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“Estimation of shape factor for transient conduction”

Article  in  International Journal of Refrigeration · May 2003

DOI: 10.1016/S0140-7007(03)00047-1

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 International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 360–367
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrefrig

Estimation of shape factor for transient conduction

G.C.J. Bart*, K. Hanjalić
Section Thermal and Fluids Sciences, Applied Physics Department, Delft University of Technology,
PO Box 5046, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands

Received 26 July 2001; received in revised form 8 July 2002; accepted 21 August 2002

Abstract
A procedure is presented for obtaining a shape factor for transient heat conduction in arbitrary objects for which no
analytical solution exists. Such a shape factor is the dominant parameter in the prediction of heat transfer processes.
The procedure has been applied and compares favourably with other existing methods. Some data is given for trans-
formation between the different parameters that are in use to describe shape or geometry, including those for an
equivalent one-dimensional object.
# 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Heat transfer; Convection; Geometric factor

Estimation d’un facteur de forme dans les phénomènes

transitoires de conduction
Mots cle´s : Transfert de chaleur ; Convection ; Géométrie

1. Introduction
For prediction of cooling, heating, freezing or thaw-
ing processes shape factors are often used. Many differ-
ent definitions of shape factors do exist in literature. An
extensive overview can be found in the reference work
of Cleland [1] and a practical example in the ASHRAE
handbook [2].
The shape factor for a particular object can be defined
as the ratio of process time for a slab and that object. In
such a case, the shape factor not only depends on the
geometry of the object, but also on other thermal prop-
erties and the boundary conditions. The shape factor
can then be different for cases with and without change
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +31-15-278-6061; fax: +31-
15-278-1204.
E-mail address: g.c.j.bart@tn.tudelft.nl (G.C.J. Bart).
0140-7007/03/$30.00 # 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
PII: S0140-7007(02)00079-8
of phase and can even depend on the definition for size
of the object.
Another possible definition, used by Martin [3], Fikiin
and Fildin [4] and Fikiin [5], is based on X S/V, with S
the surface area, V the volume and X the shortest dis-
tance from the centre of the object to the surface.
In this paper, we follow the well-known procedure
where the shape factor is proportional to the character-
istic time constant of the slowest eigenfunction of the
cooling or heating problem with temperature indepen-
dent thermal properties and boundary condition of the
first kind. Size was universally defined by the volume to
surface area ratio V/S. In such a way the shape factor
becomes a purely geometric parameter. The shape factor
is used for classification or ranking of the shapes of dif-
ferent objects. No attempt will now be made here, as has
been done before [6], to predict the course of the heat
transfer process itself.
 G.C.J. Bart, K. Hanjalić / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 360–367 361

Once the shape factor of an object is known its ther-

Nomenclature mal response can be obtained by using the thermal
response of another object with the same shape factor
A aspect ratio, dimensionless and known thermal response. For instance, the thermal
Bi Biot number, dimensionless response of an ellipsoid can be replaced by the thermal
E equivalent heat transfer dimensionality, response of an equivalent rectangular parallelepiped. In
dimensionless addition, procedures exist [8,9] for a direct and simple
F spatial variable in temperature, dimen- estimation of the thermal response of an arbitrary object
sionless by using the shape factor or the closely related internal
fshape shape factor, dimensionless Nusselt number as a parameter. However, the accuracy
Fo Fourier number, dimensionless of these methods has not yet been fully assessed.
L length (m) In this paper we present a geometrical interpretation
Nu Nusselt number, dimensionless of the shape factor and derive a method to assess shape
q heat flux (W m2) factors of convex objects for which an analytical solu-
rc radius of curvature (m) tion does not exist. The results are compared with other
R radius (m) methods for arbitrary shapes, available in the literature
S surface (m2) [10–12].
t time (s) Finally, a procedure is outlined to formulate a one-
T temperature (K) dimensional finite differences object with arbitrary
(hT i) mean temperature (K) shape factor. As indicated by Fikiin [5], such an object
T0 surrounding temperature (K) can save considerable computing time in comparison
V volume (m3) with the corresponding multidimensional solution.
x coordinate (m)
x0 coordinate, dimensionless
X length (m) 2. Thermal response and definition of shape factor
Z Bessel function, dimensionless
If the volume to surface area ratio, V/S, is used as
length parameter in dimensionless numbers the short
Greek symbols time thermal response for an arbitrary object with initial
 heat transfer coefficient (W m2 K1) temperature T1 and boundary temperature T0 is given
 zero of Bessel function, dimensionless by:
rffiffiffiffiffiffi
G geometric factor, dimensionless hTi  T1 Fo
l thermal conductivity (Wm1 K1) ¼ h
i ¼ 2 ð1Þ
T0  T1 
 parameter for geometry, dimensionless
 coordinate, dimensionless

