Core Ch 27 Molecular Genetics

27.1 Genetic code

Properties:
-3 bases code for one amino acid (triplet code)
-4 bases in DNA64 different triplet codes (more than enough to code for the 20 amino
acids)
-some triplet codes code for the same amino acid (e.g. ACA and ACG code for the same
amino acid—the genetic code is described as degenerate)
-some triplet codes are start signals and stop signals that mark the beginning and the
end of a gene respectively
-no gaps between the triplet codes
-triplet codes are read in a non-overlapping manner
-genetic code is universal (same triplet code codes for the same amino acid in all
organisms)

27.2 Transription (genetic information in the DNA is copied to mRNA

inside the nucleus)
Step 1:
The weak hydrogen bonds that hold the two DNA strands of a gene breaktwo DNA
strands unwind
Step 2:
One of the DNA strand acts as the template strand, while the other one acts as a coding
strand; free ribonucleotides (RNA nucleotides) are attached to the template strand
through complementary base pairing
Step 3:
RNA polymerase (an enzyme) catalyses the joining of the adjacent ribonucleotides to
form mRNAevery 3 bases on the mRNA that is complementary to the triplet code on
the DNA is called a codon; each codon codes for an amino acid
**base sequence of the mRNA produced is complementary to the template strand, but
the same as the coding strand of DNA except having U instead of T
Step 4:
After transcription, the mRNA separates from the template strand of DNAleaves the
nucleus through the pores on the nuclear membraneenters the cytoplasm
27.3 Translation (a polypeptide is made in the cytoplasm according to
the genetic information carried in the mRNA)
Step 1:
the mRNA produced in transcription attaches to a ribosome
Step 2:
free amino acids join to specific tRNA molecules in the cytoplasm (each tRNA molecule
has an anticodon that consists of 3 ribonucleotides; each anticodon specifies a particular
amino acid)
Step 3:
the tRNA molecule with an anticodon complementary to the first codon on the mRNA
binds to the mRNAcarries a specific amino acid to the ribosome
Step 4:
another tRNA molecule carrying an amino acid binds to the next codon; two amino acids
are then joined by a peptide bond
Step 5:
the ribosome moves to the next codon and another amino acid is added to the dipeptide;
the first tRNA is released—this process repeats until a stop codon is meta polypeptide
is made and released from the ribosome finally

27.4 Comparison between transcription and translation

/ Transcription Translation
Occurs in Nucleus Cytoplasm
Mediated by RNA polymerase Ribosome
Template used One of the DNA strands of mRNA
a gene
Type of complementary Bases on DNA with bases A codon in mRNA with an
base pairing involved on free ribonucleotides anticodon in tRNA
Raw material Ribonucleotides Amino acids
Product mRNA polypeptides
Fate of product Transported to cytoplasm Used in the cells,
for translation embedded in the cell
membrane or secreted as
enzymes/hormones
27.5 Mutation
-a sudden and permanent change in the DNA
-may lead to the synthesis of new protein/failure to synthesize a certain protein
-since protein may be enzymes/have other function in the cell, absence/change of the
original protein will result in a change in metabolic activities of a cell

27.5.1 Gene mutations

-changes in the base sequence of the DNA (brought about by deletion, insertion,
substitution, inversion of bases in the DNA)
-deleting/inserting a base will shift the reading framewhole amino acid sequence after
the point of mutation is alteredresulting protein is usually non-functional
-substitution/inversion of bases usually leads to the change of one triplet code
onlyone different amino acid in the polypeptideno obvious effect on the phenotype
unless that amino acid alters the conformation of the protein
-e.g. Sickle-cell anaemia—a disease caused by a substitution

27.5.2 Chromosome mutations

-changes in the structure (during crossing over of chromosomes in the process of
meiosis)
-deletionloss of genes
-duplicationgain of genes
-inversionorder of genes is reversed
-translocationsome genes are exchanged between two chromosomes

-changes in chromosome number (e.g. Down’s syndrome)

-during gamete formation, homologous chromosomes/sister chromatids of
chromosome 21 fail to separatethey go to the same daughter cellabnormal gamete
with an extra number of chromosome 21 is producedif the abnormal gamete fuses
with a normal gamete, a zygote with three chromosome 21 will be formedDown’s
syndrome

27.5.3 Causes of mutations

-chemicals (nitrous acid, tar, asbestos…)
-radiation (UV light, X-rays, gamma rays…)
27.5.4 Effects of mutations
-most gene mutations have no effect on organisms because
-some mutations (e.g. substitution and inversion) may produce a different code for the
same amino acid
-changes in an amino acid may not alter the shape of the protein
-mutations in one allele may be masked by the normal allele as alleles exist in pairs in
cells

Molecular Genetics (★★★)

1. The features of genetic codes

2. The process of transcription and translation
{AL 08 PIIA-1, AL 06 PIIA-2(a), DSE 14 P1-6(b), DSE 16 P1-8(a)(b), DSE 17
P1-4(c)}
3. Distinguish between chromosome and gene mutation {DSE PP P1-9(a)}
 Question bank 

1. Allele I codes for an enzyme responsible for forming antigen A on the surface
of red blood cells. Outline the processes in which allele I is expressed to form
this enzyme.

-allele I is transcribed to form mRNA (1) by complementary base pairing (1)

-mRNA moves out of the nucleus to attach to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
(1)
-tRNA carrying specific amino acids with anticodons matching the codons of
mRNA (1) will attach to ribosomes in sequence (1)
-a peptide bond will be formed between adjacent amino acids (1), thus
forming the polypeptide/protein which subsequently forms the enzyme (1)

2. Normal people have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the cell nucleus, but people
with Down syndrome have an extra chromosome in the 21st pair of
chromosomes. Explain how this couple could give birth to a Down syndrome
child.

-During gamete formation/meiosis, members of the 21st homologous

chromosomes fail to separate (1)
-after the gamete bearing the extra chromosomes fuses with a normal gamete,
the foetus formed will have Down’s syndrome (1)

3.
Q: Based on the data above and the gene expression processes, explain why the
amylase activity in dogs is generally higher than that in wolves.

-dogs have many more copies of gene A in the genome than wolves (1)
-these gene copies will be transcribed into m RNA which, in turn, translated
into amylase (1)
-more amylase will be produced in dogs (1), resulting in higher amylase
activity

4.

Q: The cell was obtained from the pancreas. How do A and B work together such
that this cell can perform its function?

-B carries the genetic materials coding for the hormone/digestive enzymes (1)
-transcription takes place in B to produce mRNA (1)
-which is transported to A for translation/protein synthesis (1)
-to produce protein hormones/digestive enzymes for discharge/secretions (1)