CPM REVIEWER 1

MACHINE SHOP THOERY AND PRACTICE

 An occupation is the kind of job or work at which a person is employed to earn a living.
Occupation means the same as job or vocation.
 Metalworking occupations are broadly classified by the knowledge, kind of skill, and length of
training needed to perform the required work.
 The common classifications of occupation are as follows: unskilled workers, semi-skilled workers,
skilled workers, technicians, technologists, and engineers.
 Unskilled workers are workers who require little or no special training for the tasks. This
classification includes laborers who handle and move materials manually, floor sweepers, and
others who require little training or application of knowledge.
 Semiskilled workers - an occupational classification that includes workers requiring some special
training for the tasks they perform. The training period for semiskilled jobs may range from
several days to as much as one year. These jobs include assembly line workers, machine tool
operators, inspectors, maintenance mechanics, spot welders, and punch press operators.
 Skilled workers are those employed in the skilled trade.
 A trade is a job the generally requires from two to five years to learn. A person generally learns a
skilled trade through a combination of shop instruction, classroom instruction, and on-the-job
training. The classroom instruction generally includes mathematics, blueprint reading, technical
theory, science, and instruction in any other subjects required for the trade.
 Skilled trade jobs include the following: machinist, layout worker, tool-and-die worker, instrument
maker, boilermaker welder, sheet metalworker, molder, and heat treater.
 A tradesman (a level of skill identified by trade unions), also called as craftsman, is a worker that
must be able to perform all the jobs or tasks that are common in the trade or craft. An example is a
machinist that is a skilled worker who must be able to set up and operate the machine tools used in
the trade.
 An apprentice is someone who is employed to learn a trade, usually in an apprentice-training
program.
 Aircraft-and-engine mechanic – is a worker that repairs, inspect, and overhauls airplanes, and may
do either emergency repairs or major repairs and inspection as required.
 Auto Body Repair Mechanic – a worker that do the spot welding, arc welding, flame cutting,
soldering, and riveting. Formal training in auto body repair is required.
 Boilermaker – is a worker that works at the site where the boiler, tank, or machine is to be
assembled.
 Core maker – is a worker that makes cores used to form holes or hollow parts in casting. The core
maker should learn mathematics and learn how to read blueprints.
 Die maker – is a worker that makes metal forms or patterns, called dies, that are used in punch
presses to stamp out forms in metal.
 Diesinker – is a worker that makes the metal dies that are used in drop hammers to hammer hot
steel into the desired shape.
 Forge Operator – is a worker that runs a forging press, on which automobile axles, wrenches, etc.,
are forged. The forge operator must have a knowledge of iron and steel and must be able to read
blueprints.
 Gage Maker or Instrument Maker – is a worker that makes and repairs all kinds of gages and is a
type of toolmaker. Good eyesight is required to make accurate measurements.
 Heat Treater – is the one who performs on steel and other metals. A knowledge on how to harden,
temper, caseharden, anneal, and normalize metal is required. Working in the heat-treating
department of a factory usually learns the work.
 Inspector – is the one who examines materials parts, or assemblies while they are being made or
immediately after they are finished. The worker must be expert at reading blueprints and using all
kinds of measuring tools and gages.
 Jeweler – is the one that makes high-grade jewelry of platinum, gold, and silver. The work
requires good eyesight, even though much of it is done while looking through a magnifying glass.

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 Layout Worker – is the one that reads the dimensions given on blueprints. The worker is a die
maker, diesinker, machinist, toolmaker, or sheet metal worker who is chosen to do all the lay out
works for the other workers.
 Machine Operator – is the one that earns a living by adjusting and running only one machine,
therefore becoming specialized in the operation of that machine. If machine operators runs drill
machine, he is a drill press operator; if he runs lathe machine, he is a lathe operator.
 Machine set up worker – is the one who specializes in getting machine tools ready for operation,
and instructs machine operators in their uses. An ability to read blueprints and to use all kinds of
measuring tools and gages is required.
 Machinist – is the one that makes precision metal parts, and repairs and construct machine tools.
The worker can set up and run standard machine tools, read blueprints, make sketches, use layout
tools, and measure with micrometer.
 Maintenance mechanic – is the one skilled in working with machines and in shaping and joining
materials by using tools and instruments. Preventive maintenance is the major part of the job. The
worker inspects equipment, oils and greases machines, and cleans and repairs parts, thus
preventing breakdown or work delays.
 Metal pattern maker – is a machinist who makes the metal patterns that are used to make molds in
the foundry. These patterns are prepared from metal socks or from rough castings.
 Metal spinner – is the one that forms bowls, cups, trays, saucers, vases, pitchers, and other circular
shapes by pressing flat pieces of sheet metal mover forms that turns on the lathe. The worker must
have manipulative skill, and be able to read drawings.
 Millwright – is the one that moves and installs heavy machines and equipment in shops, and
constructs any special foundation for them. The worker must read blueprints and lubricate,
dismantle, or repair the machinery installed.
 Molder – is the one who makes molds of various materials for making metal castings. The work
may be hot, dusty, and dirty. There is a danger of being burned by hot metal and sparks. The
molder’s and core maker’s trades are closely related.
 Plumber – is the one that install and repairs sewer and drain pipes, water pipes, gas pipes, meters,
sinks, bathtubs, showers, faucets, tanks, and similar equipment. The worker must learn
mathematics, read blueprints, and know something about steam fitting and building construction
in general. Pipe fitter’s and steamfitter’s trades are closely related.
 Polisher and Buffer – is the one who uses abrasive belts, discs, or wheels to smooth metal, and
buffing wheels to polish metals.
 Sheet metal worker – is the one who makes and repairs such thins as furnace ducts, furnaces,
ventilators, signs, eave troughs, metal roofs, metal furniture and lockers, and automobile and
airplane bodies, which are made out of sheet metal.
 Toolmaker – is the one who makes and repairs all kinds of special tools, cutting tools, jigs, and
gages.
 Welder – is the one that joins metal parts by melting the parts together with the use of the
oxyacetylene welding process, the electric-arc welding process, or with other welding processes.
 The term technician is used by different employers to include many kind s of workers, in a variety
of jobs, with various backgrounds of education and training.
 Aeronautical Technician – a technician that assists engineers and scientists with problems
involving the design, production, and testing of aircraft, rockets, helicopters, missiles, and
spacecraft.
 Civil Engineering Technician – is a technician that assists civil engineers with many tasks
involved in the planning, designing, and construction of highways, bridges, dams, and other
structures. The technician helps in the planning stage by assisting with the surveying, drafting, and
preparation of specifications for materials.
 Heating, Air-conditioning, and Refrigeration Technician – a technician that often specializes in
one of the three areas, such as air conditioning. The technician may be assigned the problem of
analyzing production procedures, or of devising methods for testing air-conditioning equipment.
 Industrial Technician, also called as Manufacturing Technician or Production technician, - a
technician that assists industrial engineers, manufacturing engineers, and tool engineers in a wide
variety of problems. This technician assists engineers with problems concerning the efficient use
of employees, materials, and machines in the production of goods and services.

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 Instrumentation Technician – is the one that assists engineers in designing, developing, and
making many different kinds of special measuring instruments and gages. Such instruments and
measuring devices are used for automatic-regulation and control of machinery; measurement of
weight, time, temperature, and speed of moving parts; measurement of volume, mixtures, and
flow; and recording of data.
 Mechanical Technician – is the one who assists engineers with problems involved in the design
and development of machine tools, production machinery, automotive engines, diesel engines, and
other kinds of machinery. The technician also assists engineers in making sketches and drawing of
machine parts; estimating material and production costs; solving design problem involving surface
finish, stress, strain, and vibration; and developing and performing test procedures on machines or
equipment.
 The tool designer is the well-known specialist who works in mechanical technology.
 The tool design technician designs tools, jigs, fixtures, and holding devices of may kinds of
production machines.
 Metallurgical Technician – is the one who tests samples of metals for their chemical content,
hardness, tensile strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, durability, and machinability. The
technician also assists metallurgists in developing improved methods of extracting metals from
their ores and in the development of new metals and allowys.
 Technologist – is a category of professional worker ranking between the engineer and the
technician.
 Engineering technologist – the one who is prepared to serve in positions of engineering support.
With the work of the engineer becoming more and more theoretical, technologists are taking over
much of the practical, or applied, work. The technologist may be called upon to do the on-site
surveys, mathematical computations, design studies, laboratory experiments, and other tasks once
performed by engineers.
 Industrial Technologist – the one who is employed either in technical positions or in positions of
middle management. Some types of positions open to industrial tecnologists include department
head; personnel manager; training director; production manager; plant and product designer; and
specialist in quality control, facilities planning, product analyst, sales manager or analyst, or in
various capacities in advertising, purchasing, and sales and service.
 Engineer – is the one who plans, designs, and directs the building of roads, bridges, tunnels,
factories, office buildings, water works, dams, mines, automobiles, aircraft and spacecraft, ships,
railroads, power plants, electrical appliances, electronic equipment, radio and television stations,
machinery, and engines.
 Architectural Engineer – the one who designs all types of buildings. These may range from small
homes constructed largely of wood, to factories and large buildings constructed of structural
metals and masonry.
 Aeronautical Engineer and Aerospace Engineer – the one who develops new designs for aircraft,
missiles, and space vehicles.
 Civil Engineer – the one who designs highways, bridges, dams, waterways, and sanitary systems.
 Electrical and Electronics Engineer – the one who designs and develops electrical machinery,
electrical switches, controls for machines and appliances, radios, televisions, automatic controls
for industrial machinery, electric power generators, and many other electronically controlled
products.
 Marine engineers – the one who develops new design for commercial and military ships,
submarines, and other types of marine equipment.
 Mechanical Engineer – the one who deigns many different kinds of machines, appliances, and
mechanical equipment for industrial and consumer use.
 Metallurgical Engineer - the one who develops and improves methods of extracting metals from
their ores, refining them, and preparing them for practical use; also develops new alloys with new
properties.
 Tool and Manufacturing or Industrial Engineer – the one who generally starts with the model, or
prototype, of a product created by a product engineer; analyzes and plans the industrial processes
needed to economically manufacture the product; designs the special manufacturing machines,
equipment, assembly lines, and any packaging system required; supervises the construction and
installation of the machines and equipment needed for production; organizes work force; and

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supervises and controls production through manufacturing and assembly operations to finished
and packaged product.

PROPERTTIES OF METALS
 Chemical Properties – are characteristics of the chemical composition of metals and their chemical
reactions to other metals.
 Physical Properties – are characteristics of metals when they are not being acted upon by outside
forces. Color, density, weight, and electrical and heat conductivity are physical properties.
 Mechanical Properties – are characteristics exhibited by metals when outside forces are applied to
them.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 Hardness – means resistance to penetration by other materials. Hardness may be increased by cold
working such as bending, hammering, or rolling at room temperature. Hardness may also be
increased or decreased by treating the metal in different way with heat. Ex. Steel is much harder
than lead or pure aluminum.
 Hardenability – is the property of a metal to harden uniformly and completely to its center. A
metal with poor hardenability will harden on its surface only, whi9le its center will be left
relatively soft.
 Brittleness – refers to how easily a metal will break with little or no bending. Hardened tool steels
and gray cast iron are brittle compared to unhardened steels.
 Ductility - is the property of metal to be bent, rolled, or otherwise changed in shape without
breaking. Metal high in ductility include soft steel, copper, and aluminum. They can be drawn into
fine wire and rolled into thin sheets without breaking.
 Malleability – permits a metal to be hammered or rolled into shape without breaking.
 refers to its ability to withstand sudden shock without breaking or fracturing. A metal high in
toughness will usually bend or deform before fracturing. Special king of heat treatment, called
tempering, reduces hardness and increases toughness.
 Machinability – refers to the ease with which metals may be machined, or cut by a machine tool.
 AISI – stands for the American Iron and Steel Institute, a trade association of companies that sell
or work with iron and steel. The AISI develops and sets ratings or standards for making, selling,
and using different kinds of iron and steel.
 Fusibility – enables a metals, when in its liquid state, to join easily with another liquid metal.
Metals high in fusibility are usually high in weldability.
 Strength – is the resistance of a metal to deformation. Tensile strength is resistance to being pulled
apart. Compressive strength is resistance to being squeezed together. Shear strength is resistance
to cutting or slicing forces. Torsional strength is resistance to twisting forces.
 Elasticity – is the ability of material to return to its original size and shape after the external force
causing a change in shape has been removed. Elastic limit is the maximum load per square inch or
square centimeter that can be applied to a material withoutm forcing it to change shape
permanently.
 Fatigue – is the characteristic that causes a metal to fracture (break) under a repeated load that is
well below the tensile strength of the metal. Parts subjected to repeated bending or vibration
sometimes break because of fatigue failure.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF METALS
 Pure Metals
o A pure metal is a single chemical element that is not combined with any other chemical
element. It is generally too soft, low in strength, or low in some other desired property to
be used in many commercial applications. Its use in the pure state is limited to laboratory
experiments and a few construction applications.
o Pure metal or metal may be further classified as either ferrous or nonferrous metal. The
word “ferrous” is derived from the Latin word “ferrum’, which means iron. Thus, all
steels are called ferrous metals.
o Examples of nonferrous metals are aluminum, copper, lead, tin, and zinc.