temperature, dimensionless Thermal response here is mean temperature hTi or
 time, dimensionless mean dimensionless temperature h
i as function of
dimensionless time Fo. This answer is found from the
solution in the semi-infinite one-dimensional space that
Subscripts is presented in many standard text books on heat con-
i internal duction. It is also called penetration theory solution and
pen penetration is shape independent here because V/S is used as length
r relative parameter.
z z-direction For long times the temperature decay is exponential
and can be written as:
 
1  h
i / exp fshape 2 Fo=4 ð2Þ
When the analytical solution for transient heat trans-
fer with boundary condition of the first kind is known, A few characteristic thermal responses, obtained by
the shape factors can easily be rated. In this way, values the complete analytical solutions given in the textbooks,
for rectangular parallelepipeds and finite cylinders are are given in Fig. 1. In accordance with Eq. (1) the four
readily available. It has been shown for such common cases coincide for Fo!0. Between the short time and
objects [6,7], that the thermal response, i.e. mean long time solution the thermal response behaves
enthalpy as a function of dimensionless time, is quite smoothly. It turns out that the thermal response is well
similar for objects having the same shape factor and the fixed, when the size, V/S, and the shape factor, fshape,
same characteristic size. are known for an arbitrary object. This holds both for a
362 G.C.J. Bart, K. Hanjalić / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 360–367
Fig. 1. Thermal response for constant temperature boundary
condition of slab (a), infinite cylinder (b), sphere (c) and
cube (d) with the volume to surface-area ratio V/S as a length
parameter in the dimensionless time Fo.
constant temperature boundary condition and a constant
external heat transfer coefficient boundary condition.
It is clear that a shape factor, based solely on X S/V,
will not be adequate in all cases. For both sphere and
cube X S/V=3, but, as can be seen in Fig. 1, the two
objects have different thermal responses.
With the choice for shape factor and size made here,
there is no need for an extra shape factor for small Biot
numbers. For Bi!0, transient heat transfer is described
by the so-called lumped analysis that can be found in
many textbooks on engineering heat transfer. The only
geometrical parameter in this lumped analysis is the
volume to surface area ratio, V/S.
2.1. Relation of fshape to other parameters
The shape factor, fshape, as defined by Eq. (2), is sim-
ply related to the internal long-time Nusselt number
Nu1,1 based on length parameter X as defined in Sec-
tion Ec of the VDI-Wärmeatlas [3]:
i X  2 SX
Nui;1 ¼ ¼ fshape
l 4 V
where i is the internal heat transfer coefficient of the
object that relates, for constant boundary temperature
T0, the heat flux at the boundary q and mean driving
temperature interval:
q ¼ i ðhTi  T0 Þ ð4Þ
The use of X, radius of cylinder or sphere or half of a
plate thickness, as length parameter obscures the fact
that the internal Nusselt number can be interpreted as a
simple physical quantity for shape. For this reason, it
seems to be advantageous to use V/S as length para-
meter in Nui;1 .
This has been done in the long-time Nusselt number
for Bi!1, as defined and used by Yilmaz [10]:
6i V 32
Nu1;1 ¼ ¼ fshape ð5Þ
lS 2
However, the so-called equivalent heat transfer
dimensionality for Bi!1 used by Lin et al. [12]
 2
3 SX
E1 ¼ fshape ð6Þ
4 V
can be considered as a mixed physical quantity depend-
ing on two different definitions for shape.
A better standardization in definitions and nomen-
clature will be beneficial for international cooperation
between researchers in this field.
In an earlier publication [6] the shape factor fshape has
been formulated and determined, see Table 1, for dif-
ferent objects with readily available analytical solution,
e.g. slab, rectangular parallelepiped, finite full cylinder,
sphere and hemisphere. Additional information for
more elaborate cases as, for example, finite hollow
cylinders is also available [7].
2.2. Interpretation of shape factor
Once the shape factor has been found for many dif-
ferently shaped objects, e.g. the data given in Table 1, an
attempt can be made to understand which parameters of
the geometry determine the shape factor. First, it can be
noticed that sphere and cube, with heat fluxes directed
to a single point, have a lower shape factor than infinite
cylinder or infinite square rod, where heat fluxes are
directed to a line. The highest shape factor is found for
the infinite slab, with heat fluxes directed to a flat plane.
It can be concluded that the dimensionality of the heat
transfer process is an important parameter.
Further, cube (fshape=0.3333) and infinite square rod
(f
 shape =0.5) have
 lower shape factor than sphere
fshape ¼ 0:4444 respectively infinite cylinder
ð3Þ (fshape=0.5859). So, apparently also the smoothness of
the outer surface plays a role. Both effects, dimension-
ality and smoothness, can be taken together in a single
statement or interpretation. The more, after initial
penetration, heat fluxes entering from the outer surface
have to concentrate or to converge the lower the shape
factor becomes.
 G.C.J. Bart, K. Hanjalić / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 360–367 363

