Cells

- Basic Unit of Life

- Building Block of Life
- Basic Structural and functional
- Biological Processes
Discovery
1600’s
● Robert Hook
● Coined word “cell”
● Box-like structures→ cells
1670’s
● Anton van Leeuwenhoek
● Animalcules, sperm cells
1830
● Botanist Matthias Schleiden
● Plants have cells
● Zoologist Theodor Schwann
● Animals have cells
1858
● Rudolf Virchow
● omnis cellula e cellula (all cells come from cells)
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/cell-theory/?
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Cells Theory
1. all organisms are made of cells
2. cells are the basic units of life
3. cells come from preexisting cells that have multiplied
Parts of a Cell
1. Nucleus(plural, nuclei)
a. Genetic material/DNA(Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
b. Site of synthesis for ribosomes
2. Ribosomes
a. Molecular(Cellular) machines that assemble proteins
b. RNA - Ribonucleic Nucleic Acid
c. rRNA - Ribosomal RNA

DNA- Blueprint of life

3. Mitochondria
a. Powerhouse of the cell
b. Break down fuel molecules and capture energy in cellular
respiration
4. Chloroplasts
a. Plants and Algae
b. Capture light energy to make sugar thru photosynthesis
Endosymbiotic Theory
- Mitochondria and Chloroplasts were different entities before
- Endosymbiosis
- Aerobic bacteria→ Mitochondria
- Photosynthetic bacteria→ Chloroplast
- https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Book
%3A_Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eukaryotic_Microorganisms_and_Vi
ruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.8%3A_The_Endosymbiotic_Theory
5. The Cytoskeleton
a. Microfilaments
i. Aka actin filaments
ii. Important role in cell mobility
iii. Key structural role in cell
b. Intermediate Filaments
i. More permanent and play essentially structural role
ii. Specialized to bear tension
iii. Maintain shape of cell
iv. Anchor nucleus and other organelles
c. Microtubules
i. Important structural role
ii. Help cell resist compression forces
6. The Extracellular Matrix and Cell Wall
a. Extracellular Matrix of Animal
i. Most animal cells release material into extracellular space,
creating a complex meshwork of proteins and carbohydrates
called extracellular matrix(ECM)
ii. Major component is the protein collagen
b. Cell Wall
i. Rigid covering that surrounds the cell, protecting, supporting
and giving shape
Types of Cells

1. Prokaryotic Cells
a. Pro - before
b. Karyon - kernel, nucleus
c. No true nucleus or membrane bound organelles
d. nucleotide
e. Archaea and Bacteria
f. Peptidoglycan cell wall
g. Plasmid - non-essential genes but can be used when needed(during
survival) when peptidoglycan fails; against antibiotics
2. Eukaryotic Cells
a. Eu - true
b. Karyon - kernel, nucleus
c. Has true nucleus, membrane bound chamber where DNA is stored
d. Some has pseudo-peptidoglycan cell wall
e. Animal(a) and plant(b) cells
Comparison(differences)

Tissues
 Groups of similar cells that work together for specific functions; make up
organs. Multicellular organisms need these specialized systems.

Epithelial Tissue
a. Lining of GI tract organs(small intestine) and other hollow organs,
skin(epidermis)
b. Tightly packed
c. Acts as barriers to the movement of fluids and potentially harmful
microbes(filter)
d. Polarized
e. Exposed to fluid or air

Connective Tissue
a. Consists of cells suspended in an extracellular matrix
 b. Supports and connects tissues(congenial)
c. Ligaments, tendons

Muscle Tissue
1. Smooth Muscle Cells
a. Not striped/striated
b. Involuntary
2. Skeletal Muscle Cells
a. Striated/striped
b. Common muscle
3. Cardiac Muscle Cells
a. Walls of heart only
b. Striated/striped
c. Involuntary

Nervous Tissue
a. Sensing stimuli(external and internal cues)
b. Processing and transmitting information
c. Basic functional unit of nervous system
d. Generate electrical signals(conducted nerve impulses/action potentials)
that allows neurons convey information rapidly
e. Glia mainly act to support neuronal function
Homeostasis
Praise the lord AMEN

Homeostasis
- is a property of cells, tissues, and organisms that allows the maintenance
and regulation of the stability and constancy needed to function
properly.
- the tendency to resist change in order to maintain stable condition
- external environment like having a hot temperature, our blood vessels
dilate, magsweats daw ta
- one of the unifying themes of life/biology
Cell Cycle
- Series of growth and development a cell undergoes between birth and
reproduction
- birth→ formation by division of mother cell
- reproduction→ division to make two new daughter cells

-
Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
- Divided into two major phases: interphase and mitotic(M) phase
1. Interphase
- inter=between
- Takes place in between Mitotic Phases
- Cell grows and makes copy of its DNA
- Subphases:
A. G₁Phase(First Gap Phase)
- Cells grow physically larger
- Copies organelles and prepares for later steps
B. S Phase(Synthesis Phases)
- Synthesizes(Duplicates) a complete copy of the DNA in
its nucleus
C. G₂ Phase(Second Gap Phase)
- Cells grow more
- Makes proteins and organelles