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 Alloys
o Melting and mixing one or more other pure metals with it can change the properties of a
pure metal. This process

PERSONAL SAFETY IN METALWORKING

 Working safely with metals can be divided into two main topics of concern:
 Protection against personal injury
 Prevention of damage to tools, equipment, and machines.
 How to Dress Safely
1. Maximum eye protection requires the wearing of clean, properly fitted safety glasses with
side shields, goggles, or face shield approved by the National Safety Council.
2. Close-fitting clothing made of hard, smooth-finished fabrics, should be worn. Such fabric will
not catch easily on sharp edges or rotating tools.
3. Feet should be protected against hot, sharp chips, heavy falling objects, and hot liquid metals.
Safety shoes are best, but ordinary leather shoes offer considerable protection. Canvas shoes
and open-toed sandals offer no protection and should never be worn when doing metal work.
4. Always take off all jewelry before working with metals.
5. Long, loose hair can be caught in rotating tools. Wear long hair under a close-fitting cap or tie
it back tightly.
6. Never wear gloves when operating metal working machines.

Safety Work practices

 General Safety
1. Get approval from your instructor or supervisor before using any equipment.
2. Make it a habit to stop, look, and think in unfamiliar situations.
3. Give serious and undivided attention to your work. You are in alearning situation.
4. Do not walk through restricted areas marked by barriers or floor markings.
 With Machinery and Machine Tools
1. Be sure all safety devices are in place and working correctly before using any machine or
equipment.
2. Be sure to tighten work pieces and cutting tools securely in machine tools, so that cutting
pressures cannot loosen them.
3. Always keep your hands away from moving machinery.
4. Never use your hands to stop moving machines or parts such as a lathe or drill press chuck.
5. When closing electric switches, use the insulated handle if available. Avoid touching the
metal parts of the switch or switch box.
6. never leave a running machine. Some one else may not expect it to be running and may be
injured by it.
7. Always stop to a machine before making measurements with tools that may catch in the
machinery, such as a caliper. Always stop machines to adjust, clean, oil, or repair them.
8. Always stop machines to adjust, clean, oil, or repair them. Wahen making hazardous repairs,
disconnect the machine from its power source so that it cannot be turned on.
9. Disconnect out-order equipment and identify it with a blue sign as recommended by the
National Safety Council.
10. When changing speeds on a cone pulley drive system, wait until the machine comes to a full
stop before shifting the belt.
11. Replace projecting setscrews on rotating equipment with flush setscrews.
 With Shop Machines
1. Handle materials carefully to avoid being cut.
2. Do not touch metal you suspect is hot. Test it first by sprinkling a few drops of water on it.
3. Get help in lifting or moving heavy pieces of metal or machine parts. Remember to lift with
your legs, not your back.
4. Get help also when handling long piece of metal, so as to avoid injuring someone or
damaging equipment.

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5.
Return large pieces of metal to their proper storage racks immediately after cutting off the
pieces needed.
 With Scrap and Waste
1. Use a brush, a piece of cardboard, or a stick to sweep up or push away sharp metal chips.
Never use your hands.
2. Do not use compressed air to blow metal chips from a machine or work station with approval.
3. Keep aisles clear of small metal pieces, chips, and other waste. These are hazards to safe
travel.
4. Keep floors clear of oil, grease, and other liquids that could cause someone to slip and fall.
 With Other Students or co-Workers
1. Always try to be alert, patient, courteous, and willing to help.
2. When working with someone, agree beforehand on how the work will be done and who will
do each part so that there will be no confusion that could lead to injury.
3. do not disturb someone who is actively involved in operating a machine or other potentially
hazardous equipment.
 Safe use of Hand tools
1. Use the right tool for the job to be performed.
2. See that tools and your hands are clean and free of grease or oil before use so that the tools
can be held firmly.
3. Cutting tools should be sharp when using them. Dull tools cause accidents because they
require greater force to use them. Dull tools also leave jagged edges that may cut someone.
4. Sharp-edge tools should be carried with their points and cutting edges pointing downward.
5. Heads of cold chisels and punches should not be allowed to mushroom or crack; they should
be properly dressed or repaired.
6. When using a chisel, always chip in a direction that will prevent flying chips from striking
others.
7. Choose the correct size and type of wrench for the job and use it properly. You can injure
your knuckles or hand if the wrench slips.
8. When using a file, be sure that it is equipped with a snug-fitting handle. Otherwise, the sharp
tang on the file could injure your hand.
9. When you hand tools to others, give them with the handle first.
10. Always report damaged tools to the instructor. Damaged tools can cause injuries.
11. Tools should always be wiped free of grease or dirt after use and then returned to the proper
storage place.
 First Aid
1. Always notify the instructor immediately when you or another students are injured, no matter
how slight the injury.
2. Get first aid as soon as possible. It is good practice to let slight or moderate cuts bleed for a
few moments before stopping the flow of blood. Free bleeding carries infectious particles out
of the wound. Severe cuts or bruises should receive the immediate attention for a doctor.
3. Burns should also be treated promptly. A first-degree burn is one in which the skin is merely
reddened. In a second-degree burn, the skin is blistered. In the third-degree burn, the skin is
charred. Treat first-degree burns with applications of cold water. Then apply a sterile dry
bandage. Second- and third- degree burns should receive a doctor’s attention immediately.
4. If you are concerned about an injury or an illness, don’t be foolishly brave and “tough it out”.
Get professional help as soon as possible.
 Fire Prevention
1. Learn the location of the nearest fire alarm as well as the nearest fire exit.
2. Learn the location and use of fire protection equipment in the building. Fire extinguishers
which use a dry chemical or carbon dioxide should be readily available at all times.
3. Place oily rags or waste in proper metal containers. This guards against possible fire from
spontaneous combustion.
4. Always close containers of inflammable materials such as a paints or oils after use. Return
them to their proper metal storage containers.
METALS

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 Iron – the most common and most useful metal; about 5 % of the earth crust (by weight) is iron;
the purest iron comes from the sky in the form of meteors. Pure iron does not rust in water; iron
rusts because it contains impurities. It is seldom used in industry because it is too soft for most
work. It is so soft that it can be scratched with fingernail.
 Iron is used in three forms, such as: Cast iron, Wrought iron, and Steel.
 Iron Ore – is not pure as it comes from mines. Low-grade ores, such as taconite (consisting of two
iron compounds plus quartz) are enriched in processing plants near the mines.
 Processes of Separating Excess rock Materials from the Ore
1. The ores are crushed to a fine powder. Magnetic separation removes those particles with high
iron content. The iron-rich powder is then mixed with powdered coal to form pellets of rough
ball shape.
2. The pellets ate baked to make them hard enough to keep their shape during handling and
shipping.
 Pig Iron – is very hard and brittle; it is used in making cast iron, wrought iron, and steel. It
contains about 93 % pure iron (by weight) and from 3 % to 5 % carbon; the remainder is silicon,
sulfur, phosphorous, and manganese.
 Silicon is a chemical element found in clays, sand, and rocks; it gives hardness to iron.
 Sulfur is a yellow, flammable nonmetal; excess sulfur and phosphorous weaken iron and steel.
Too much sulfur makes these metals weak and brittle, causing cracks.
 Phosphorous is a poisonous, active nonmetal; it causes brittleness and coarse grain in iron and
steel.
 Manganese is a grayish white metal, hard and brittle; it resembles iron but not magnetic; it is used
in making steel.
 Making pig iron is the first step in purifying of iron and the making of steel. Pig iron is produced
when the impurities are burned out of iron ore in a blast furnace. It is called a blast furnace
because a blast of hot air is forced into it near the bottom. A blast furnace looks like tall chimney
on the outside, 50’ to 100’ high. It is a large, round iron shell from 20’ to 30’ in diameter, covered
on the outside with special bricks or clay that can withstand great heat. Each blast furnace has four
or five giant stoves that heat the air.
 It takes about 2 tons of iron ore, 1 ton of coke (a purified form of coal), 0.5 ton of lime stone, and
4 tons of air to make 1 ton of pig iron. The iron ore, coke, and limestone are dumped into the top
of the blast furnace, which holds about 1000 tons. The burning coke and the blast of very hot air
melt the iron ore. The limestone mixes with the ashes of the burnt coke and with the rock and earth
of the iron ore. The mixture forms a waste that is called slag. Because the molten iron is heavier
than slag, it drips to bottom of furnace. The furnace is emptied (called tapping) through a tap hole
at the bottom. The melted iron flows out into a ladle for transfer to steel furnace or into a tough
and then into iron pig molds. The slag, which floats on top of the melted iron in the blast furnace,
is drained off through a separate hole. The blast furnace works continuously, and is tapped every 5
to 6 hours.
 Cast Iron – is a pig iron that has been re-melted and poured into mold; the iron cools in the shape
of a useful machine part or article. An object made this way is called casting.
 The carbon contents of cast iron may range from 1.7 % to 6 % by weight in different kinds of cast
iron. Most grades of cast iron have carbon content ranging from 2 % to 4.5 %. When broken, cast
iron has a crystal-like grain structure at the fracture.
 Kinds of Cast Iron
1. Gray Cast Iron – is the cheapest kind of metal; it is used to make large pipes, steam radiators,
water hydrants, frames for machines, and other machine parts; it is used for products or parts
that must be large and heavy but in which impact strength is not very important. Gray cast
iron can be machined easily. Gray cast iron is made by slowly cooling the molten metal. One
basic type usually contains from 1.7 % to 4.5 5 carbon. It melts at about 2200 oF.
2. White Cast Iron – is so named because of its white, crystalline color at the fracture when
broken; it is made by rapidly cooling the molten pig iron; the carbon content usually ranges
from about 2 % to 3.5 %. Most of the carbon in white cast iron is in a chemically combined
state. It forms a very hard substance called cementite, or iron carbide (Fe3C). White Cast Iron
is so hard that it cannot be machined except by grinding. Its direct use is limited to castings

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requiring the surfaces to withstand abrasion and wear. The major use of white cast iron is in
making malleable cast iron.
 Malleable iron is a cast iron that has been made soft, tough, strong, and malleable. It
generally has about a 2 % to 2.6 % carbon content. When cast iron is heated at a high
temperature for 100 – 120 hours, it is converted to malleable iron. This heat-
treatment process, called malleableizing, takes place in a heat-treatment furnace.
Metal is malleable if it can be hammered into different shapes without cracking.
Heat-treatment changes the arrangement of the carbon from its combined state as
cementite to free carbon. At the prolonged high temperature the free carbon comes
together to form clusters or globules. The surrounding iron then becomes soft and
machinable. Malleable castings are less brittle than gray or white cast iron castings,
and have many of the tough characteristics of steel.
 Malleable irons are used for making tough castings for automobiles, tractors, and
many kinds of machine parts.
3. Ductile Cast Iron – is also known as nodular iron or spheroidal graphite iron
 The carbon in the grain structure of ductile iron, like that in malleable iron, is in the
free state; it is in small, rounded lumps of carbon clusters called nodules; the iron
surrounding the tiny balls of graphite is soft, tough, and machinable.
 Ductile Cast Iron is produced very much like gray cast iron. Magnesium alloys and
certain other elements are added to a ladle of gray iron before it is poured into
molds to make castings. These additives and proper heat treatment cause the carbon
in the molten iron to form balls or nodules as it cools and becomes solid.
 Ductile Cast Iron – has properties similar to malleable iron. It is tough, machinable,
and processes many of the characteristics of steel. It is used for making tough
castings for automobiles, farm machinery, and many other kinds of machinery.
 Wrought Iron – is pig iron from which most the carbon has been removed; it contains only about
0.4 % carbon; it was the most important structural metal before the development of the Bessemer
steelmaking process. The metal was tough, easily formed, and corrosion-resistant. It was widely
used for fences, horseshoes, nails, lamps, and door hardware.
 Steel Making
o Steel is iron that contains carbon in different amounts, from 0.05 % to about 1.7 % by
weight. Its carbon content is between that of wrought iron and cast iron.
o Steel is denser than cast iron (that is, the iron and carbon in steel are packed closer
together). It can be polished to mirror finish. Steel can be made many times stronger and
harder than cast iron and almost any other metal.
o Steel is made by refining pir iron, that is, by taking out some of the carbon and other
impurities.
 The Bessemer Converter
o The Bessemer method of making steel was named after Sir Henry Bessemer, who
invented it in England in 1856. William Kelly invented at the same process about the
same time in the United States. However, steel made this way is called Bessemer Steel.
The Bessemer process illustrates the basic idea in making steel.
o In the Bessemer process, the carbon and other impurities are burned out of melted pig
iron by blowing cold air through it. One-fifth of the ir is oxygen, a colorless, odorless,
tasteless gas. The carbon in the pig iron unites with oxygen of the air during the burning.
The heat from the burning keeps the mass of pig iron in a molten state. (Pig iron is
molten at 2500 oF). When the carbon is burned out of the pig iron, an exact amount of
carbon can be added to make the kind of steel wanted.
o The Bessemer process makes steel very quickly, producing a ton in about one minute.
o The Bessemer converter is a large tank shaped like a pear with an open top. It is made of
steel with firebrick lining, and is spported on two sides so that it can be tipped to pour out
the melted metal. It is 15’ to 22’ high and holds 30 tons of metal.
o Use of the Bessemer process declined steadily after the open-hearth process introduced
about 1870. Bessemer steel is no longer made in the United States.
 The Open-Hearth Furnace