Table 1 centration or convergence of heat fluxes. The remaining

Characteristic size V/S and shape factor fshape for different problem is to find a suitable combination of values for 
objects and rc that gives an optimal correlation between Spen =S
and the shape factor. Therefore different: combinations
Object V/S fshape
of values for  and rc have been tested with help of the
1 1 shape factor known from analytical solutions given in
Rectangular parallelepiped: 1 1 þ L12 þ L12
Lx þ Ly þ L1z

Lx2 y z
2
dimensions: 2 Lx, 2 Ly, 2 Lz 1 1 1
Table 1.
þ þ
Lx Ly Lz Finally we found that =0.15 V/S and rc=0.14 V/S
Infinite slab: dimension: 2 Lz Lz 1 are a suitable combination correlating well the surface
area ratio Spen/S with the shape factor. This correlation
2:40482 is presented in Fig. 3 for a wide variety of rectangular
Infinite cylinder: dimension: R R/2 2
¼ 0:5859
parallelepipeds, finite cylinders, sphere, hemisphere,
Sphere: dimension: R R/3 4/9=0.4444 infinite cylinder and slab.
The following second order polynomial least squares
Inf. square rod: dimension: 2 Lz Lz =2 1/2 fit makes it possible to calculate the shape factor from a
surface area ratio:
Cube: dimension: 2 Lz Lz/3 1/3 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  ffi!
Spen
fshape ¼ 6:9948 1 þ 1:773333  0:827480  1
2
S
1
1 Lz2
þ 42:4048
2 R 2
Finite cylinder: dimensions: R, 1 2
2 ð7Þ
þ 1 2
Lz þ R
2 Lz Lz R

