Chapter 1

Sinusoids and Phasors

KNR1733

Circuit Theory 2
 1.1 Introductions
1.2 Sinusoids
1.3 Phasors
1.4 Phasors Relationships for Circuit
Topics in Elements

Chapter 1 1.5 Impedance and Admittance

1.6 Kirchoff’s Laws in the Frequency
Domain
1.7 Impedance Combinations
1.1 Introduction
 History of AC
Nicola Tesla (1846 – 1943) and George Westinghouse (1846 – 1914) established
alternating current (AC) in transmission and distribution of electricity

In 1888, polyphase ac motor was patented by Nikola Tesla

At the end of 19th century, AC vs DC was debated where DC side was led by
Thomas Edison who had earned a lot of respect due to his contributions.

Due to efficient and economical factor in transmitting in a long distance, DC

system was doomed to be used as primary electricity source
What is sinusoidal
current?

• It is referred to alternating current (AC)

where the current reverses at regular
time intervals and has alternate positive
and negative values.
• Ac circuit is a circuit that driven by
alternating current or voltage sources
• Sinusoid is a signal that has the form
of the sine or cosine function
Why sinusoids?

1. Nature itself is characteristically sinusoidal such as the

ripple of ocean surface, vibration of a string, motion of
a pendulum and many more.
2. Sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit.
3. Through Fourier analysis, any periodic signal can be
represented by sum of sinusoids.
4. Sinusoid is easy to handle mathematically
Sinusoidal function produce transient response and steady
state response. However, transient response dies out with
time and keep remaining the steady-state response.
Transient response become negligibly small compare to
steady-state response. That’s why we will focus on sinusoidal
steady-state response.
1.2 Sinusoids
 1.2 Sinusiods

• Let's consider sinusoidal voltage as below

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 Eq (1.1)

Where
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = the amplitude of the sinusoid
𝜔𝜔= the angular frequency in radian per sec
𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡= the argument of the sinusoid
 1.2 Sinusoids

• Figure 1.a, the sinusoid as a function of its argument

while Figure 1.b as a function of time
• From these figures, we can see the sinusoids repeat
every T seconds
• T is called period of the sinusoid
• From these figures, 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋. Thus,

2𝜋𝜋
𝑇𝑇 = Eq(1.2)
𝜔𝜔
Figure 1: A sketch of 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔: (a) as a function of 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔,
(b) as a function of t.
 1.2 Sinusiods

• 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) repeats itself every T seconds. Then, we replace t by 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇.

2𝜋𝜋
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin𝜔𝜔 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin𝜔𝜔 𝑡𝑡 + Eq (1.3)
𝜔𝜔
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) Eq (1.4)

Thus, 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) Eq (1.5)

• 𝑣𝑣 has the same value at 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇 as it does at 𝑡𝑡.

• 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) is said to be periodic because
• A periodic function is one that satisfies 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) for all 𝑡𝑡 and intergers n.
 • Period T of the periodic function is the
time of one complete cycle or the no.
of seconds per cycle.
• The reciprocal of time is known as
cyclic frequency, f of the sinusoid.
1.2 Sinusiods 𝑓𝑓 =
1
Eq (1.6)
𝑇𝑇
𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 Eq (1.7)
𝜔𝜔 is in radian per seconds (rad/s), f is in
hertz (Hz)
 • General expression of sinusoid

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) Eq(1.7)

1.2 Sinusiods
• Where (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)is the argument and 𝜙𝜙
is the phase. Both argument and phase
can be in radians or degrees.
 1.2 Sinusoids
• Based on Figure 2, let us examine
these 2 sinusoids
• 𝑣𝑣2 is leads 𝑣𝑣1 by 𝜙𝜙 or we can say 𝑣𝑣1
and 𝑣𝑣2 are out of phase because
𝜙𝜙 ≠ 0.
• If 𝜙𝜙 = 0, 𝑣𝑣1 and 𝑣𝑣2 are in phase
where they reach max and min
exactly same time
• We can compare 𝑣𝑣1 and 𝑣𝑣2
because both have same frequency
even though the amplitude is not
Figure 2: Two sinusoids with different phases same.
 1.2 Sinusiods

• Sinusoids can be expressed in either sine or cosine form.