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o The open-hearth method of making steel can be controlled better than the Bessemer
method. The process is slow enough to allow the melted metal to be tested for carbon
content during the heating.
o The open-hearth furnace, which is somewhat like a baker’s oven, holds up to 200 tons of
metal. Pig iron, wrought iron, and old scraps of iron and steel are placed on the saucer-
shaped hearth. Loading a steel-making furnace with metals is called charging. The
furnace has two pairs of rooms with brick-work built like a checkerboard. Hot air and gas
are used for heating. The gas passes through the heated brickwork in one of the rooms.
Air passes through different rooms of heated brickwork. The gas and air then combine to
make a very hot flame (3000 oF). One pair of rooms is heated while the other pair is
being used to melt the metal. Samples of the white-hot metal ate taken, cooled, and tested
to find out if they contain the amount of carbon desired.
o When the melted metal contains the right amount of carbon it is poured into ingot molds.
After pouring, the inside of the ingot may be white-hot and the outsides only red-hot. To
make the ingot ready for rolling, the temperature must be uniform throughout. Thus,
ingot are held at a high temperature in a furnace called a soaking pit. The soaking pit
heats the steel until it is white-hot throughout.
o Steel made in an open-hearth furnace is called open-hearth steel and is used for bridges,
rails, bolts, screws, shafts, etc. It is also used for making high-grade tool steel.
o An advantage of the open-hearth furnace is that heavy scrap iron and steel, as well as pig
iron, can be used.
o The open-hearth has now been largely replaced with the basic oxygen process furnace.
 Electric Furnaces
o Electric arc furnaces – are used when close control of temperature and exact amounts of
alloying elements are important. Higher temperatures can be reached with electric arc
furnace than with other steel. Electric arc furnaces are good for making high-carbon steel,
steels alloyed with metals with high melting points, and stainless steels.
o Electric Induction Furnaces – are used for making small batches of high-quality steels or
re-melting metals for making steel castings. The intense alternating magnetic field of the
furnace makes the steel heat up to its melting point.
 The Basic Oxygen Process, called the BOP process, is somewhat similar to the Bessemer process
of making steel.
o With the BOP process, pure oxygen is blown into the molten iron through a lance that
enters through the top of the furnace, and stops about 5’ above the metal.
o In the Bessemer process, air is blown through the molten metal from the bottom.
o In BOP process, the pure oxygen creates heat more quickly; the process burns impurities
out of the molten iron much more rapidly than the Bessemer process.
o Steel made by the BOP process is of high quality.
o Nitrogen in the air used in the Bessemer process makes steel brittle.
o Since BOP process uses pure oxygen the chemical specifications of the steel can be
controlled more accurately. Because the use of pure oxygen provides a higher
temperature, the basic oxygen process is a more rapid way of making steel than the
Bessemer process.
 Hot-Rolled Steel – has been cast into ingots or slabs, are reheated almost white-hot in a soaking
pit. The steel is then rolled to shape in rolling mills. Smooth cylindrical rolls are used to make flat
sheets from slabs. Sheet steel is thinner than 0.25”. Plate steel is made in thickness greater than
0.25”.
 Cold-Rolled Steel – is made from hot-rolled steel; it is rolled while hot and rolled again when
cold. The hot-rolled steel is a little larger than the final size of the cold-rolled steel.
 Cold-Drawn Steel – is steel made from hot-rolled steel that has been cooled and pickled. The size
of the bar or rod is reduced a small amount at a time by drawing (pulling) the cold steel through
drawing dies. Drawing dies are a little smaller than the bars or rods that are pulled through them.
The steel is drawn through smaller and smaller dies until the required diameter is obtained.
o A wiredrawing die, also called a drawplate, is used for drawing wire.

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KINDS OF STEEL
 Two main kinds of steel
o Plain Carbon Steels – are divided into three main groups: low-carbon, known as mild
steel; medium-carbon steel; and high-carbon steel, also known as tool steel.
o Alloy steels – There are many kinds alloy steels, the properties of each depend on the
elements (usually metals such as nickel, vanadium, and chromium) that are added to the
steel.
 Low-Carbon Steel
o Contains about 0.05 % to 0.30 % carbon
o Made in the basic-oxygen furnace and the open-hearth furnace
o Used for forge work, rivets, chains, and machine parts that do not need great strength.
o Used for almost every product that was once made of wrought iron
o Some low-carbon steel is cold-rolled between highly polished rollers under great
pressure.
o It is then called cold-drawn steel.
 Medium-Carbon Steel
o Has more carbon and is stronger than low-carbon steel
o More difficult to bend, weld, and cut than low-carbon steel
o It contains about 0.30 % to 0.60 % carbon.
o Used for bolts, shafts, car axle, rails, and other parts or tools that require strong metal.
o Frequently hardened and tempered by heat treatment
o Can be hardened to a Rockwell-C hardness of 40 (medium hard) to 60 (very hard),
depending on the carbon content and the thickness of the material
 High-Carbon Steel
o Also known as carbon tool steel
o Contains between 0.60 % to 1.50 5 carbon
o Best grades of this steel are made in electric furnaces
o It is called tool steel because it is used to make such tools as drills, taps, dies, reamers,
files, cold chisels, crowbars, and hammers.
o It is hard to bend, weld, and cut.
o It becomes very hard and brittle when it is heated to a red heat and suddenly cooled in
water or oil. This process is known as hardening.
o The more carbon the steel contains, up to about 0.80 %, and the more quickly it is cooled,
the harder it becomes.
o Carbon content over 0.80 % provides additional wear resistance.
o Used to make metal cutting tools because of its ability to be hardened to a high-degree
(about Rockwell 60-66).
o Rolled to the desired shape and is often ground to provide a smooth finish.
o Round bars that are ground and polished are called drill rod.
o Drill rod is used for making tools as drills, reamers, taps, and punches
o Drill rod is also used to make dowel pins.
o Free-machining carbon steels are carbon steels especially made for high machinability
o Resurfurized Carbon Steels are carbon steels, which have sulfur added in amounts from
0.08 % to 0.33%, have much better machinability thanplain carbon steels.
o Lead is sometimes added to further improve the machinability of resulfurized steel.
o Free-machining steels are used in automatic lathes for the high-speed manufacture of
cylindrical and threaded parts.
 Alloy Steels – are made by combining steels with one or more other elements. These elements are
usually metals that are intentionally added to obtain properties that are not found in plain carbon
steels.
 Alloying may increase the following properties: hardenability, machinability, strength through
heat treatment, strength as manufactured, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and retention of
hardness and strength at high temperatures.
 Three classes of alloy steels: Construction alloy steel, alloy tool steels, and special alloy steels.
 Constructional Alloy Steels

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o Used for such parts as shafts, gears, levers, bolts, springs, piston puins, and connecting
rods.
o Includes steels used in the construction of bridges, auto frames, railroads, buildings, and
ships.
o Have a relatively low alloy contents as compared to alloy tool steels.
o Total alloy content of these steels ranges from 0.25 % to about 6 %.
 Alloy tool Steels
o Used in making cutting and forming tools
o Used for high-quality drills, reamers, milling cutters, threading tools, punches, plastic
molds, punch press tooling, and wrenches.
o Hardened in oil or air, which referred to as oil-hardened or air-hardened steels
o Harden more deeply than plain carbon tool steels and are more shock resistant
o The total alloy content ranges from 0.25 % to over 38 %.
 Special Alloy Steels
o With alloy content of different elements ranging widely
o Designed for extreme service requirements
o Includes steel with very high heat, corrosion, or wear resistance.
o Steels that get tougher and harder with used, such as those needed for power shovel teeth,
tractor lugs, and rock crusher jaws

Effects of alloying Elements

 Chromium, also known as chrome, gives hardness to steel, and toughens it; it makes the steel’s
grain finer and causes the steel to resist rust, stains, shocks, and scratches. Chromium steel is used
for safes, rock crushers, and automobile bearings. It is the basis for stainless steel, which contains
from 11 % to 26 % chromium. It has a lasting, bright, silvery gloss. Some important uses for
stainless steel: sinks, tabletops, tableware, pots and pans, cutting tools and instruments,
candlesticks, plates for false teeth, dental tools, ball bearings, fine measuring tools and
instruments, moldings, automobile parts, and valves for airplane engines.
 Cobalt – is an important metal used in making cutting tool alloys. (These alloys include high speed
steels, cast alloys, and cemented carbides). The outstanding property of cobalt is its ability to
improve the hardness of cutting tools when they are called the hot-hardness or red hardness of
cutting tools. Cobalt improves wear resistance. Cobalt content in high speed steels ranges from 5
% to 12 %. In cast alloys, it is used in amounts from 35 % to 55 %. Cobalt is also alloy with
aluminum and nickel to make powerful Alnico permanent magnets.
 Manganese – is a hard, brittle, grayish-white metal. It purifies and adds strength and toughness to
steel. Manganese steel remains hard even when cooled slowly. It is so very hard that it is difficult
to cut, so it is usually cast into shape. Wear makes the surface harder. Manganese steel can stand
hard wear, strain, hammering, and shocks. It is used for the jaws of rock and ore crushers, steam
shovels, chains, gears, railways switches and crossings, and safes.
 Molybdenum – is called “Molly” for short in steel mills. A silvery white metal, it adds strength
and hardness to steel, and allows it to stand heat and shocks. Molybdenum steel is used for
automobile parts, high-grade machinery, wire as fine as 0.0004” in diameter, ball bearings, and
roller bearings.
 Nickel – adds strength and toughness to steel. Nickel steel does not rust easily and is very strong
and hard. It is also elastic, that is, it can stand vibrations, shocks, jolts, and wear by bouncing back
to its original shape. It is used for wire cables, shafts, steel rails, automobile and railroad car axles,
and armor plate. Nickel is also used with chromium to make stainless steel.
 Cemented-Tungsten Carbide, also called tungsten Carbide, is the hardest metal made by man. It is
made by heating, or sintering powdered metals, including tungsten, cobalt, and carbon in a molds.
(Sintered metals are heated and fused together without melting.) Tungsten carbide is not true steel.
It is widely used in metalwork and is associated with the steels.
o Tungsten-carbide metal-cutting tools retain their hardness at temperatures as high as 1700
F without significant softening. Such tools, known as carbide tools, cut two to four times
faster than high-speed steel. They must be sharpened on diamond or silicon carbide
grinding wheels. Tungsten carbide is also used for wiredrawing dies.

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 Vanadium – is a pale, silver-gray metal. It is brittle and resists corrosion. Vanadium gives steel a
fine grain, as wheel as toughness and strength. Vanadium steel can withstand great shocks. It is
used for springs, automobile axles and gears, and for other part that vibrate when in use.
 Chromium-Vanadium Steel – is hard and has great tensile strength. It can be bent double while
cold and is easy to cut. Chromium-vanadium steel is used for automobile parts such as springs,
gears, steering knuckles, frames, axles, connecting rods, and other parts which must be strong and
tough but not brittle.
 High-Speed Steel (HSS)
o High-speed speed, also known as high-speed tool steel, is another type of alloy steel. Its
carbon content may range from about 0.70 % to 1.50 %. It generally contains ore or more
metals such as chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, and cobalt. The first four of
these elements are carbide formers. They combine with carbon to form carbides such as
chromium carbide and vanadium carbide. These carbides are very hard and wear
resistant; they made good cutting tools.
o Cobalt is not carbide former, but it increases the red-hardness of the cutting tool. Thus,
the tool retains its hardness at high temperatures. High-speed steel cutting tools retain
their hardness without significant softening at temperatures up to about 1100 F. This
temperature is indicated by a dull, red heat. On the other hand, plain carbon-tool steel-
cutting tools start to soften significantly at temperatures above 450 F.
o High-speed steel is made in an electric furnace. It is used for cutting tools such as drills,
reamers, countersinks, lathe tool bits, and milling cutters. It is called high-speed steel
because cutting tools made of this material can be operated at speeds twice as fast as
those for tools made of carbon tool steel. High-speed steels cost two to four times as
much as carbon tool steels.

NONFERROUS METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS

 Nonferrous metals and their alloys are those that contain no iron. Iron is the base metal for steel
alloys.
 Aluminum – is a brilliant, silvery-white metal.
o It is the most useful metal
o It costs four or five times as much as iron or steel
o It weighs only about one-third as much as iron or steel
o It machines much faster (two to three times deeper cuts at cutting speeds twice as fast as those
used for steel)
o It costs less to transport, is quite maintenance-free, and has a natural surface beauty.
o It may be more economical than other metals when all things are considered.
o Aluminum is a good conductor of electricity and heat, and it reflects heat when highly
polished.
o It can be drawn into very fine wire, spun or stamped into deep forms, and hammered or rolled
into foil sheets as thin as 0.00025”.
o Aluminum melts at about 1200 F. The temperature for casting aluminum in molds is usually
1300 F to 1500 F. This is about one-half the temperature required for casting iron or steel,
aluminum is preferred for casting in school shops or laboratories where safety and low cost of
equipment are required.
 Refining Aluminum
o Aluminum is made from an ore called bauxite.
o It usually mined in open pits, then refined where cheap electrical power is available in
quantity.
o One-sixth of the earth’s crust is aluminum ore, but it is difficult to extract the pure metal.
o Crushed bauxite is changed chemically, or refined, to aluminum oxide, a white powder also
called alumina.
o Aluminum is obtained alumina by removing the oxygen in alumina in a process called
smelting.
o In smelting, an ore is heated until it melts. Often a chemical change also takes plce, and metal
is separated from the ore.