The accuracy of such a calculation can be estimated

Half sphere: dimension: R 2 R/9 0.404 from Fig. 3 as follows:
fshape < 0:01 for fshape 0:9
3. Estimation of shape factor fshape 0:02 for fshape 0:6
fshape 0:05 for fshape 0:4 ð8Þ
The interpretation of shape factor can be used to
develop a procedure for evaluating the shape factor for In future research another combination of  and rc or
those cases where an analytical solution is not available. a different procedure for assessing Spen may come up
This means that a measure for the degree of con- and produce better correlation between fshape and Spen/
vergence of the heat fluxes has to be found. S, especially when shape factors smaller than 1/3 are con-
This has been done, see Fig. 2, by constructing an sidered. The distinct outlier in Fig. 3 that originates from
artificial surface area within the object. This artificial the case of the hemisphere, is an indication for this. The
surface area can be seen as a representation of an iso- reason for choosing a rather small value for  comes from
thermal surface during the heat transfer process. The
internal surface is at distance  from the boundaries of
the original object, but sharp corners are rounded off
with a radius of curvature rc. In this way the area Spen of
the internal surface is affected both by the dimension-
ality and the smoothness of the original object. The
ratio Spen/S now can be seen as a measure for the con-

Fig. 2. Rectangular parallelepiped with inner isothermal sur- Fig. 3. Relationship between the surface area ratio, Spen/S, and
face with pentration depth  and radius of curvature rc. shape factor, fshape.
364 G.C.J. Bart, K. Hanjalić / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 360–367

the fact that, in the real heat transfer process, initially rc Lz 2Lz2
V 1þ þ
grows together with . However, at the end of the 2R 3R 2
¼ Lz ð11Þ
process, !X, and consequently both rc!0 and Spen/ S Lz 2Lz2
S!0. Then Spen/S no longer bears information on 1þ þ 2
R R
shape. With small  we stay at the save side.
The method is not very sensitive towards errors, Spen 2ðLz  ÞðLz   þ R=2Þ þ R 2
¼ ð12Þ
because Spen is found only from S by a purely mathe- S 2Lz ðLz þ R=2Þ þ R 2
matical procedure. Modern laser scanning techniques
[13] can produce the coordinates of the surface S for The test objects have the advantage that the three
arbitrarily shaped objects. Spen can then be found by classical shapes, infinite plate, infinite cylinder and
mimicry of the heat diffusion process, e.g. a perpendi- sphere, can be approximated with proper choice of
cular penetration of the object followed by a smoothing length parameters.
procedure of the surface thus obtained.
4.3. Comparison with two other methods

4. Estimation methods compared The results for the shape factors for rounded off
cylinder and rounded off disk can be combined into a
The estimation method for shape factor fshape as single graph if these results are presented as a function
described in this paper is not the only one available. of the aspect ratio A, being defined as the ratio of the
Comparisons are here presented with results obtained overall height over the overall width. Then for the
by Lin et al. [12] and Yilmaz [10]. For that purpose we rounded off cylinder with A51 the shape factor will
have chosen an object for which no data is available in gradually vary from fshape=0.4444 for the spherical
literature. It has the shape, see Fig. 4, of different kind shape with A=1 till fshape=0.5859 when the shape
of food products, e.g. sausages, Frankfurter, Hambur- approaches infinite cylindrical shape for A!1. For the
ger, Gouda cheese. rounded off disk with A41, values for shape factor are
expected between fshape=0.4444 for the spherical shape
4.1. Description of rounded off cylinder and fshape=1 when shape approaches the infinite slab
for A!0. This behaviour is confirmed in the curves
For the limit Lz =R ! 0 the rounded off cylinder has presented in Fig. 5. The solid line represents results
spherical shape with radius R and for Lz =R ! 1 the obtained by the method described in this paper. Results
rounded off cylinder should get infinite cylinder properties. of Lin’s [12] equivalent ellipsoid model with the con-
  servation of area-volume approach ^ and with the
S 2 1
¼ 1þ ð9Þ dimensional measurement approach + together with
V R 2 þ 3Lz =R
   results of Yilmaz’s [10] model & are also shown in
Spen   Fig. 5. All proposed models behave well for the classic
¼ 1 1 ð10Þ
S R R þ Lz shapes of infinite plate A!0, infinite cylinder A!1

4.2. Descrcption of rounded off disk

For the limit Lz =R ! 1 the rounded off disk

approaches the properties of the infinite plate and for
Lz =R ! 1 the rounded off disk gets spherical shape.

