cardiac muscle cells.
Glucose moving in or out of a cell.

Passive transport. The movement of molecules within and across the cell
membrane and thus transporting it through the concentration gradient, without using ATP
(energy) is called Passive transport. No energy is required. The movement of molecules is from
high concentration to low concentration, which means they move along the concentration
gradient. In passive transport carrier proteins are not involved. However, in facilitated diffusion
certain channels are present which utilize no energy. Passive transport is classified into four
categories like osmosis, diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and filtration.

Examples

1. Diffusion is a type of passive transport. Diffusion through a permeable membrane moves a

substance from an area of high concentration (extracellular fluid, in this case) down its
concentration gradient (into the cytoplasm).

2. the exchange of gases in the alveoli of the lungs and the exchange of nutrients in the
kidneys.

Cristy A. Dalire BSE 3A

3. Discuss the synthesis site of ATP. What is the importance of ATP in the living system ?

Answer :
 ATP synthesis involves the transfer of electrons from the intermembrane space,
through the inner membrane, back to the matrix. The transfer of electrons from the matrix to the
intermembrane space leads to a substantial pH difference between the two sides of the membrane
(about 1.4 pH units). ATP functions as the energy currency for cells. It allows the cell to store energy
briefly and transport it within the cell to support endergonic chemical reactions. The structure of ATP is
that of an RNA nucleotide with three phosphates attached. As ATP is used for energy, a phosphate group
or two are detached, and either ADP or AMP is produced. Energy derived from glucose catabolism is
used to convert ADP into ATP. When ATP is used in a reaction, the third phosphate is temporarily
attached to a substrate in a process called phosphorylation. The two processes of ATP regeneration that
are used in conjunction with glucose catabolism are substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative
phosphorylation through the process of chemiosmosis. The importance of ATP in All living things
require energy to function. While different organisms acquire this energy in different ways, they store
(and use it) in the same way. In this section, we’ll learn about ATP—the energy of life. ATP is how cells
store energy. These storage molecules are produced in the mitochondria, tiny organelles found in
eukaryotic cells sometimes called the “powerhouse” of the cell.

4. Discuss the properties of amino acids and their importance in the living system.

Answer :

Amino acid, any of a group of organic molecules that consist of a basic amino group (―NH2),
an acidic carboxyl group (―COOH), and an organic R group (or side chain) that is unique to each amino
acid. The term amino acid is short for α-amino [alpha-amino] carboxylic acid. Each molecule contains a
central carbon (C) atom, called the α-carbon, to which both an amino and a carboxyl group are attached.
The remaining two bonds of the α-carbon atom are generally satisfied by a hydrogen (H) atom and the R
group.

Building blocks of proteins

Proteins are of primary importance to the continuing functioning of life on Earth. Proteins catalyze the
vast majority of chemical reactions that occur in the cell. They provide many of the structural elements
of a cell, and they help to bind cells together into tissues. Some

Cristy A. Dalire BSE 3A

proteins act as contractile elements to make movement possible. Others are responsible for the
transport of vital materials from the outside of the cell (“extracellular”) to its inside (“intracellular”).
Proteins, in the form of antibodies, protect animals from disease and, in the form of interferon, mount
an intracellular attack against viruses that have eluded destruction by the antibodies and other immune
system defenses. Many hormones are proteins. Last but certainly not least, proteins control the activity
of genes (“gene expression”).
Chirality

All the amino acids but glycine are chiral molecules. That is, they exist in two optically active asymmetric
forms (called enantiomers) that are the mirror images of each other. (This property is conceptually
similar to the spatial relationship of the left hand to the right hand.) One enantiomer is designated D and
the other L. It is important to note that the amino acids found in proteins almost always possess only the
L-configuration. This reflects the fact that the enzymes responsible for protein synthesis have evolved to
utilize only the L-enantiomers. Reflecting this near universality, the prefix L is usually omitted. Some D-
amino acids are found in microorganisms, particularly in the cell walls of bacteria and in several of the
antibiotics. However, these are not synthesized in the ribosome

amino acid, any of a group of organic molecules that consist of a basic amino group (―NH2), an acidic
carboxyl group (―COOH), and an organic R group (or side chain) that is unique to each amino acid. The
term amino acid is short for α-amino [alpha-amino] carboxylic acid. Each molecule contains a central
carbon (C) atom, called the α-carbon, to which both an amino and a carboxyl group are attached. The
remaining two bonds of the α-carbon atom are generally satisfied by a hydrogen (H) atom and the R
group. The formula of a general amino acid is:

Building blocks of proteins

Proteins are of primary importance to the continuing functioning of life on Earth. Proteins catalyze the
vast majority of chemical reactions that occur in the cell. They provide many of the structural elements
of a cell, and they help to bind cells together into tissues. Some proteins act as contractile elements to
make movement possible. Others are responsible for the transport of vital materials from the outside of
the cell (“extracellular”) to its inside (“intracellular”). Proteins, in the form of antibodies, protect animals
from disease and, in the form of interferon, mount an intracellular attack against viruses that have
eluded destruction by the antibodies and other immune system defenses. Many hormones are proteins.
Last but certainly not least, proteins control the activity of genes (“gene expression”).