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o In large tanks called reducing pots, electricity passes from carbon celectrodes, which are
positive, through a mixture of alumina and molten cryolite (sodium aluminum fluoride). The
reducing pots are also lined with carbon, which acts as the negative electrode and completes
the circuit. The electric current heals the mixture, and molten aluminum is deposited at the
bottom of the tank, where it can be drained off.
o After smelting, the metal is often alloyed, then cast, rolled, or extruded into many shapes. The
rolling mills that process aluminum are similar to mills that process steel. The shapes are also
the same: sheets, plates, bars, rods, and wire. The rolling processes may have a dozen or more
different steps.
o Extrude means to push heated material through an especially shaped opening to form a long
strip in that shape. Extruding is much like squeezing toothpaste from a tube. Many nonferrous
alloys are formed into different shapes by the extrusion process.
 Aluminum Base Alloys
o Pure aluminum is too soft for many uses, but more than 350 alloys have made it ideal for
many purposes.
o Some of the common uses for aluminum alloys are: aircraft and rocket parts; bodies for
railroad cars, trucks, and trailers; pistons, blocks, and heads for engines; window fames;
cooking utensils; and foil and collapsible tubes for packaging.
o Other metals added to pure aluminum greatly improve its physical properties. The metals
commonly alloyed with aluminum include copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, nickel,
chromium, lead, bismuth, iron, and titanium.
o The tensile strength of aluminum is one property that can be improved by heat treatment.
Tensile strength varies from about 13 000 psi for pure aluminum to about 81 000 psi for
special hardened alloys.
 Typical Aluminum
o Number 1100-0 pure aluminum is naturally soft, ductile, and more resistant to chemical attack
than any aluminum alloy.
o It is the form most commonly used for hammering and shaping when maximum strength is
not needed. Number 2024 is often used for structural or machining applications. This
aluminum is strong, heat-treatable alloys.
o Number 6061 is used for a number of applications that require high tensile strength and good
welding properties, such as railings and protective guards. This aluminum is strong, heat-
treatable alloys.
o Number 7075 is used for aircraft and other work where the highest strength is required. This
aluminum is strong, heat-treatable alloys.
 Copper Base alloys
o Copper is the oldest metal known to man. It is tough, reddish-brown metal.
o Copper is the second-best conductor of electricity; silver is the best.
o Copper is used for electric, telephone, and telegraph wires and cables. It is also used for water
heaters, radiators, pipes, kettles, window and door screens, and roofing.
o In art metalwork, copper is used for bowls, vases, and trays.
o Copper hardens when hammered, but heating to a dull red heat and quenching in water can
easily soften it.
o Beryllium Copper – is copper to which a small amount of beryllium has been added. This
very tough alloy is used for corrosion resistant springs. Because it is non-sparking, it is used
for wrenches and other metal objects in plants that manufacture explosives.
o Most copper-base alloys are brasses and bronzes. Brass is chiefly an alloy of copper and zinc.
Bronze is chiefly an alloy of copper and tin.
o Both brass and bronze often include other metals such as lead, phosphorous, nickel, antimony,
aluminum, and manganese.
o Silver is also alloyed with copper in several special alloys. German silver contains about 50 %
copper, 30 % zinc, and 20 % nickel. It is used in costume jewelry as a relatively inexpensive
substitute for real silver.
 Zinc-Base Alloys
o Zinc is a brittle, blush-white metal. It is used as a coating for iron and steel for protection
against rust. Coating with zinc is called Galvanizing and is done by dipping the metal into

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molten zinc. As the zinc cools, it forms into crystals, which make the spotted pattern on
galvanized steel. When galvanized iron or steel is heated, it produces a coating of zinc-iron or
zinc-steel alloy. The result is called galvannealed metal. These coated metals are used for wire
fences, metal roofing, water tank, water pipes, bucket, automobile frames, signs, and other
products that must resist corrosion.
o Zinc is also used in German silver, brass, bronze, and dry cell batteries. Like copper and
brass, zinc hardens when hammered. Heating and slow cooling can soften it.
o There are 16 standard alloys of zinc. Zinc base alloys are widely used for making die cast
engine blocks for small gas engines, housings for small engines, carburetors, parts of
typewriters, car door handles, and parts of portable electric tools.
 Magnesium and its alloys
o Magnesium is a silvery-white, light, malleable metal that is much lighter than aluminum.
o It is abundant in nature but is always alloyed with another metal because of its high cost and
low tensile strength.
o Magnesium may be alloyed with zinc, silicon, copper, nickel, manganese, iron, or tin.
o It is usually alloyed with aluminum to which it contributes strength and heat resistant.
o In its pure form magnesium burns easily, giving off an intense light. Special care must be
taken when machining magnesium. Dull tools can create enough frictional heat to ignite small
magnesium chip.
o Magnesium is used chiefly where light weight is important. It has many applications in
transportation vehicles, especially in aircraft, missiles, and space vehicles.
 Nickel Base alloys
o Nickel is a hard, tough, shiny, silvery metal. It does not rust and can be polished to a very
bright silvery finish.
o It is used for plating iron and brass to improve appearance.
o Nickel plating may be used under chromium plating on trim for automobiles and appliances.
o Nickel is also used to toughen steel.
o There arte about 60 nickel-base alloys, with nickel contents ranging from about 62 % to 99 %.
o Elements alloyed with nickel include copper, aluminum, iron, silicon, manganese, chromium,
titanium, and tungsten.
o Monel metal is a white metal containing about two-thirds nickel and one-third copper with
small amounts of other elements. It is strong, tough, rust-rsistant, and silvery.
o Monel metal is used for chemical and cooking equipment, motor boat propellers, nonmagnetic
parts of aircraft, valve stems, and valves and pipes used with corrosive liquids.
o Nickel is the base metal used in alloys for jet and rocket engines, and space vehicles. Such
metals must have high strength and be able to resist high temperatures. (Inconel, Rene 41,
hastelloy, and Waspaloy are some of their brand names.)
 Titanium and its Alloys
o Titanium is a silvery-gray metal with high strength and heat resistance. It weighs about 44 %
less than steel alloys, yet its tensile strength is equal to or greater than common structural steel
alloys. Temperatures up to 800 F do not weaken titanium, and it will tolerate temperatures up
to 2000 F for short periods of time.
o Titanium is used fo many supersonic aircraft parts, which are exposed to high degrees of
vibration and heat.
o Titanium is relatively inert (that is, it does not react chemically with many other substances).
o It is used to replace bone and cartilage in surgery.
o It is also used as a liner for pipes and tanks in the food-processing industries.
o Titanium dioxide is a bright white pigmen used in the ceramics and rubber industries.
o It is rapidly replacing the poisonous white lead pigment used in paints.
o There are about 30 titanium alloys.
o The chief alloying elements are tin, aluminum, zirconium, manganese, molybdenum,
vanadium, chromium, and columbium.\
 Cast alloys
o A number of cast alloys have been developed for use in metal-cutting tools. Some brand
names include Stellite, Rexalloy, Armaloy, and Tantung.

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o Cast alloys are metals composed of the following elements: cobalt – 35 % to 50 %,

chromium – 25 % to 35 %, tungsten – 10 % to 20 %, nickel – 0.01 % to 5 5, and carbon –
1.5 % to 3 %.
o Cast alloys are not steel for they do not contain iron.
o Cast alloys are very hard and cannot be machined, except by grinding.
o Cast alloys are used as tips on cutting tools, as removable tool bits in lathe tool-holders,
and as inserts in tool-holders and milling cutters.
o Cast alloy retains its hardness at high temperatures, up to about 1500 F.
o Cast alloy cutting tools may be operated at cutting speeds 50 % to 75 % faster than those
of high-speed steel cutting tools.
 Babbit
o Babbit metal, also called babbit, was invented in1839 by Isaac Babbit.
o It is an alloy made of lead, tin, copper, and antimony.
o There are two kinds of babbit, namely: Lead-base babbit, and the tin-base babbit.
o Lead-base babbit – the base of the principal metal is lead.
o Tin-base babbit – the base metal is tin.
o Babbit metal does not rust. It is used for bearings in machines and engines because it is
strong, tough and durable.
 Beryllium
o Beryllium is a gray metal about the same color as steel.
o It is expensive and lightweight.
o Beryllium is more heat-resistant, harder, and more brittle than other light metals, such as
aluminum and magnesium.
o A small percentage of beryllium, usually less than 2 %, makes a very strong alloy when it
is added to copper or nickel.
o Its lightweight and heat resistance are valued in aerospace applications.
o The first of space capsules used heat shield of beryllium.
o Pure beryllium is also used in nuclear reactors.
o Beryllium dust is toxic, which workers are required to wear respirators while machining
it. Thus, the machines they are using ate equipped with vacuum dust collectors.
 Gold
o Gold is a precious, heavy, beautiful, bright yellow metal.
o Pure gold is too soft for general use and is therefore alloyed with copper, silver, or other
metals.
o Gold can be hammered into very thin sheets called gold leaf, which is much thinner than
the thinnest tissue paper.
o Gilding is the art of covering something with gold leaf or gold powder.
o Gold is used mostly for jewelry, coins, and fillings in teeth.
o Since gold does not corrode, an important use is for coating electrical switch contacts in
computers and other electronic devices that require high reliability.
o The purity of gold is measured in karats. Pure gold is 24 karats. An 18-karat gold ring is
made of 18 parts by weight of gold and 6 parts by weight of some other metal. Jewelers
abbreviate karat as k: for example, 14k gold.
o White gold, a silvery metal used for jewelry contains 15 % to 20 5 nickel. The nickel
content changes the color of the metal from gold to white.
o Green gold has a greenish cast and is also used for jewelry. Fifteen karat green gold, for
example, is 15 parts gold, 8 parts silver, and 1 part copper.
 Lead
o Lead is a very heavy, bluish-gray, poisonous metal.
o Persons working with lead must guard against a disease called lead poisoning.
o Lead is the softest metal in general use.
o It is very bright when freshly cut; this brightness soon disappeared when exposed to the
air.
o Lead is used in auto batteries and is alloyed with tin to make solder and pewter.
o White lead, a pigment used in making some paints is made from lead.
o A small amount of lead added to other metals improves their machinability.

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 Pewter
o Pewter is a silvery-white metal. It is made of 92 parts tin, 5 parts antimony, and 3 parts
copper. Other grades of pewter contain a little more or less tin. The lower grades contain
some lead.
o Pewter is also called Britannia metal because it was first made in Britain. It is used for
tableware, buttons and clasps for clothing, and other ornamental work.
 Silver
o Silver is a beautiful, shiny, white metal. Pure silver is soft. For commercial uses, it must
be alloyed to make ir harder and stronger.
o It is used for ornamental work, jewelry, tableware, mirrors, and coins.
o Sterling silver is silver with copper added to make it harder. It is used for the best
tableware and jewelry.
o Silver is the best conductor of electricity.
o It is used for bearings in aircraft and diesel engines because it has a higher fatigue rating
than any other bearing material.
o Photographic film also uses large quantities of silver.
 Tin
o Tin is a shiny, silvery metal. Tin cans are made of steel coated with tin. The tin is actually
less than 1 % of the weight of the can. Tin does not rust.
o Tin is used in making bronze, babbit, pewter, solder, and other alloys.
o Tin is soft and can be rolled into very tin sheets. Tinfoil can be made as thin as 0.0002”.
o Tin plate, sheet steel coated with tin, is used for pots, pans, pails, and metal roofing. It is
often incorrectly called tin.
o Copper kettles used for cooking, are coated with tin to keep the copper from entering the
cooked food.

METAL DESIGNATION AND IDENTIFICATION

 Steel Numbering Systems
o Two major steel numbering systems have been developed: the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).
o Both systems use four-digit code numbers to identify the basic composition of plain
carbon and alloy steels. Certain alloys have five-digit code numbers.
o The first digit of the number usually indicates the basic steel type as follows;
1. carbon
2. nickel
3. nickelchromium
4. molybdenum
5. chromium
6. chromium-vanadium
7. tungsten
8. nickel-chromium-molybdenum
9. silicon-manganese
o The first two digits together identify a series of metals within the basic alloy group. The
second digit often, but not always, indicates the approximate percentage of the main
alloying element. The third, fourth, and fifth digits indicate the amount of carbon content.
o Example: (SAE/AISI)
1 0 9 0
Plain
carbon 0.90 %
steel carbon

61 2 0
Chromium
Vanadium 0.20 %
Steel carbon

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 Aluminum Numbering systems

o Wrought aluminum alloys are also given identifying numbers. Each alloy is designated
by four-number code. This system was adopted by the aluminum Association (AA) in
1954.
o The First digit identifies the main alloying elements as follow:
1. Aluminum of 99 % or greater purity (no alloying element)
2. Copper
3. Manganese
4. Silicon
5. Magnesium
6. Magnesium and silicon
7. Zinc
8. an element other than mentioned above
9. Unassigned
o The second digit indicates control of impurities in the production of the metal, with 0
indicating no control.
o Nine indicates the highest degree of control.
o In the 1000 series, the last two digits indicate aluminum purify in hundredths of a percent
over 99 %.
o Most aluminum alloys are made in several degrees of hardness. To indicate this hardness,
a temper designation follows the alloy number, separated by a dash.
o Alloy 1100-0 indicates an aluminum of 99 % purify that has been annealed.
o 2011-T3 indicates an aluminum/copper alloy that has been solution heat-treated and cold-
worked.
 Other Metal Numbering Systems
o Other numbering systems now in use include a three-digit system for copper and three-
digit system for stainless steel.
o Metal producers use separate systems of designating cast iron, zinc alloys, magnesium
alloys, titanium alloys, super strength space-age alloys, and precious metals.
o Metal designation has become complicated because more than one numbering system is
often used for each type of metal. To simplify this problem the SAE and ASTM
(American Society for Testing and Materials) created The Unified Numbering System for
Metal and Alloys (UNS).
o The UNS uses 16 numbered series for identifying certain metals and alloys. The UNS
numbers consist of a single letter followed by a five-digit number.
o Example: Aluminum alloy 1100 has the UNS number of A91100, and the UNS number
of G10900 designates 1090 plain carbon steel.
 Color Code for Steel
o The ends of steel bars are usually painted with one or more colors at the steel mill. The
color or colors identify the type of steel in each bar. However, not all steel producers
identify the kind of steel by the color on it one must know what company made the steel
and what the company’s color code is.
 Spark Testing
o Sparks fly off when steel is put to a grinding wheel. Each kind of steel produces a
different color and volume of sparks. Thus, a steel of unknown composition can be
roughly identified when its sparks match those of a known kind of steel.
o Some particle is required to correctly identify steel by spark testing. The pressure used in
grinding all the pieces should be the same.
o The volume of sparks depends on the carbon content. Wrought iron, which has very low
carbon content, produces very few sparks.
o High-carbon steel produces many sparks.