Fig. 5. Shape factor fshape of rounded off disk and rounded off

cylinder as a function of the aspect ratio, A, (overall height to
Fig. 4. Rounded off cylinder (Frankfurter shape) and rounded overall width). The solid line represents results obtained by the
off disk (Gouda-cheese shape) in a cylindrical coordinate method proposed. It is compared with shape factors obtained
system. by the models of Lin (+, ^) and Yilmaz (&).
 G.C.J. Bart, K. Hanjalić / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 360–367 365

Fig. 7. Representation of Eq. (13) for the parameter v=1, 1.5,

Fig. 6. Shape factor fshape of finite cylinder as a function of
2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5 and 4.0. Each line ends at the horizontal axis as
aspect ratio, A, (overall height over overall width). The solid
xS/V=v.
line represents exact results from the analytical expression. It is
compared with shape factors obtained by the model of Lin (+,
^) and Yilmaz (&) and the proposed method ().  
SðxÞ xS v1
¼ 1 ð13Þ
S vV
and sphere A=1. Both models of Lin show some non-
smooth behaviour for aspect ratios between 0.1 and 1
and produce somewhat conflicting results for aspect Here the function is normalized in such a way that
ratios about 1. The model of Yilmaz behaves strange
ðv  v1  
about aspect ratio 1 and shows severe deviations from xS xS
the other models for aspect ratios about 0.1. An addi- 1 d ¼1 ð14Þ
0 vV V
tional independent reference is therefore needed, for a
reliable judgement of the accuracy of different methods.
Hence, we carried out the same procedure for the case For
=1, 2 and 3, a constant, a linear and a quadratic
of a finite cylinder, for which an exact analytical area distribution for plate, cylinder and sphere respec-
expression for the shape factor is available, see Table 1. tively are found from this equation. For arbitrary values
The results were collected in Fig. 6. The estimation of  we formulated an object for which the unsteady
method developed in this paper always produces values heat transfer process can be described with a one-
of the shape factor that are within 0.01 from the values dimensional diffusion equation.
found with the exact analytical expression. All other
models show larger deviations. Especially the minimum 5.2. Differential equation
and the behaviour about the minimum are better pre-
dicted by the estimation method described in this paper. With x0 =x S/V and =at S2/V2 the transient heat
The differences between the exact analytical solution conduction in a one-dimensional object with area dis-
and the models of Lin and Yilmaz can be seen in Fig. 6, tribution according to Eq. (13) can be described by the
while the differences between our model and the models differential equation
of Lin and Yiimaz could be estimated from Fig. 5.
 
These data suggest that in general the model we devel- @T @2 T x0 1 v  1 @T
oped gives quite reliable results. The model seems to ¼ 02  1  ð15Þ
@ @x v v @x0
behave smoothly and no big differences with exact
solutions have been found until now.
If  ¼ v  x0 is chosen as a new variable  and by
separation of variables T ¼ FðÞexp 2i  the follow-
5. Equivalent one-dimensional object ing ordinary differential equation of the Sturm–Liou-
ville type is found for the spatial variable part
5.1. Geometry
2 F 00 þ ðv  1ÞF 0 þ 2i 2 F ¼ 0 ð16Þ
The surface area ratio is constant for an infinite slab,
a linear function of radial position for an infinite cylin- The general solution of this differential equation is
der and a quadratic function of radial position for a given by
sphere. This can be generalized, see also Fig. 7, by the
following equation for the surface area ratio. F ¼ 1v=2 Z v=21 ði Þ ð17Þ
366 G.C.J. Bart, K. Hanjalić / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 360–367
Fig. 8. Shape factor, fshape, of the one-dimensional object
described by Eqn. 13 as a function of parameter v, calculated
from analytical (solid line) and numerical solutions (& means
5, + means 20 and ^ means 80 control volumes).
where Z is a Bessel function of the first or second kind.
As expected, the well-known equations and solutions
for plate, cylinder and sphere are obtained for v=1, 2
and 3 respectively. For the given boundary condition
@T
@ =0 for =0 only Bessel functions of the first kind
are allowed. From the second boundary condition, F=0
for  ¼ v, the relation between
and i can be found. solely depends on the parameter X S/V and that seems
Easily available computer algebra software e.g. MAPLE
can do this. Having the smallest eigenvalue i the shape
factor becomes:
and to the
 2
2 one-dimensional representation S(x, v)/S. For a given
fshape ¼ 1 ð18Þ