• We can transform from sine to cosine or vise versa by following trigonometric identities.

sin 𝐴𝐴 ± 𝐵𝐵 = sin 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝐵𝐵 ± cos 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵

cos 𝐴𝐴 ± 𝐵𝐵 = cos 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝐵𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵

With these identities, it is easy to show that

sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 1800 ) = − sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 1800 ) = − cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 900 ) = ± cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 900 ) = ∓ sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
1.2 Sinusiods
• Alternative way to transform sine to
cosine is by using graphical method
• Based on Figure 3, horizontal axis
represent magnitude of cos and vertical
axis represent magnitude of sine. Angle
is measured positively by
counterclockwise from horizontal
• Refer to Figure 3.a, when we substract
900 from argument of cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔, it will
give sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔. Thus, this can be written as
cos( 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 900 ) = sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
• Refer to Figure 3.b, when we add 1800
to argument of sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔, it will give
−sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 1800 ) = −sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
• This method also can add 2 sinusoids of
same frequency when one is
sine and another is cosine.

Figure 3: A graphical means of relating cosine and sine

(a) cos( 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 900 ) = sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 (b) sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 1800 ) = −sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
 1.2 Sinusoids

• Based on Eq (1.8), A is magnitude for cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 while

B is magnitude for sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 as shown in Figure 4a.
• The magnitude and argument of resultant sinusoid
in cosine form is readily obtained from the
triangle.

𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝐵𝐵 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝐶𝐶 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜃𝜃) Eq(1.8)

Where

𝐵𝐵
𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴2 + 𝐵𝐵2 , 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 Eq(1.9)
𝐴𝐴
Figure 4: Adding 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 and 𝐵𝐵 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
 1.2 Sinusoids

• For example, based on below expression,

3 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 4 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 5 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 53.10 )

• Thus, it is easy using graphical methods compare to memorizing the trigonometric
identities.
 Find the amplitude, phase, period and
frequency of the sinusoid
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 12 cos(50𝑡𝑡 + 100 )

Solution:

Example 1 The amplitude is 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 12𝑉𝑉

The phase is 𝜙𝜙 = 100
The angular frequency is 𝜔𝜔 = 50 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
The period 𝑇𝑇 = = = 0.1257𝑠𝑠
𝜔𝜔 50
1
The frequency is 𝑓𝑓 = = 7.958 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑇𝑇
 Calculate the phase angle between 𝑣𝑣1 =
− 10 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 500 ) and 𝑣𝑣2 =
12 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 100 ). State which sinusoid
is leading

Solution:
Example 2
There are 3 methods to calculate the
phase angle. The first two methods use
trigonometric identities, while the third
method uses the graphical approach.
Example 2
Method 1

First we express them in same form. If we express them in cosine with positive
amplitudes,

𝑣𝑣1 = −10 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 500 = 10 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 500 ± 1800 )

𝑣𝑣1 = 10 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 1300 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣1 = 10 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 2300 )
And
𝑣𝑣2 = 12 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 100 ) = 12 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 100 − 900 )
𝑣𝑣2 = 12 cos( 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 1000 )
When we compare, we will compare the phase angle with same sign (+ve sign
with +ve sign and vice versa). Let say we choose phase angle with -ve sign. We can
say 𝑣𝑣2 is leading 𝑣𝑣1 by 300 .
Example 2 • Method 2 and 3 as in video lecture
 Practice Problem 1
Given the sinusoid 30 sin(4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 750 ),
calculate its amplitude, phase, angular
frequency, period and frequency
Ans: 30, −750 , 12.57 rad/s, 0.5s, 2 Hz
Practice
Problem Practice Problem 2
Find the phase angle between
𝑖𝑖1 = −4 sin 377𝑡𝑡 + 550 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖2
= 5 cos(377𝑡𝑡 − 650 )
Does 𝑖𝑖1 leads or lags 𝑖𝑖2 ?
Ans: 2100 , 𝑖𝑖1 leads 𝑖𝑖2
1.3 Phasors
 • Sinusoids usually expressed in phasors because it is more
convenient to work with than sine and cosine functions
• A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid
• Thus, we need to familiarize with complex numbers
• A complex number 𝑧𝑧 can be written in rectangular form as
1.3 Phasors
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Eq(1.10)