cristy A. Dalire BSE 3A

This plethora of vital tasks is reflected in the incredible spectrum of known proteins that vary markedly
in their overall size, shape, and charge. By the end of the 19th century, scientists appreciated that,
although there exist many different kinds of proteins in nature, all proteins upon their hydrolysis yield a
class of simpler compounds, the building blocks of proteins, called amino acids. The simplest amino acid
is called glycine, named for its sweet taste (glyco, “sugar”). It was one of the first amino acids to be
identified, having been isolated from the protein gelatin in 1820. In the mid-1950s scientists involved in
elucidating the relationship between proteins and genes agreed that 20 amino acids (called standard or
common amino acids) were to be considered the essential building blocks of all proteins. The last of
these to be discovered, threonine, had been identified in 1935.
Chirality

All the amino acids but glycine are chiral molecules. That is, they exist in two optically active asymmetric
forms (called enantiomers) that are the mirror images of each other. (This property is conceptually
similar to the spatial relationship of the left hand to the right hand.) One enantiomer is designated D and
the other L. It is important to note that the amino acids found in proteins almost always possess only the
L-configuration. This reflects the fact that the enzymes responsible for protein synthesis have evolved to
utilize only the L-enantiomers. Reflecting this near universality, the prefix L is usually omitted. Some D-
amino acids are found in microorganisms, particularly in the cell walls of bacteria and in several of the
antibiotics. However, these are not synthesized in the ribosome.

Acid-base properties

Another important feature of free amino acids is the existence of both a basic and an acidic group at the
α-carbon. Compounds such as amino acids that can act as either an acid or a base are called amphoteric.
The basic amino group typically has a pKa between 9 and 10, while the acidic α-carboxyl group has a pKa
that is usually close to 2 (a very low value for carboxyls). The pKa of a group is the pH value at which the
concentration of the protonated group equals that of the unprotonated group. Thus, at physiological pH
(about 7–7.4), the free amino acids exist largely as dipolar ions or “zwitterions” (German for “hybrid
ions”; a zwitterion carries an equal number of positively and negatively charged groups). pH, exist in the
form of a zwitterion. That is, all amino acids and all proteins, when subjected to changes in pH, pass
through a state at which there is an equal number of positive and negative charges on the molecule. The
pH at which this occurs is known as the isoelectric point (or isoelectric pH) and is denoted as pI. When
dissolved in water, all amino acids and all proteins are present predominantly in their isoelectric form.
Stated another way, there is a

cristy A. Dalire BSE 3A

pH (the isoelectric point) at which the molecule has a net zero charge (equal number of positive and
negative charges), but there is no pH at which the molecule has an absolute zero charge (complete
absence of positive and negative charges). That is, amino acids and proteins are always in the form of
ions; they always carry charged groups. This fact is vitally important in considering further the
biochemistry of amino acids and proteins.

5. Discuss the properties of Carbohydrates and its importance to living system.

Answer :
 The most important role of carbohydrates is as a source of energy. The chemical energy in sugars is
the main source of energy for most living things. Plants use the sun's energy and CO₂ to create
carbohydrates. These carbohydrates form the foundations of almost all ecosystems on
Earth.Carbohydrates play several roles in living organisms, including providing energy. Byproducts of
carbohydrates are involved in the immune system, the development of disease, blood clotting, and
reproduction. This article looks at types of carbohydrates, nutrition, and their effects on health.

Monosaccharides - simple sugars

Monosaccharides are the most basic carbohydrates and are commonly known as simple sugars. They
include well-known sugars such as glucose and fructose. A monosaccharide includes all the necessary
components of a carbohydrate i.e. the carbon chain, carbonyl group and hydroxyl group.
Monosaccharides are the building blocks for larger carbohydrates and are also used in cells to produce
proteins and lipids. Sugars that aren’t used for their energy are often stored as lipids or more complex
carbohydrates. It is the monosaccharides that are mostly used by cells to get energy. Glucose is arguably
the most important monosaccharide because it is used in respiration to provide energy for cells. The
energy stored in the bonds of a glucose molecule is converted by a series of reactions into energy that is
usable by cells

Disaccharides . A disaccharide is a carbohydrate made from two monosaccharides joined together. They
are still considered sugars but are no longer simple sugars. Monosaccharides bond together in what is
known as a dehydration reaction because a water molecule is removed as the two sugars bond together.
The reaction occurs between two hydroxyl groups (-OH) of the two monosaccharides. The hydroxyl
group is completely removed from one monosaccharide and from the second monosaccharide, a
hydrogen atom is removed from a hydroxyl group. The removed hydroxyl group and hydrogen produces
a water molecule i.e. OH + H → H₂O.

cristy A. DALIRE BSE 3A

Polysaccharides

A polysaccharide is three or more monosaccharides joined together. In the exact same way that a
disaccharide is formed, polysaccharides form through multiple dehydration reactions between
carbohydrates. A single monosaccharide in a polysaccharide is referred to as a monomer. A
polysaccharide, which is made from many monomers, can be called a polymer. Some polymers are more
than 1000 monomers (or monosaccharides) long.Polysaccharides have a range of biological functions. A
key function they fill is as a temporary storage of energy. Plants store energy in the form of the
polysaccharide known as 'starch'. Many crops, such as corn, rice and potatoes, are important because of
their high starch content. Humans and other animals store energy in our muscles and liver using a
polysaccharide known as 'glycogen'.
Cellulose is the key compound that makes up the cell walls of plant cells. Cell walls are responsible for
protecting and maintaining the shape of plant cells. Lignin is the structural compound that makes wood
and has enabled plants to evolve into giant trees. Animals and fungi also use polysaccharides as
structural materials. Chitin is a polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of insects, spiders and
crustaceans as well as in the cell walls of fungi.