2. Mitotic(M) Phase
- Separates its DNA into two sets and divides its cytoplasm, forming
two new cells
- Mitosis(Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase)
- Cytokinesis(cytoplasm of cell is split into two)
3. G0 Phase
- Resting State
- Neuron, liver cell
- Permanent state to some, while also a temporary state to others
- Waiting for the right signals so they can go and restart

Cell Cycle Checkpoints

a. G1 checkpoint(G1-S checkpoint)
- Checks for cell size, nutrients, growth factors, and DNA damage.
b. G2 checkpoint(G2-M checkpoint)
- Checks for DNA damage, DNA replication completeness
c. Spindle checkpoint(Metaphase-Anaphase transition)
- Checks Chromosome attachment to spindle at metaphase plate
 -

Cell Cycle Regulators

Cell Division
 - growth and development

Interphase

Mitosis
- type of cell division in which one cell (mother) divides to produce two
new cells (daughter) that are genetically identical to itself.
- common process
- occurs in body cells
- PMAT (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)

1. Prophase
Early
- mitotic spindle forms
- chromosomes start to condense
- nucleolus begins to disappear
Late
- nuclear envelope breaks down
- chromosomes fully condensed
2. Metaphase
-
3. Anaphase
Meiosis
 - Used in the production of gametes - sex cells, or sperm and egg cell
- Means “to lessen” (Greek)
- Takes us from a diploid cell - one with two sets of chromosomes - to
haploid cells - ones with a single set of chromosomes

*Independent Assortment + Crossing Over = Variety*

Phases of Meiosis
1. Meiosis I
- Recombination through Crossing over of the genes (influences the
variability)
2. Meiosis II
- Same with mitosis but their difference is that of the number
chromosomes
Definition of Terms:

1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) - genetic material of living organisms

2. Chromatin
- complex of DNA plus histones and other structural proteins
- long thin strings, decondensed ang very long
- Sister chromatin (paired chromatin) = 1 chromosome
3. Chromosomes
- packed strings of DNA and condensed
- homologous pair (matched sets of chromosomes)
- Diploid (mostly)
4. Spindle
- attached on the aster located at the poles of the cell
- made up of microtubules which function as framework for the cell
- responsible for the movement/displacement of the chromosomes
- separate the chromosomes fair and square

5. Apoptosis
- Process of programmed cell death (self-destruction)

Membranes and Transport

- Cell membrane plays a very crucial role to the survival of cell as it is
responsible for transportation of materials in and out the cells

Cell Membrane
A. Phospholipids
a. Amphipathic(hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions)
b. Phospholipid bilayer
c. Semi-Permeable (crucial in maintaining homeostasis in the cell)
 COMPONENT LOCATION

Phospholipids Main fabric of the membrane

Cholesterol Tucked between hydrophobic tails of

phospholipids

Integral Protein Embedded in the phospholipid

bilayer; may extend through both
layers

Peripheral Protein Inner/outer surface of the

phospholipid bilayer (not embedded
in its hydrophobic core

Carbohydrates Attached to proteins or lipids on the

extracellular side of
membrane(forming glycoproteins and
glycolipids)

Transportation Mechanisms
A. Diffusion and Osmosis
- Natural water movement thru semi-permeable membrane from
area of lower to higher solute concentration(diffusion-any
substance)

-
 -
a. Hypertonic - high concentration, water loss leading the cell to
shrink.
b. Hypotonic - low concentration, water is absorbed causing the cell
to swell or burst.
c. Isotonic - equal concentration
d. Facilitated Diffusion - molecules diffuse across plasma membrane
with assistance with membrane proteins(channels and carriers)
e. Channels - span the membrane and make hydrophilic tunnels across
it, allowing target molecules to be diffused

-
B. Passive Transport
- No energy cost
- Concentration gradient present
C. Active Transport
- Has energy cost in form of ATP(Adenosine triphosphate) due to
flow being against concentration gradient
a. Primary Active Transport
- Direct requirement of energy source(ATP)
 b. Secondary Active Transport
- Indirect requirement of energy source(ATP)
- Uses electrochemical gradient(generated by active transport)
as energy source

D. Bulk Transport
- Large particles/large quantities of smaller particles
1. Endocytosis
- endo = internal, cytosis = transport mechanism
- Active transport that transports into cell by enclosing them
in a vesicle made out of plasma membrane
a. Phagocytosis
- “cell eating”
- large particles, such as cells or cellular debris, are
transported into cell
 -
b. Pinocytosis
- “cell drinking”
- cell takes in small amounts of extracellular fluid

-
c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- a form of endocytosis in which receptor proteins on the cell
surface are used to capture a specific target molecule

2. Exocytosis
- exo = external, cytosis = transport mechanism
- materials are transported from the inside to the outside of
the cell in membrane-bound vesicles that fuse with the
plasma membrane
 -

Terms
● Symporter
○ Molecules move in same direction
● Antiporter
○ Molecules move in diff. direction