Where 𝑗𝑗 = −1, x is real part while y is imaginary part of z

 Phasors 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 Rectangular
• Variables x and y not showing the coordinates as in 2- form
dimensional vector analysis but rather the real and
imaginary parts of z in complex plane.
• However, due to there is some resemblance between
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 Polar form
complex and two-dimensional vectors, it can be
manipulated.
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Exponential
• Complex number z can be written in polar or
exponential form as form
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Eq(1.11)
where r is magnitude of z and ɸ is phase of z. Thus, z can Eq(1.12), Eq(1.13) and Eq(1.14)
represent in 3 ways
 Phasors
• Relationship between rectangular and polar form is
shown in Figure 5 where x is real, and y is imaginary.
If we know x and y values, we can get r and ɸ

𝑦𝑦
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 , 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 Eq(1.15) & Eq(1.16)
𝑥𝑥

• If we know 𝑟𝑟 and 𝜙𝜙 values, we can obtain 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 as

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜙𝜙 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜙𝜙 Eq(1.17) & Eq(1.18)

• Thus, 𝑧𝑧 can be written

Figure 5: Representation of a complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟∠𝜙𝜙 = 𝑟𝑟 (cos 𝜙𝜙 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜙𝜙) Eq(1.19)
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟∠𝜙𝜙
 • Additional and subtraction can be performed in rectangular
form while division and multiplication can be performed in
polar form. Let say we have,

1.3 Phasors 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟∠𝜙𝜙,

𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑟𝑟1 ∠𝜙𝜙1

𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑟𝑟2 ∠𝜙𝜙2
Phasors
Addition 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 + 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒋𝒋(𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 + 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 )

Subtraction 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 − 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 − 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒋𝒋(𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 − 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 )

Multiplication 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 ∠(𝝓𝝓𝟏𝟏 + 𝝓𝝓𝟐𝟐 )

Division 𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1

= ∠(𝝓𝝓𝟏𝟏 − 𝝓𝝓𝟐𝟐 )
𝑧𝑧2 𝑟𝑟2

Reciprocal 1 1
= ∠(−𝝓𝝓)
𝑧𝑧 𝑟𝑟

Square Root 𝝓𝝓
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟∠
2

Complex Conjugate 𝑧𝑧 ∗ = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟∠ −𝜙𝜙 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

Take note* 1
= −𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗
 • These are basic properties of complex numbers that are needed for us to do analysis in AC circuit
later.
• Idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity

𝑒𝑒 ±𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = cos 𝜙𝜙 ± 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜙𝜙 Eq(1.20)

• cos 𝜙𝜙 is real part and sin 𝜙𝜙 is imaginary part of 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Eq(1.21a)
sin 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ) Eq(1.21b)

• Given 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙),

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) = Re 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔+𝜙𝜙

Eq(1.22)

1.3 Phasors
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = Re 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜙𝜙 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Eq(1.23)

Thus,
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = Re 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Eq(1.24)

Where,

𝑽𝑽 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 ∠𝜙𝜙 Eq(1.25)

 • V is thus the phasor representation of
sinusoid v(t).
• A phasor is representation of magnitude
and phase of a sinusoid
• We can use either Eq(1.21a) and Eq(1.21b)
to develop phasor. However, standard we
1.3 Phasors only use Eq(1.21a) .
• Eq(1.24) and Eq(1.25) can be used to plot
sinor 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔+𝜙𝜙 on complex
plane.
• As time increase, the sinor rotates in
counterclockwise direction as shown in
Figure with radius 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 at angular velocity 𝜔𝜔.
1.3 Phasors
• In projection of real axis, we can refer to Figure

Figure 6: Representation of 𝑽𝑽𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 : a) Sinor rotating counterclockwise, b) its projection on the
real axis as a function of time