The relationship thus found between the shape factor
fshape and parameter v is shown in Fig. 8.
If we make a finite-difference model of the one-
dimensional shape, the lowest elgenvalue of the matrix
equations and also the shape factor not only depend on
, but also on the number of control volumes. This
effect can also be seen from Fig. 8. A number of 20
control volumes seems to be sufficient to represent the
lowest eigenvalue well.
A one-dimensional unsteady differential equation of
the type of Eq. (15) with parameter  instead of   1
has also been described by Fikiin [5], where  is called
geometrical factor. In his paper Fikiin pays attention to
the savings in computing time for a finite-difference
solution of unsteady heat transfer in a one-dimensional
object as compared with two or three-dimensional objects.
In an earlier paper Fikiin and Fikiin [4] present procedures
to calculate the geometrical factor  for various shapes,
giving the possibility to assess the relationship between
shape factor fshape and geometrical factor .
Results of this exercise for the case of arbitrary par-
allelepipeds are presented in Fig. 9. The shape of an
parallelepiped can be described by two aspect ratios.
Fig. 9. Comparison for the case of rectangular parallelepipeds
of parameter v found via 1 +1=X S/V as proposed by
Fikiin and Fikiin [4].
The results in Fig. 9 indicated with ^ have been
obtained for different combinations of the two aspect
ratios. Comparing these results with Fig. 8 shows that
 6¼ v  1. It is however expected that objects having the
same value for  will show a similar thermal response,
but apparently this is not the case. In this example 
to be inappropriate. However, as mentioned by Fikiin
[14], better expressions for  could be derived.
The important progress made here, is that the shape
factor fshape now is linked to the parameter
geometry, first the shape factor has to be determined.
Then with the one-to-one relation between shape factor
fshape and parameter v, presented in Fig. 8, the para-
meter  of the equivalent one-dimensional object can be
obtained. As this equivalent object has the same surface
area S as the original two- or three-dimensional object,
it will show a similar short time behaviour. The smallest
eigenvalue being the same for the two objects takes care
of a similar long time behaviour. Once having a one-
dimensional finite-difference representation of an arbi-
trary object, simulations for time-varying boundary con-
ditions, non-constant thermal properties and change of
phase can also be carried out. Transient thermal conduc-
tion can then be described by a simple tridiagonal matrix.
If thermal properties are constant, the thermal response
estimation requires only one iteration for each time step
in an implicit scheme. Further research has to be done to
assess the accuracy of such simulations.
6. Conclusions
 A relatively accurate method was developed for
assessing the shape factor of irregular objects.
 Better intuitive understanding and interpreta-
tion of shape factor were acquired.
 G.C.J. Bart, K. Hanjalić / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 360–367
 In Section 2.1 equations were presented to con-
nect different existing parameters from litera-
ture, which define the geometry of an object.
 An equivalent one-dimensional artificial object
was defined that is described with a parameter .
A graph was presented that gives the relation
between parameter  and shape factor fshape.
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