PRINCIPLES OF LINEAR MEASUREMENT

 The US Customary, or Inch, System
o The inch is divided into common fractions of ½”, ¼”, 1/8”, 1/32”, and 1/64”.
o These fractions of an inch may be measured directly from steel rule.

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o Steel rules are also made with decimal fractions of an inch such as 1/10” and 1/100”.
 SI Metric System
o The SI Metric system is a base ten, or decimal system. Its units of measurement are
related to each other by powers of ten Each of the main unit can be changed to a unit of
more convenient size, when desired, by multiplying or divided by powers of ten.

LAYOUT WORKS
 Layout work is the marking of lines, circles, and arcs on metal surfaces. It is the transferring of
information from a working drawing to metal surfaces to show the location and amount of metal
to be cut away.
 The tools used for doing layout work are called layout tools.
 Layout tools are used by many skilled metalworkers: die-makers, diesinkers, gage makers,
inspectors, layout workers, machinists, metal patternmakers, sheet metalworkers, structural steel
workers, and tool makers.

LAYOUT TOOLS
 Surface Plate
 A surface plate is a large iron or granite plate with a very flat surface.
 It provides an accurately flat surface on which to place the workpiece.
 Precision layout tools can be used to accurately mark the layout lines needed on the
workpiece.
 Steel Rules
 Steel rules are made in many lengths, widths, and thicknesses.
 The most commonly used steel rule is 6” long but lengths to 4’ are common.
 A thin, springly rule called a flexible steel rule is used to measure curves.
 Combination Set
 The combination set is the most commonly used set of layout tools.
 The set includes a square or combination head, center head, bevel protractor, spirit level,
steel rule, and scriber.
 The combination square is the most often used part of the combination set.
 Center head, because it forms a right or 90o angle, is used to extend a line around a corner.
 The bevel protractor is divided into degrees and with rule fastened to it, any angle can be
measured.
 A spirit level is usually fitted into the bevel protractor and the head of the combination
square to help in leveling the work or setting it at an angle.
 Solid Steel Square
 This square has a fixed blade.
 It is more accurately square than the combination square, which, if its sliding parts are worn,
any become inaccurate.
 Scribers
 Scribers are marking tools that have sharp, needle-like points made of hardened steel. The
points are like a pencil to scratch, or scribe, lines on metal.
 The bent end is used to scratch lines in places where the straight end cannot reach.
 Dividers
 Dividers are two-legged steel instruments with hardened points. The greatest distance that
can be opened between the two points measures the size.
 Trammels
 A large circle or an arc may be scribed with a tool called a trammel.
 It is sometimes called a beam compass or beam trammel, and may also be used to measure
distances in the same way that dividers are used.
 Outside Calipers
 An outside caliper is a two-legged steel instrument with its legs bent inward.
 Its size measured by the greatest distance it can be opened.

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 It is used to measure the outside diameters of round objects and to measure widths and
thicknesses of materials.
 The distance between the legs is measured with a rule.
 Inside Calipers
 An inside caliper is a two-legged steel instrument with its legs bent outward.
 It is used to measure the diameter of holes or to measure spaces.
 The distance between the two legs is measured on the rule.
 Fine measurements with Calipers
 Fine measurements with calipers depend upon the sense of touch, or feel, in the fingertips.
 Transferring a Measurement from One Caliper to Another
 To transfer a measurement from an inside caliper to an outside caliper, or vice versa, hold the
caliper which already has the measurement in one hand and the one to be set in the other
hand. Adjust caliper to be set to the size of the one that already has the correct measurement.
 Hermaphrodite Calipers
 The hermaphrodite caliper has one pointed leg like a divider and one bent leg.
 It is used to find the center on the end of a round bar, and to scribe lines parallel to the edge
of a workpiece.
 Punches
 Prick punch is a sharply pointed tool of hardened steel.
 It is used to accurately define points to be center-punched as well as to put small punch
marks on layout lines so they will last longer.
 Center punch looks like a prick punch. It is usually larger than the prick punch and has a 90o
point.
 The center punch is used to make prick punch marks larger at the centers of the holes that are
to be drilled.
 Machinist’s Hammer
 The head of a machinist’s hammer has a ball-shaped peen; thus, it is called a ball-peen
hammer.
 Surface Gage
 The surface gage has a heavy, flat carrying a spindle that may be set at any angle. Clamped
to the spindle is a scriber, which may also be set at any angle or any height. The adjusting
screw is used for fine setting of the scriber. The height of the point of the scriber may be
measured with a rule.
 Surface gage is used either to scribe or layout lines or to measure heights. The V-shaped
grooves at one end and at the bottom make it useful on or against round work.
 Vernier height Gage
 Vernier height gage is used for the same kinds of layout work as the surface gage.
 It is a precision layout tool that utilizes beam graduations and a special movable scale called
vernier or vernier scale.
 Vernier height gage can provide positioning of the scriber to an accuracy of one-thousandth
of an inch.
 Angle Plate
 Angle plate has two surfaces at an accurate 90o, a right angle, to aeach other. It is often
necessary to clamp a workpiece to an angle plate to work with it.
 Parallel Clamp
 Parallel clamp, also called toolmaker’s calmp, is often used to hold parts together or to hold
the work against an angle plate while laying it out.
 V-Blocks
 Blocks of steel with V-shaped grooves are used to hold round work for laying-out.
 V-blocks are usually made in matched pairs and come with clamps to hold the work-piece in
90o V-grooves.
 Micrometers
 Micrometers, called “mikes” for short, are instruments that make very fine measurements.
The full name is micrometer caliper.

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 Micrometers in English unit measure in thousandths of an inch (1/1000”) or as fine as one

thousandth of an inch (1/10000”).
 Micrometers in SI system measure either to one hundredth of a millimeter (1/100 mm) or to
two thousandth of a millimeter (2/1000 mm).
 Parts of a Micrometer
 A micrometer has a frame, sleeve, thimble, spindle, and anvil.
 The opening between the anvil and the spindle is made smaller or larger by turning the
thimble. The size os the opening is read on the sleeve and the thimble. The lock nut locks the
spindle so that it will not turn.
 Kinds of Micrometers
 Inside Micrometer is used to measure the diameters of openings
 Depth Micrometer is used to measure the depth of holes, grooves, and slots
 Screw Thread Micrometer is used to measure the pitch diameter of screw threads.
 Precise measurements with micrometers depend on the user’s sense of touch or feel.
 Sizes of Outside micrometer
o 1” [25 mm] micrometer measures from 0” to 2” [0” – 25 mm]
o 2” [50 mm] micrometer measures from 1” to 2” [25 – 50 mm]
 Vernier Measuring Tools
 Linear vernier measuring tools make measurements accurately to one-thousandth of an inch.
 Vernier Caliper, like micrometer, is used for outside and inside measurements. It is made in
standard lengths of 6” [150 mm], 12”, 36”, and 48” [150, 300, 600, 900, and 1200 mm].
 Vernier Height Gage, equipped with a straight or offset scriber, is often used for precision
layout work; and used with a dial indicator for inspecting completed work. Its standard sizes
are: 12”, 18”, and 24” [300, 460, and 600 mm]
 Vernier Depth Gage, like the depth micrometer, is used for measuring hole and slot depths
and the distance between parallel surfaces.
 Vernier Gear Tooth Caliper is used for measuring the accuracy of gear teeth; it is also used
to measure some form cutters and threading tools.
 Vernier Bevel protractor is a precision tool used for layout and measurement of precise
angles.

HANDSAWING
 Hand Sawing
 Hand Hacksaw – is a basic tool in almost every toolbox, and is used for cutting small pieces
of unhardened metals that cannot be cut in a more efficient way.
 Parts of Hand hacksaw
 Parts of hand hacksaw are: frame, handle, prongs, tightening screw and wing nut, and blade.
 Hacksaw Blades
 Blades are made of thin high-grade steel that has been hardened and tempered.
 Flexible blades are quality blades with hardened teeth and a softer back that makes them
springly and less likely to break.
 Sizes of Hacksaw
 Hacksaw blades are made in 8”, 10”, and 12” [200, 250, and 300 mm] lengths.
 Blade length is the distance between the centers of the holes at each end.
 Blades are usually ½” [12.7 mm] wide and 0.025” [0.64 mm] thick.
 Hacksaw Blade Material
 Blade materials include carbon steel, molybdenum alloy steel, tungsten alloy steel, and
tungsten high-speed steel.
 High-speed steels are the hardest materials used for making hacksaw blades.
 Hacksaw blade pitch
 14 teeth per inch [1.8 mm pitch] – used for cutting soft steel, aluminum, brass, bronze,
copper alloys, and other materials 1” [25 mm] or more in thickness.

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 18 teeth per inch [1.4 mm pitch] – used for cutting machine steel, angle iron, drill rod, tool
steel, aluminum, copper alloys, and other materials ¼” to 1” [6 to 25 mm] in thickness; also
used for general-purpose work.
 24 teeth per inch [1 mm pitch] – used for cutting materials 1/16” to ¼” [1.6 to 6 mm]
thickness, iron pipe, metal conduits, light angle iron, etc.
 32 teeth per inch [0.8 mm pitch] – used for cutting materials up to 1/16” [1.6 mm] thickness,
sheet metals, thin-wall tubing, and thin angles or channels.
 Hacksaw blade Set
 Set of saw teeth refers to the way the teeth are bent to one side or the other to provide a kerf
(the cut made by the saw) that is wider than the thickness of the saw.
 The wider saw kerf prevents the saw blade from binding by providing clearance.
 Two kinds of Blade Set
o Raker Set - is a set that has one tooth bent to the right, one to left, and one
straight tooth in between; this pattern is repeated the length of the blade. It is
used for 14 and 18 teeth per inch blades.
o Waver Set – is a set that has several teeth bent to the right and several teeth bent
to the left, alternately. It is used for 24 and 32 teeth per inch blades.
 Putting Blade in Frame
 When putting a new blade in the hand hacksaw, place it so that the teeth of the blade point
away from the handle. Fasten one end of the blade to the hook at one end of the frame and
the other end of the blade to the hook at the opposite end of the frame. Tighten the blade
securely; a loose blade makes a crooked cut and is likely to bend or break.
 Holding Metal for Sawing
 The work should be held tightly in the vise. Put the part to be sawed near the vise jaws so
that the pressure of cutting does not bend the work-piece or cause it to chatter.
 Chattering is a rattling noise made when the work-piece or cutting tool vibrates, or springs
back and forth, during the work. It makes hacksawing very inefficient.
 When possible, position the work-piece so that at least two saw teeth always contact the
work-piece. This is necessary to avoid stripping (breaking) of the saw teeth.
 Sawing thin metal. If the metal to be cut is thinner than the space between the two saw teeth,
clamp it between two thicker pieces of metal or hardwood. Sawing through all three pieces at
the same time is the safe way. If there is a layout in one side of the thin metal, use a C-clamp
to fasten the metal so that the layout can be seen.
 Making Long Saw cuts. Saw cuts in along work-piece can be made by turning the blade at a
right angle to the saw frame
 Holding and Using a Hand hacksaw
 Grasp the handle with the dominant had (right hand is dominant if right-handed). Use the
other hand to grip the other end of the saw frame.
 The Cutting Stroke. “Press down on the forward stroke and lift a little on the return stroke,
because the blade cuts only on the forward stroke”. Tighten the blade after a few strokes
because it will stretch when it gets warm. Make about 40 cutting strokes per minute.
 Cutting Curved Lines
 Cutting curved lines is done with a jeweler’s saw.
 Jeweler’s saw blades have fine teeth and are very hard in order to cut metal. The blades are
5” [127 mm] long and with from 32 to 76 teeth per inch [0.08 to 0.03 mm pitch]
o Unlike hacksaw blades, the teeth of the blades should point toward, not away
from, the handle.
o The cutting stroke is downward.

COLD CHISELS
 Cold chisels are used to cut cold metal, hence the name; and are made of tough alloy tool steel and
are available in a number of sizes and shapes.
 Kinds of Clod Chisel
 Flat chisel – one that has a wide cutting edge; used for flat surfaces, cutting sheet metal,
cutting bars and rivets, and other cutting jobs; it is the most commonly used chisel.

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 Cape Chisel – one that has a narrow cutting edge and is used for cutting narrow grooves; its
cutting edge is wider than the rest of the chisel to keep the chisel from sticking in the groove.
 Diamond-Point Chisel – one that has a cutting edge shaped like a diamond and is used to cut
V-shaped grooves and square inside corners.
 Round-Nose Chisel – one that has a rounded cutting edge and is used for cutting round
corners and grooves.
 Sizes of Cold Chisels
 Cold chisels range in size from ¼” [6.35 mm] to 1” [25 mm] in diameter; lengths vary from
4” [100 mm] to 8” [200 mm].
 Angle of the Cold Chisel Cutting Edge
 The cutting edge is a wedge that cuts into the metal.
 The cutting edge angle on most cold chisels is from 50 o to 75o. The angle on a specific chisel
to be used depends upon the kind of metal to be cut. The softer the metal, the nearer the
angle should be to 50o.
 For cutting hard metal, the cutting angle should be greater, or more blunt. For most work, it
should be about 60o.
 Head of Cold Chisel
 The head of the cold chisel should be tapered a little and rounded.
 After a cold chisel has been used for some time, the head becomes flattened like a mushroom
with rough, ragged edges; this mushroom head is dangerous. One of the ragged edges may
fly off and injure someone when it is struck with the hammer.
 The mushroom head should be ground on the grinding wheel.
 Holding the Chisel
 For small, fine work, hold the chisel with the fingers.
 For larger chisels loosely around the middle, so that the shock of the hammer blows is not
transferred directly to the hand.
 Goggles Used in Chisel Work
 When using chisel, wear goggles to protect eyes from flying chips.
 Make sure that the chips fly against a wall, or set up some kind of a shield to protect other
workers.
 How to Start a Cut
 Position the chisel so that its point will bite into the metal.
 Keep eyes on the cutting edge of the chisel so that it can reset after each hammer blow if
needed.
 Use light hammer blows until the chisel point has dug into the metal then make the blows
heavier to speed up the cutting.
 Shearing
 A vise and a flat chisel, used together, can be made to act like a pair of scissors or shears for
cutting sheet metal.
 Cutting Rods and Rivets
 Nicking it on opposite sides with the flat chisel, and then bending it until it breaks may
roughly cut a small rod or bar.