• Eq(1.24) shows that phasor V can be obtained by multiply the phasor by

time factor 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 and only take the real part.
• Complex quantity can be expressed in rectangular form, polar form
(frequency form) and exponential form
 • The phasor V is in bold because it is a vector (phasor has magnitude
and phase). For example, 𝐕𝐕 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 ∠𝜙𝜙 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑰𝑰 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 ∠ − 𝜃𝜃
• In order to get phasor domain, first we need to express the sinusoid
in the cosine form. Then the sinusoid can be written as real part of a
complex number.
• The time factor 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 is take out. This is how we transform from time
domain into phasor domain by suppressing the time factor.
1.3 Phasors

Eq(1.26)
1.3 Phasor
• Figure 7 is known as phasor diagram where it
represents

𝑽𝑽 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 ∠𝜙𝜙 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑰𝑰 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 ∠𝜙𝜙

• The sinusoid-phasor transformation can be

represented as in Table 1.
• As we can see from the table, to get phasor
representation, we need to express it in cosine form
and take only magnitude and phase (suppressed the
time factor).
• From a phasor, we can obtain time domain by
representing it as the cosine function with the same
magnitude as phasor and argument as ω𝑡𝑡 plus the
phase of the phase.
Figure 7: A phasor diagram showing 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 ∠𝜙𝜙 and
𝑰𝑰 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 ∠ − 𝜃𝜃
1.3 Phasors Time domain Phasor domain
representation representation
• Table 1 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 ∠𝜙𝜙
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 ∠(𝜙𝜙 − 900 )
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 ∠𝜙𝜙
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 ∠(𝜙𝜙 − 900 )
 • The frequency or time is suppressed in Eq(1.26) (phasor domain)
because 𝜔𝜔 is constant. However, the response depend on 𝜔𝜔. Thus,
phasor domain also known as frequency domain.
• From Eq(1.24) and Eq(1.25), 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = Re 𝑽𝑽𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) so
that

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣
= −𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 + 900
1.3 Phasors 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
0
= 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗90 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑽𝑽𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ) Eq(1.27)

• This shows that derivative 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 is transformed to the phasor domain

as 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑽𝑽
• Similarly, the integral of 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 is transformed to the phasor domain as
𝑽𝑽
�𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔
1.3 Phasors

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣 Differentiating a sinusoid is equivalent to multiplying

⇔ 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑽𝑽 Eq(1.28)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 its corresponding phasor by 𝒋𝒋𝝎𝝎
(Time domain) (Phasor domain)

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣 𝑽𝑽 Integrating a sinusoid is equivalent to dividing its

⇔ Eq(1.29)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 corresponding phasor by 𝒋𝒋𝝎𝝎
(Time domain) (Phasor domain)
 • Eq(1.28) and Eq(1.29) is important in finding steady-state
solution which does not require knowing the initial values
of variable involved. The most important is when we
differentiate, integrate, summing or subtracting two or
more phasors, the frequency must be same or constant
• The differences between 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) and V should be emphasized

1.3 Phasors 1. 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)is the instantaneous or time domain

representation, while V is the frequency or phasor
domain representation.
2. 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) is time dependent, while V is not (must
remember this).
3. 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) is always real with no complex term, while V is
generally complex
 • Evaluate these complex numbers:
1⁄

Example 3 a. (40∠500 + 0
20∠(−30 2 )
10∠ −300 +(3−𝑗𝑗𝑗)
b. (2+𝑗𝑗𝑗)(3−𝑗𝑗𝑗)∗
 • Transform these sinusoids to phasors:
Example 4 a) 𝑖𝑖 = 6 cos(50𝑡𝑡 − 400 ) 𝐴𝐴
b) 𝑣𝑣 = −4 sin(30𝑡𝑡 + 500 ) 𝑉𝑉
 • Find the sinusoids represented by
these phasors
Example 5 a) 𝑽𝑽 = −25∠400 𝑉𝑉
b) 𝑰𝑰 = 𝑗𝑗 12 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴
 • Given 𝑖𝑖1 𝑡𝑡 = 4 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 300 ) 𝐴𝐴 and
Example 6 𝑖𝑖2 𝑡𝑡 = 5 sin ω𝑡𝑡 − 200 𝐴𝐴, find their
sum
 • Using the phasor approach, determine
the current 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) in a circuit described
by the integrodifferential equation
Example 7
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4𝑖𝑖 + 8 � 𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 3 = 50 cos(2𝑡𝑡 + 750 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