FILES AND FILING

 Files are hardened pieces of tool steel with slanting rows of teeth; and are used to cut, smooth, or
fit metal parts.
 Parts of File
 Tang – is the pointed part of the file that fits into the handle.
 Point – is the end opposite the tang.
 Heel – is the end of the file next to the handle.
 Face – is the broad surface of the file that does the cutting
 Edge – is the narrow side of the file. If it has no teeth, it is called a safe edge.
 For safety all files with tangs should be fitted with handles.

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 Ordinary file handles are made of hardwood. The metal ring on the file handle is called a
ferrule. It keeps the handle from splitting when the tang is driven in.
 Large files should have large handles, and small file should have small handles. Very small
file usually are made with smooth, knurled (ridged) metal handle.
 Shapes of Files. Files are made in hundreds of shapes.
 Blunt file is one that has the same width and thickness from the heel to the point.
 Tapered file is one that is thinner or narrower at the point.
 The most commonly used shapes are as follows: warding, mill, flat, hand, pillar, square,
round or rat-tail, half round, three-square, and knife.
 Cuts of Files
 Single-Cut File - is the one that has a single row of cuts across the face of the file; the teeth
are like the edge of a chisel.
 Double-Cut File – is a cut that has two sets of cuts crossing each other, which give the teeth
the form of sharp points; these files cut faster but not as smoothly as the single-cut file.
 Rasp-Cut File – one with teeth that are not connected and are formed by raising small parts
of the surface with a punch. This file is used in for shaping wood and other soft materials.
 Curved-Cut File – is one that is widely used into bodywork; the widely spaced, curved teeth
prevent clogging when filing soft metals and plastic body fillers.
 Coarseness of Files
 Single-cut and double-cut files are further classified by the coarseness or spacing between
the rows of teeth.
 The six kinds of coarseness or spacing are as follows: rough, coarse, bastard, second-cut,
smooth, and dead smooth.
 Rough files are files with widest spacing between teeth.
 Dead smooth files are files with closest spacing between teeth.
 The files most often used are the bastard, second-cut, and smooth.
 The rough, coarse, and dead smooth files are used only on special jobs.
 Storing Files
 Good care will save the cutting edges of the files and make them last longer.
 Hanging files is a good is idea of storing files that prevents files from rubbing or hitting each
other.
 Other Kinds of Files
 Jewelry’s Files are small files used for fine work; and are made in lengths of 4” to 6” [100 to
150 mm] and sold in sets of various shapes.
 Rifflers are files made, specially, for tool die, and mold work; and are bent in various shapes
to allow filing in hand-to-reach places.
 Rotary files, or burrs, are made for use in electric or air-powered tools.
 Choosing the Right File
 Select the size, kind, and coarseness of file according to:
 Size of the work-piece
 Amount of metal to be removed
 Smoothness of the finish desired.
 Holding Work for Filing
 The work piece should be held tightly in a vise or otherwise fastened so it cannot move.
 If in a vise, the part to be filed should be near the vise jaws to keep it from chattering.
 Using a File
 Do not use a file without a handle.
 Cross-filing. In cross-filing, the file is held naturally at about 45 o angle to the work piece
surface. Make the file cut by moving it back and forth in a sawing motion.
 Draw-filing. Draw-filing produces a smooth flat surface. (A mill file or a smooth single-cut
file is recommended for this purpose.) Place the file at 90 o to the longest dimension of the
surface to be filed. Grasp it firmly at both ends with the thumbs close to the work piece.
Keep the file at 90o while pushing it back and forth across the work piece.

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 Checking the Accuracy of Surfaces During Filing

 Filing flat surfaces should be tested often with the straight edge of steel rule or square. The
work is flat if no light can be seen between the straightedge and the surface.
 Test square corners often with a square. Use the bevel protractor to test all other angles.
 Filing Cast Iron
 Before filing a cast iron surface that has not been machined, remove the scale by tapping the
work-piece surface with a large flat cold chisel. The file will be ruined in few strokes if file
the scale.
 Do not touch the filed part of cat iron with fingers or hand..
 Scale is a hardened layer, mostly iron oxide that always forms on iron castings.
 Cleaning Files
 Keep the file free from chips and filings by brushing it with wire brush called a file card.

THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING

 Screw thread is a ridge of uniform shape that winds at a constant angle around the surface of a
cylinder or a cone.
 External threads – are threads on bolts and screws.
 Internal threads - are thread on the inside of a hole.
 Hands of Threads:
 Right-hand thread – is the one in which the nut is screwed clockwise onto a bolt.
 Left-hand thread – is the one in which the nut is screwed counterclockwise onto a bolt.
 Uses of Screw Threads
 Used on fastener such as bolts, nuts, and screws.
 Used to change rotary (turning) motion to straight-line motion.
 Screw Thread Terms (Definitions adapted from ANSI)
 ANSI – American national Standard institute
 Major Diameter – the largest diameter of a straight external thread. The nominal, or basic,
size is similar to the major diameter, and is used for general identification, such as,
identifying the thread size as ¼” or ½” diameter.
 Minor diameter – the smallest diameter on a straight external or internal thread.
 Pitch diameter – the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that passes through the thread profile
where the width of the thread and width of the groove are equal.
 Pitch – the distance from a point on one screw thread, measured parallel to the thread axis.
The pitch of a thread is a measure of the size of the thread.
o For inch base thread, pitch is equal to 1 divided by the number of threads per
inch.
o For metric threads, pitch is expressed in millimeters.
o The pitch of a thread may be determined with a steel rule or with a screw pitch
gage.
 Lead – the distance a thread moves along its axis in one revolution. On a single thread, the
lead and pitch are equal or the same. On double-thread, the lead is equal to twice the pitch.
One triple thread, the lead is equal to three times the pitch.
 Lead or helix angle – angle made by the helix of a thread at the pitch diameter measured in a
plane perpendicular to the axis of the thread.
 Multiple-thread – a thread having the same thread form produced with two or more helical
grooves, such as a double or triple thread.
 Crest – the top surface that joints the two sides of a thread.
 Root – the bottom surface that joins the two sides of adjacent threads.
 Side or Flank – the surface that connects the crest with the root on either side of a thread.
 Clearance – the distance between the crest of a thread and the root of a mating thread,
measured perpendicular to the thread axis.
 Height of thread – sometimes called single depth of thread, - the distance between the major
and minor diameters of the thread, measured perpendicular to theaxis of the thread.
 Development of Screw Threads in USA

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 Profile or form is the cross-sectional shape of a screw thread.

 In 1924, the thread profile was named the American National Form Thread and was much
the same as the United States Standard Form.
 In 1911, the National Fine Thread was established.
 Unified Screw Threads
 The Unified Screw Thread generally has rounded roots and may have either rounded or flat
crest. These are the main difference from the American national Thread form.
 American industries use flat crest, while the English prefer rounded crests. The rounded root is
optional on both the external and the internal threads for most applications.
 Formulas for an external unifies Form:

Pitch  p 
Number of threads per inch
0.61343
Depth  D  0.61343 x p 
Number ofthreads per inch
p
Flat at crest  F 
8
 Common Tread Series in Unified Screw Treads:
o Unified national Coarse Thread (UNC) – adopted from the NC thread
o Unified national Fine Thread (UNF) – adopted from the NF thread
o Unified National Extra-Fine Thread (UN-EF) – adopted from the NEF thread
o Other less-common series, such as the 8-thread series (8UN), the 12-thread series
(12UN), and the 16-thread series (16UN)
 Six classes of Unified Tread Series
o Classes 1A, 2A, and 3A – external threads
o Classes 1B, 2B, and 3b – internal threads
 Other common thread forms
 Square Thread – is formed like square; the depth and width of the groove are equal; the height
and width of each ridge between the grooves are also equal; the groove and ridge form two
squares.
 Acme Thread – is usually used on the lead screw of a lathe; used on many other kinds of
machine tools; angle of thread is 29o.
 Pipe thread – used for assembling pipes and pipe fittings.
 American National Standard Taper Pipe thread (NPT) – used for pipefitting jobs that require a
low-pressure seal against liquid or gas leakage. The NPT threads are tapered ¾” per foot
[62.48 mm per meter] on the diameter. The angle between the sides of the thread is 60 o.
 American National Standard Railing Joint Taper Pipe (NPTR) – make a rigid, mechanical,
tapered thread joint for use in railing construction.
 American National standard Dryseal Taper Pipe Threads (NPTF) – are used in applications
that require a gas or liquid tight thread joint without the use of pipe compound or sealant.
Four forms of Dryseal threads:
o NPTF – dryseal standard pipe thread
o PTF-SAE short – dryseal SAE short taper pipe thread
o NPSF – dryseal standard fuel internal straight pipe thread
o NPSI – dryseal standard intermediate internal standard pipe thread
 Types of American National Standard Straight Pipe Threads (NPS):
 NPSC thread – used in pipe couplings
 NPSM thread – designated for use in free-fitting mechanical joints.
 NPSL thread – is for use in loose-fitting mechanical joints with locknuts.
 NPSH thread – is for loose-fitting mechanical joints in hose couplings.
 ISO Metric threads
 In 1949, the International Standard Organization (ISO0 recommended worldwide adoption of
three series of metric threads, that are based on the same 60-degree thread form adopted for
the ISO Inch (Unified) threads. The three series are the following:

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o ISO Metric coarse pitch – commonly used on fasteners

o ISO Metric fine pitch – used mostly on precision tools and instruments
o ISO metric constant pitch – used mainly on machine parts, but also used on all spark
plugs.
 ISO Metric and ISO Inch threads have the same thread form but not interchangeable because
of differences in diameters and pitches.
 Classes of ISO Metric threads
o the three classes are: fine, medium, and coarse.

EXTERNAL THREADING WITH DIES

 Treading Dies
 Treading Dies. Threading die is a tool for cutting external threads on a round rod, such as those
on a bolt.
 Rethreading dies – are square or hexagonal in shape that can be turned with an ordinary
wrench; used only for rethreading of damaged threads.
 Left-hand dies – used to cut left-hand threads.
 Screw plate – a set of threading tools that includes dies, taps, and the tools needed to use them.
 Diestock – a tool for holding and turning a threading die; and are made in several sizes to fit
dies of different diameters.
 Sizes of Threading Dies
 The diameter and pitch of the thread that is produced are stamped on each die, together
with the kind of the thread.
 Example: ¼-20 UNC means that the die will cut a Unified national Coarse thread with a
major diameter of ¼” and 20 threads per inch
 A die marked M8 x 1.25 is a metric die that will cut a thread with a major diameter of 8
mm and a pitch of 1.25 mm.
 How to cut a thread with a die and Diestock
 Bevel the end of the end to threaded. (Bevel means to slant or taper the edge) this makes it
easier for the die to start the thread.
 Hold the rod tightly in a machinist’s vise so that it cannot turn.
 Adjust the die to fit a standard bolt, that is, a bolt with threads of the same size want to
make.
 Mount the die in the diestock. Secure it with the tightening screw.
 Place the tapered, or starting side, of the die on the rod.
 Hold the diestock with both hands near the die. Keep the die as square as possible with the
rod. Press down firmly and at the same time slowly rotate the die clockwise. Larger die
sizes require more pressure to get the die started. After two or three threads have been cut,
heavy pressure on the die is no longer necessary. The die will continue to screw itself onto
the rod as it rotated.
 Shift the position of your hands to the ends of the diestock, and add a little cutting fluid,
and continue to cut the thread. Back up the die a half-turn every two or three threads to
break and clean away the chips. This help keep chips from clogging the die and roughing
up the thread.
 Threading to shoulder. A shoulder is a ridge of metal that extends from the base around the
body of the work piece. When full threads are needed as close to a shoulder as possible,
first cut the threads in the usual manner as described above.
 Cutting fluids for threading
 When threading steel, use sulfurized mineral oil or one of the commercial cutting fluids
made especially for threading steel.
 Special threading fluids are also available for aluminum.
 External thread measurements
 External threads must be cut to the correct depth to produce the proper fit or class of
thread. If the pitch diameter is too large, the thread fits too tightly. If it is too small, it fits
too loosely.

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 How to determine the fit or class of external screw:

o By testing how the threaded piece fits in a standard mating nut or threaded hole.
o By measuring the pitch diameter either with a thread micrometer or using the three-
wire method with a plain micrometer.
o With a thread ring gage
o With a thread-roll snap gage.

INTERNAL THREADING WITH TAPS

 Taps – is a tool for cutting internal threads.
 It has threads like a bolt with two, three or four flutes (grooves) cut across the threads; the
edges of the thread formed by the flute are the cutting edges; the shank end of the tap is
square so that it can be turned with a wrench.
 Taps are made from carbon steel or high-speed steel and are hardened and tempered.
 A set of taps includes a taper tap, a plug tap, and a bottoming tap.
 Taper tap has about six threads tapered at the end so that it will start easily; the taper also
makes it easier to keep the tap straight ad the cut is begun. The threads are cut gradually as
the tap is turned into the hole.
 Plug tap has three or four threads tapered at the end and is used as a starting tap on easily
cut metals.
 Bottoming tap has full threads to the end and is used to cut full threads to the bottom of a
hole.
 Tap Styles
 Hand taps – are straight-fluted, have three or four flutes, and have a cutting edge parallel to
the center line of the tap.
 Gun taps – are straight-fluted, with two, three, or four flutes depending on the size of the
tap. Cutting edges are ground at an angle to the centerline od the tap; the angular cutting
edges cause the chips to shoot ahead of the tap. Plug-type gun taps are designated for
tapping open, or through, holes. Bottoming-type gun taps are designed for tapping blind
holes (holes that go only part-way into work piece), producing fine chips that can readily
escape.
 Helical-fluted taps, commonly known as spiral-fluted taps – are designed to lift the chips
out of the hole being tapped.
o Low-angle spiral-fluted taps are best for tapping ductile materials like aluminum,
copper, or die-cast metals.
o High-angle spiral-fluted taps work best on tough metals, such as carbon and alloy
steels; and are made with two, three, or four flutes, depending on the tap diameter,
and are available in plug and bottoming types.
 Serial taps – are usually made in sets of three; have one, two, or three identifying rings cut
at the end of the shank; and are designed for cutting threads invery tough metals.
 Thread-forming taps have no cutting edges and therefore produce no chips; threads are
formed by forcing the metal to flow around the threads on the tap; this produces a strong
thread, because the grain of the metal is forced to follow the thread profile and the surface
is somewhat work-hardened.
 Sizes of Taps
 Taps are made the same sizes as bolts and screws; the major diameter, pitch, and kind of
thread are stamped on the shank of the tap.
 Example: ¼ -20 UNC means that the outside diameter of the tap is ¼ inch, there are 20
threads per inch, and the thread is Unified National Coarse.
 Tap marked M6 x 1 is a metric tap with an outside diameter of 6 mm and a pitch of 1 mm.
 Tap size Limits
 The size of the pitch diameter of a tap determines the depth and the fir of a tapped thread.
 Internal thread measurement
 Internal threads are checked for the correct fit or class of thread with thread plug gages.
 Tap Drills
 Tap drill is the drill used to make the hole before tapping.

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 The tap drill should be a little larger than the diameter at the bottom, or root, of the thread,
known as the minor diameter.
 How to cut internal threads with Tap
 Drill the hole with the proper size tap drill.
 Clamp the work piece in a vise with the hole in an upright position.
 Install a taper tap or a plug tap of the correct size in a tap wrench. (the t-handle tap wrench
is used for holding small taps.)
 Insert the end of the tap in the hole, then grasp the tap wrench with both hands close to the
tap. Press down firmly on the tap while turning it clockwise. Larger taps require mor
pressure to get the tap started.
 It is very important that the tap be started parallel with hole. If the hole is 90 degrees to the
top of the work piece, a square or steel rule can be used to check its alignment. A tap that
is started at an angle to the hole is forced to cut a deeper and deeper thread on one side of
the hole as it gets deeper. This results in a broken tap.
 Once several threads have been cut, it is no longer necessary to press down on the top.
Lubricate the tap with an appropriate cutting fluid.
o Tapping blind holes. A blind hole is one that goes only paart way into the workpiece.
If full threads to the bottom of blind hole are desired, run the plug tap in as far as it
will go. Clean out the hole now and then. In this way, the chips collecting in the
bottom of the hole will not keep the tap from going to the bottom. Then change to
the bottoming tap, and finish cutting the partially cut threads at the bottom of the
hole.
o Cutting fluids for tapping. Taps are very hard and brittle and are easily broken.
Cutting fluids greatly reduce the strain on the tap, and should be used when tapping
most metals.
 Causes of Broken Taps
 A hole that has been drilled too small forces the tap to remove more metal than it is able to;
therefore, it jams and breaks.
 A tap that is started at an angle to the hole sticks tight and then breaks.
 The tap wrench acts like a lever. With it, a great twisting force can be put upon the tap.
Misuse of this force breaks many taps. Applying more pressure to one side of the tap wrench
than the other may also break the tap.
 Lack of cutting fluid where required will cause a tap to stick tight and break.
 Failure to back up the tap will cause the chips to crowd in front of the cutting edges or to pack
tight in the flutes of the tap. More force is then needed to turn the tap, and this extra force is
often more than the tap can stand.
 Turning a tap after the bottom of hole is reached will cause it to break.
 Removing a Broken tap from a Hole
 A broken tap is usually difficult to remove because the broken part is jammed tightly in the
hole.
 A tap broken near the top of the hole may sometimes be removed by placing a dull Cape
Chisel in the flute of the tap and striking light blows with the hammer. Apply penetrating oil
first, then, work the broken tap both clockwise and counterclockwise.
 A tap extractor is a tool designed to remove broken tap; it is made with slender steel fingers
that fit into the flutes of the tap, so that a twisting force can be applied to remove the broken
tap.
 Thread Inserts
 Thread Inserts are threaded steel bushings; used to give new lining to holes with worn or
damaged threads; also used to provide strong wear-resistant linings in low tensile strength
metals, such as cast aluminum and magnesium.

FITS AND FITTINGS

 In metalworking, fitting means preparing parts so they go together correctly.
 The term fit is used to describe how tight two mating parts go together. The kind of fir that exists
depends on the tolerances and allowances that were called for in the design of the parts.

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 The sliding fir is a close fit between two parts with enough clearance so that one can slide freely
without wobbling.
 Running fit is used where one part revolves inside another. A shaft running in a bearing, as in a
drill press spindle, must have a running fit. The fit must not be so tight that it keeps the shaft from
turning, nor so loose that it wobbles from side-to-side.
 Location clearance fits (LC) are used in the assembly of stationary parts where some clearance is
permissible. Fits may range from snug fits so medium amount clearance fits.
 Location Interference fits (LN) are used where accuracy of location and rigidity of mating parts
are most important. These fits are used where a load from one part must be transferred directly to
another part without loss of motion. Force fits and shrink fits can satisfy this requirement.
 Location transition fits (LT) are ranked between clearance fits and interference fits; are used where
accuracy of location is important and where a small amount of either clearance or interference is
permissible between the mating parts.
 Force fits are used where parts must be held together very tightly. With these fits, parts can
fastened together almost as tightly as though they were made from one piece.. Force fits are used
to assemble gears, pulleys, bearings, collars, and similar parts on shafts.
 Shrink fits are classified under force fits, since they involve interference between mating parts.
However, where heavy driving or pressing forces are not practical or possible, the parts are
installed by shrinking one part onto the other. A pulley, gear, or collar may be fastened to a shft
with a shrink fit.
 Shims – are several layers of very thin metal often used to separate the two halves of plain
bearing.

SCRAPERS AND SCRAPING

 Scrapping is the process of shaving off small amounts of metal using hand-held scraping tools.
Scraping is most often done to obtain precision alignment of machine parts; it is also done to
provide shallow pockets that will hold lubricants on flat surfaces, such as machine ways.
 Machine surfaces usually are not perfectly true for a number of reasons:
 File scratches or tool marks must be removed
 Metal may be unequal hardness or the metal may have been sprung out of true shape while
being clamped for machining
 The cutting tool may have worn or been sprung during the machining
 Scrapers are made in several shapes and have cutting edges of hardened steel or tungsten carbide.
 Hook and flat scrapers are used for scrapping flat surfaces
 Half-round and three-cornered scrapers are used on curved surfaces. The three-cornered
scraper is also useful for removing sharp edges, or burrs, from around holes.

ASSEMBLY TOOLS
 Assembling means putting the parts of something together.
 Screwdrivers are tools used to turn, or drive, screws; made in may sizes and several shapes; the
size is measured by the length of the blade, which is made of tool steel that is hardened and
tempered. The screwdriver point for driving slotted screws should be correctly shaped; it must be
fit the slot in the screw. The blades on some larger screwdrivers are square; a wrench may be used
to turn such a screwdriver.
 An offset screwdriver has a bent handle; it is used where a straight screwdriver will not reach.
 Phillips screwdriver is used for Phillip head screws.
 Pliers are tools used for cutting small wire and for holding, twisting, turning, pulling, and pushing.
 Slip-joint pliers, also known as combination pliers, are used for gripping; can also cut small-
size wire; the slip-joint makes it possible to grip large parts.
 Side-cutting pliers are especially useful for cutting wire and nails; used by electricians for
cutting electric wires; the flat square jaws are useful for bending corners on thin metal.
 Round-nose pliers are used to bend small wire and thin metal, and to hold small parts.
 Long-nose pliers are used for handling small parts where space is limited.
 Wrenches (Adjustable)

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 Adjustable-end Wrench is a strong tool used for general work in the shop. Its jaws are pointed
at such an angle that it can be used in close corners and unhandy places.
 Adjustable S-wrench is useful in many places where a straight-handled wrench cannot be
used.
 Monkey wrench is named after its inventor, Charles Moncky. It is used for tightening or
loosening bolts and nuts, and can be set to fit many sizes.
 Vise-grip wrench, also called Vise-grip pliers, is a handy tool. It works in close places and the
strong steel jaws lock to the work and will not slip; it acts like a vise, clamp, plier, pipe
wrench, open-end wrench, or locking tool.
 Pipe wrench is used to hold or turn pipes or other round pieces of metal.
 Wrenches (Non-adjustable)
 Box wrenches – have closed ends; the head of the wrench goes completely around the nut or
bolt head; the handles are usually offset 15o, which provides wrench (and user’s knuckles)
clearances for nearby obstacles.
 Socket wrenches are used to turn nuts and bolts that are in hard-to-reach places or below the
surface of the work. Set of Socket Wrenches:
o Extension bars
o Hinge handle, commonly called breaker bar – used for loosening difficult nuts and
bolts
o Reversible ratchet – used for normal loosening and tightening
o Speed handle – used for rapid assembly or disassembly of threaded parts
o Universal joint – used when the wrench handles cannot be positioned at right angles
to the nut or bolt centerline.
 Spanner wrenches – have hook or one or two pins
o Hook spanner wrenches are wrenches that fit into a slot
o Pin spanner wrenches – are wrenches that fit into holes in threaded collars, and are
used to loosen or tighten them.
 Hexagonal wrenches are also called hex keys and Allen wrenches – are used with socket cap
screws and socket set screw; are available in wide range of sizes, either singly or on set.
 Torque wrenches are used when several bolts or nuts must all be tightened a uniform amount;
also used to prevent over-tightening a single fastener.
 Powered wrenches
o Electric-and air-powered wrenches – enable workers to rapidly assemble and
disassemble parts with a minimum physical effort; used for driving screws, tapping
threads, chipping, and riveting.
 Punches
 Drift punch, sometimes called a tapered punch or aligning punch, is smooth and has a tapered
end; may be used to arrange holes in a straight line, to drive out pins, or to drive out rivets.
 Pin punch has a straight end and is used to drive out cotter pins and tapered pins.
 Transfer punch is a pin punch with a point at its end like a center punch; used to transfer the
location of the center of a hole on one part to another part.
 Arbor press – is a machine for pressing parts of machinery together or forcing them apart, such as
pressing a shaft in or out of a pulley or gear.
 Machinist’s Vise – is often used to clamp parts together while they arte being assembled.
 Clamps – are often used to temporarily hold parts together while being assembled.
 C-clamps are shaped like the letter C; made in many sizes and very useful general purpose
clamps.
 Toolmaker’s parallel clamp have two parallel jaws, which are opened or closed by two
screws; are made in several sizes and are best suited for holding small parts together.
 Toggle clamps are made in may sizes and types are widely used in special work holding
fixtures.
 Spring clamps are useful where only light holding power is needed; can only be quickly
applied and released because of their spring action.

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FASTENERS
 Fasteners are elements used to hold together metal parts in a form of bolts, screws, pins, and
rivets.
 Bolts and screws – are made in many shapes and sizes.
 Carriage bolt – has a smooth, round head; a back, round finish; and a coarse thread. It is
usually used to fasten a wooden part to metal. The square part under the head sinks into the
wood and keeps the bolt from turning while the nut is being tightened.
 Tap bolts are like machine bolts except that the whole body is threaded.
 Stove bolts are have either a round or flat head, which is slotted so that the bolt can turned
with a screwdriver; made with a coarse thread; used as general purpose fasteners where
precision fits are unnecessary.
 Cap screws are made with heads of several different shapes; usually finished all over and are
made with either coarse or fine threads; used when it is not convenient to get at both sides of
the work with wrenches. The head of the cap screw presses against the top piece and holds the
part together.
 Machine screws are made with heads of several different shapes and are made with either
coarse or fine threads; made of steel, stainless steel, or brass. The smaller diameters are
described by gage numbers, 0 – 12. These sizes range from 0.060” to 0.216”. the gage
numbers are the same for both machine screws and wood screws. Larger diameters are usually
designated by their sizes: ¼”, 5/8”, and 3/8”.
 Set screws are made with square heads or are headless. Both kinds are made with different
points. Setscrews are case-hardened are used to fasten pulleys and collars on shaft. The
headless setscrew is made for safety. Screws with heads are dangerous on moving parts
because the worker may be caught and injured. There are two kinds of headless screws: screw
with slot for a screwdriver, and the one with hexagonal hole, known as a socket-head
setscrew.
 Wood screws are often used to fasten metal parts to wood; made with flat, round, or oval
heads. The heads are slotted or recessed so they can be turned with screwdrivers. Wood
screws are made of steel, brass, and aluminum. Steel wood screw come either bright or blued
finish, or they are plated with cadmium, nickel, or chromium to prevent rust or corrosion. The
diameter of wood screws and machine screws is measured on on the body under the head with
the American Standard Screw gage.
 Lag screws have either square or hexagonal heads like bolts and are threaded like wood
screws; used for heavy work such as fastening a machine to a wooden floor.
 Thumbscrews are screws with one or two wings or with a knurled head; used where a screw
must be turned by the thumb and finger.
 Nuts
 Machine screw nut is either square or hexagonal; the thread may be either coarse or fine.
Stove, carriage, and machine bolts are generally supplied with square nuts.
 Jam nut is sometimes called a lock nut or check nut; thinner than an ordinary nut and is used
as a lock to keep another nut from loosening by vibration. Although the jam nut is usually put
on last, the thicker nut may be put on last to make use of the greater strength.
 Castle nut has slots cut into a top ring on metal. The part that extend upward make it look like
a castle, hence the name. A cotter pin is slipped in a slot and through a hole in the bolt to lock
the nut to the bolt and thus keep the nut from jarring off. Castle nuts are usually used to hold
wheel bearings and wheels in place.
 Wing nuts have two thin, flat wings and are used where a nut has to turned with the thumb
and forefinger.
 Self-locking nuts eliminate the need for lock washers, lock nuts, or cotter pins to keep the nut
tightly in place. The self-locking feature is usually provided either by one or more deformed
threads, or with a plastic insert.
 Washers
 Plain washers are used as bearing surfaces for bolts, nuts, screws, and rivets; protect the
surface under the fastener and spread the load over a greater area. The size of the a washer is
measured by the diameter of the bolt that it fits.

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 Lock washers are used to lock a nut or screw in place, thus preventing movement or loosening
due to vibration. The helical spring type lock washer looks like a coil from spring.; they are
hardened and tempered, and are used under a screw or nut.
 Tooth-type lock washers of hardened steel will wedge into bearing surfaces to prevent bolts,
nuts, or screw from turning or loosening due to vibration..
 Preassembled screw and washer assemblies called sems have a lock washer fitting loosely
below the screw head. The expanded rolled thread diameter prevents the washer from falling
off; used for more rapid assembly on modern assembly lines.
 Pins are used to hold mechanical parts together or limit the travel of moving parts.
 Cotter pins, also called cotter keys, are made of soft steel wire; slipped through a hole in a
bolt behind a castle nut; to keep the nut from turning. The heat of the cotter pin should fit into
the slot of the nut; one leg should be bent over the end of the bolt and the other leg should be
bent over the side of the nut.
 Tapered pin is often used for such purposes as fastening a pulley or collar to shaft. The taper
equal ½” per foot; made in lengths from 3/8” to 6”. The hole into which the pin fits is first
drilled and then reamed with a taper-pin reamer, which has the same taper as the pin.
 Roll pins are pins made of sheet steel rolled into a tube; hardened and spring-tempered;
slightly larger than standard hole sizes so that they hold very tightly when driven into the
hole.
 Keys are used to keep pulleys and gears from moving on shafts. Half of the key fits into a keyway,
which is a slot in the shaft, and the other half fits into a slot in the shaft, and the other half fits into
a slot in the pulley or gear.
 Square key is the one that is most used.
 Gib-head key is useful where it is necessary to remove the key from one side of the pulley or
gear. A wedge may be used to back the key out of the hole.
 Woodruff key is semicircular in shape and fits a matching semicircular pocket in the shaft.
The key is thus trapped in position and cannot work its way loose due to vibration.
 Retaining Rings – are a relatively new type of fasthern; seated in either internal grooves or in
external grooves with a special plier-like tool. Theself-locking types are driven into place and do
not require a groove. Retaining rings provides a shoulder for holding, locking, or positioning parts
of assemblies.
 Self-threading screws used to cut or form their own threads in soft steel, aluminum, and other soft
metals; used for economical assembly of sheet metal and other sheet materials such as plastic,
plywood, asbestos, and fiber materials.
 Drive screws are made of hardened steel and have a smooth round head, multiple threads, and
a pilot-type nose; these are driven into holes with a hammer.
 Rivets and riveting
 Rivets are metal pins that look like bolts without threads; made of different metals such as
soft iron or steel, aluminum, copper, and brass; available in many different sizes and shapes of
heads.
 Riveting is the fastening of pieces of metal or other material together with rivets. This process
is used to hold pieces together permanently.
 Tinner’s rivets are solid rivets used for riveting sheet metal; made of soft steel, either plain or
coated with tin.
 Rivet spacing. As a general rule, rivets should not be spaced closer together than three times
the diameter of the rivet.
 Blind rivets are rivets so named because they can be inserted and set from the same side of the
work piece.

SOLDERING AND BRAZING

 Soldering is a process of fastening metals together. Solder, a nonferrous metal, has a melting point
lower than the metals to be joined. Soldering and brazing are different from welding. In welding,
the pieces being joined are melted and fused together. Soldering is commonly used by electronics
technicians to older wire joints for electric circuits.
 Soft soldering is soldering with an alloy of lead and tin.

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 Soldering copper is a bar of copper, usually octagonal in cross-section.

WELDING
 A weld occurs when metal from pieces being joined flows and blends together; this action may be
caused by heat, pressure, or a combination of both.
 Fusion weld when heat alone is used.
 Pressure welding usually involves heating surfaces to a pliable, or plastic, state and then forcing
the metal together with pressure.
 Welding Processes
 Brazing is the joining of metals by melting a nonferrous filler rod at a temperature above 800
F, but below the melting point of the metals being joined.
 Forge welding is pressure welding by heating and hammering pieces together.
 Oxyacetylene welding is the most common form of gas welding; this welding uses oaxygen
and acetylene gases to provide heat for welding and cutting.
 Shielded metal arc welding is a common form of arc welding; the weld is shield by flux-
coated welding rods; the shielding prevents oxidation and produces a stronger weld. Welding
heat is provided by an electric arc.
 Resistance welding uses the heat generated by electric current passing through a small area of
the metals being joined. Pressure forces the heated areas together until they have fused. Spot
welding is a common form of resistance welding.
 Thermit welding processes use the intense heat of a chemical reaction to fuse metals.
 Induction welding uses high-frequency current as the source of heat.
 Inert gas is used in several processes to keep the weld free of scale, oxidation, or other
impurities.

OXYACETYLENE WELDING
 An oxyacetylene weld is a fusion weld. The heat is produce by burning acetylene gas with oxygen
gas, giving a temperature of about 6000 oF.

Oxyacetylene Welding Equipment

 Oxyacetylene welding equipment. Oxyacetylene welding requires the following special
equipment:
 Cylinder of oxygen
 Cylinder of acetylene
 Special valves called regulators for the cylinders
 Hoses to carry the gases from the cylinders to the torch
 Welding torch, sometimes called a blowpipe, and various sizes of torch tips
 Lighter that can make a spark to ignite the mixture of gases
 A pair of tongs or pliers to handle pieces of hot metal
 Oxygen cylinders are usually taller and smaller in diameter than acetylene cylinders, for the reason
that a long, slender cylinder can better withstand high pressure. When the tank is full, oxygen tank
pressures reach 2200 psi (15.2 Mpa). The oxygen cylinder tank valve must be opened all the way
when in use, and closed all the way when not in use. Because of the potentially explosive pressure
of an oxygen cylinder, it is usually kept chained to a cart. A ruptured oxygen cylinder can smash
through a concrete wall.
 Acetylene cylinders are usually shorter and larger in diameter than oxygen cylinders; low-pressure
cylinders that contain only about 250 psi(1.7 Mpa) when full. The tank valve should only be
opened about ½ a turn so that the fuel supply of gas be shut off quickly in an emergency.
 The gas pressure regulator is a device on each cylinder that delivers a constant supply of gas at a
reduced pressure to the welding torch. Regulator is necessary because the welder works with only
1 to 10 psi of each gas. The regulator attaches to the tank valve. Two pressure gages are attached
to the regulator. The high-pressure gage, which is nearest the tank valve, shows the tank pressure
when the tank valve is open. Gas is released from the regulator key clockwise. The amount of
pressure being released through the regulator is shown on the low-pressure gage, which is farther

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from the tank valve. WARNING: acetylene gas is unstable when compressed against itself above
15 psi, so never set the acetylene pressure regulator for more than 15 psi.
 Hoses used in welding are always color-coded. Red hoses are always used to connect the torch to
the acetylene pressure regulator. Their fittings have left-hand threads so that they cannot be
connected to the oxygen regulator. Green hoses are always used to connect the torch to the oxygen
pressure regulator; their fittings have right-hand threads.
 Welding torch mixes the gases from the oxygen and acetylene cylinders. It controls the flow of
each gas to produce the size and type of flame needed. With the welding torch, the welder can
direct a maximum amount of heat to a small spot or area.
 The torch tips used in welding come in different sizes that can easily fit onto the welding torch.
Each tip provides the size and kind of flame needed to weld a certain thickness of metal.
Sometimes the hole in the torch tip (called orifice) becomes partly clogged with a small piece of
carbon, dust, or dirt. The gases passing through the tip make a hissing sound different from the
normal sound, and the flame may have an odd shape. When this happens, it is important to use a
special tip cleaner to clean the tip. Do not try to use a piece of wire, wood, or a wire brush to open
the hole, because the tip may be damaged. Clean the tip by inserting a tip cleaner of proper size in
the hole in the torch tip.

Protective Clothing for Oxyacetylene welding

 Wear protective clothing when using oxyacetylene equipment, it should include the following:
 A cloth or leather cap
 Welding goggles
 Coveralls of treated cotton or full-length apron.
 Trousers without cuffs and a shirt with full-length sleeves
 Leather shoes
 Gloves with cuffs that overall the sleeves

Starting-up Procedure for Oxyacetylene Welding

 Starting-up procedure for Oxyacetylene Welding
1. Install the correct torch tip
2. Check to see that the regulator keys are held in place by only two or three threads. This
will prevent the high-pressure gas from damaging the low-pressure gage when the tank
valves are opened.
3. Open the oxygen tank valve all the way
4. Open the acetylene tank valve about ½ turn. Leave the wrench on the valve stem to allow
quick shut-off of fuel if necessary.
5. Open the oxygen torch valve about ½ turn. Then screw in the oxygen regulator key until
the desired pressure is obtained. Close the oxygen torch valve.
6. Open the acetylene torch valve about ½ turn. Them screw in the acetylene regulator key
until the desired pressure is obtained. Close the acetylene torch valve. The oxyacetylene
torch is ready for lighting.

Lighting the Torch

 Lighting the Torch
 Before lighting the torch, be sure the proper clothing is being worn. This includes goggles with
colored lenses.
 A torch lighter, also called a spark lighter or friction lighter, is used to make a spark that will
ignite the acetylene gas.
 Open the acetylene torch valve about a half turn. Point the tip of the torch away from your
body and away from the gas cylinders. Ignite the acetylene gas with the torch lighter. Do not
use matches or a cigarette lighter to light the torch. The acetylene will burn a dark orange color
and may give off black soot. The acetylene valve is adjusted properly when the flame almost
separates from the torch tip.
 Open the oxygen torch valves. Adjust each valve to obtain the desired size and kind of flame.

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Adjusting the Flame

 Once the torch is lighted, the oxyacetylene flame can be adjusted to:
1. A neutral flame – the proper mixture of oxygen and acetylene for m ost welds
2. A carburizing flame – a low-temperature flame for torch brazing. This flame has too
much acetylene (or too little oxygen) for welding.
3. An oxidizing flame – this flame has an excess of oxygen (or insufficient acetylene). It
will not make a strong weld. It is always harmful.
Shutting-down Procedure for Oxyacetylene Welding
 Shutting-down procedure for oxyacetylene welding
1. To put out the torch flame, close the acetylene torch valve. This sometimes results in a
loud popping sound, which is normal.
2. Close the oxygen torch valve
3. Close the acetylene tank valve
4. Close the oxygen tank valve
5. Drain the acetylene line by opening the acetylene torch valve. When the acetylene gas
pressure gages have both dropped to zero, close the acetylene torch valve.
6. Drain the oxygen line by opening torch valve. When the oxygen gas pressure gages have
both dropped to zero, close the oxygen torch valve.
7. Unscrew the oxygen and acetylene regulator keys until they are held in place only by two
or three threads.
8. Remove the torch tip
9. Coil up hoses and store them properly.
Inspecting the Oxyacetylene Weld
 When the weld is finished, remove the scale (the oxide that has formed on the metal) with a wire
brush or tool. Look for errors that can be corrected when making the next weld.

The Oxyacetylene Torch

 Oxyacetylene cutting torches are widely used for the cutting of steel plate. Cutting machines use
several cutting torches to speed production. Cutting torches are also valuable tools for rescue and
salvage operations.
 The tip of an oxyacetylene cutting torch has an outer ring of small holes through which oxygen
and acetylene pass to provide a preheating flame. The center hole in the tip passes the stream of
pure oxygen for controlling oxygen flow to the preheating orifices. A lever-operated valve
controls the oxygen flow to the center hole, called the cutting orifice.

Procedure for Using the Cutting Torch

 Procedure for using the cutting torch
1. Place the piece to be cut on the cutting table.
2. Put on welding goggles, gloves, and other safety clothing.
3. Attach the cutting torch tip to the regular welding torch. Close the valves.
4. Open the oxygen and acetylene tank valves as in “starting-up procedure for oxyacetylene
welding”.
5. Open the welding torch oxygen and acetylene valves as in the welding starting-up
procedure, then set the oxygen and acetylene pressures according to the cutting tip size.
Close the welding torch valves.
6. Open the welding torch oxygen valve all the way.
7. Open the welding torch acetylene valve about ½ turn, and light the torch with spark lighter.
8. Adjust the preheating flame using the cutting torch oxygen valve and the welding torch
acetylene valve.
9. Preheat the metal to a red heat where cutting is to begin. The torch tip should be held
vertical, with the bright inner cones of the preheating flame about 1/16” above or from the
workpiece.
10. When the metal is red-hot, press the oxygen lever to release the cutting stream of oxygen.
Advance the torch as fast as the cutting action will permit.
11. Release the oxygen lever at the end of the cut. If no more cutting is to be done, turn off the
torch and shut down the oxyacetylene system.

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