MLG 723

Language Issues in Global Context

Language Issue & Stakeholders:

Implementation of Language Inclusive Policy

Iman Aishah Binti Shahrul Nizam

2021900747
Language Inclusiveness

During the advent of the new social generation, inclusivity has become one of the
demands of a just social system. There has been much discussion recently about the issue of
language and inclusiveness in British, US, and Canadian (Desbiens, 2002; Monk, 2002;
Wheeler, 2001). Not only that, Desbiens and Ruddick (2006) also notes that the words used and
the languages spoken raise more than problems of wrong translations and interpretations.

Domains of Language Inclusiveness

The term language inclusiveness differs from one domain to another. This is because the
term itself varies between the type of communication, the role of individuals in communication,
the purpose of the communication and the identity of the communicators in the setting.
Universal inclusivity could help close the language and cultural gap of future generations,
broaden the horizons and create a more accepting society. On paper, it is easy to make plans
and strategies on including all the diverse backgrounds as a whole unit. Yet even though many
support the argument, the theory of inclusivity is challenging to be achieved practically. This is
due to the existence of conflicting cultural practices and beliefs, pre-existing prejudices as well
as group mentalities associated with different races, ethics and social groups.

Stakeholders: Domains as stakeholders to the term Language Inclusivity.

Language Inclusivity in the Workspace

In the workplace setting, language inclusiveness is a strategy used by employers as well

as employees, as a way to bond. This is when organisations regulate employees to use
inclusive utterances in order to bridge the gap between staff members. This is also to avoid
disputes contributing from non-work related issues such as bias, prejudice and stereotypes.
Specific examples would be the usage of words such as us and we as well as eliminating
negative presumptions of employees who are of different cultural, religious and social
backgrounds. Diversity has been highlighted as one of the key aspects of effective
organisations. (Patrick and Kumar,2012). This is for the benefit within the companies since it
involves hiring without discrimination and focus more on individuals’ skill and abilities in
contributing for the organisation which is ultimately the purpose of hiring of individuals.
 Not only that, Patrick (2010) noted that diversity not only impacts the organisation but as
well as the degree of openness to dissimilarity among employers and employees within the
organisation, organisations’ work groups such as division of departments as well as the work
culture in the organisation. Despite technological advancements, internal and external relations
including international relations requires organisations to communicate with individuals on a
person-to-person basis. In order for the two-way communication to be effective, the
organisations must eliminate language descriminations and stereotypes. The statement is
echoed by Moran, Harris and Moran (2011) as they mentioned that effective communication in
organisations requires mental elimination of the term “alien” and removing observations of
differential backgrounds as an issue between members of organisations. By eliminating this
mindset, individuals would be more accepting and could communicate with each other better
and without negative connotations towards each other. However, Simlin (2006) found that age
plays a contributing factor in the perception of diversity. It was hypothesised that with the
increase of age, there is a decrease in the openness that relates to perception of diversity.

This means that there is an importance to aiding older employees in achieving diversity
openness in the organisation. Hofstede (1994) remarked that in creating opportunities for
collaboration, organisational leaders should learn customs and business protocols of their
subordinates. Not only that, leaders must also understand and take into account the national
identity, management philosophies and mindsets of each member of the organisation and
administration for an effective management of the organisations, internally and externally.

Stakeholders: Organisation level; company policy, employers and employees; Work

Group; Human Resource (Hiring process); Individuals; Age-based variable, culture background

Politics

There are two views that can be seen in the viewpoint of politics. First is through
the looking at agendas of political parties in sharing information, ideas and strategies in gaining
voters' trust for election purposes. Secondly, is the policy making process that is involved in a
multicultural country setting. Policies include the language maintenance policies, language
governance policies as well as language in formal and government level communications.
Therefore, there should be an element of language inclusivity in the political domain.
 One method in creating and neutralising ideologies and opinions is through positive
representation and negative other representation (Unvar and Rahimi, 2013). This strategy is
commonly used by politicians as there is a need for them to gain the people’s trust whilst also
outstand their opponents. Within the strategy lies underlying techniques used by different
politicians such as generalisation, self-glorification, self-congratulations, populism and
presupposition that are employed to persuade voters into aligning with the political parties’
agenda. The techniques chosen are up to the politicians as their own personal identity is deeply
attached to their proposed ideologies, values and aspirations. This is ultimately for voters to
accept their views and take desired action of supporting and voting for the political party. The
strategy and techniques fall under the linguistic elements of discursive structure. Discursive
structures are any speech acts that include ideological and political implications. To simplify,
discursive structures encompass communications that are ideologically laden.

Augoustinos and Every (2007) investigated the issue of discursive structures within the
communications of parliamentary debates and political speeches and found out that most
Western countries have had an influx of arguments revolving around the issue. The argument
was that public debates provide a rich source of naturalistic data that is ideal for the kind of
qualitative analysis in the field to understand the everyday and institutional reproduction of racial
difference and discrimination. It was identified that discursive structures and rhetorical devices
which are combined in political communications have made it flexible for majority group
members to justify negative repertoires against the minority out-groups. There was a pattern of
contradictory, contemporary race discourse and recurring tropes used by majority group
members to justify the rationale of existing social inequality between majority group members
and minority group members. Not only that, it was also noted on the discursive patterns or ways
of talking about other individuals and the impacts of it on language discrimination.

On the other hand, Romaine (2013) stated that democratic deficit is a major impact from
the lack of a transnational European public sphere. Not only that, Romaine also contends that
Europeans have limited understanding of each other which could lead to disagreements. The
main reason being so is because multilingualism has become a barrier that actually exhausts
political debates. Kymlicka and Pattem (2003) recognise the requirement of a normative theory
of language rights in the political settings which is grounded on the issue of social justice. They
also argued that linguistic diversity is one of the most vital challenges to building a stronger
identity of European citizenship. However, the lack of a common language spoken does not by
itself stop the inception of a public discursive space or democratic consideration (Doerr 2012). If
democratic is vernacular, then a collaborative dialogue must be communicated in as many
languages as possible so that stated goal of ‘putting in place an ongoing process aiming to give
a voice to all those committed to promoting multilingualism in Europe’ as well as to bring
multilingualism closer to citizens (European Commission 2009).

Stakeholders: Political parties; strategy and techniques of communication, politicians,

political members; Policy: language policies in governmental and formal level interactions;
Individuals: majority vs minority, voting preference, governance system, discriminations.

Media

Arab Media

Arab media has mainly produced books that provide accounts from recent trends to
focusing on journalism and the challenges it faces (Mellor et al, 2011). Most books will take
critical theoretical approaches such as, studying the media through the views of political related
economy (Della Ratta et al, 2015), political changes (El-Issawi, 2016) and the media as well as
government control over media and its relationship with culture and globalization (Sakr, 2002).

The importance of culture is seen through the management of it as a key element of

Arab journalism (Khatib, 2006). Based on traditions of cultural and communication studies, Arab
media has extracted interpretive cultural based theories to evaluate media as well as the
audiences (Matar and Dakhlallah, 2006). In particular, the culture specific approach that
indigenizes communication research (Wang, 2014). Arab region’s encounters with research is
particular in its rejection of Eurocentric based theories and methodologies. Contrary to Africa
where researchers applied normative theories of the West in an uncritical manner (Willems,
2014), Arab scholars have traditionally declined empirical research, shifting focus on critical
and interpretive methods that situate culture elements at the central research. (Kozman, 2020)

China Media

Protecting Cantonese Movement is an extensive coverage by state media in

Guangzhou and its impacts propose that the admissible language issues have been appraised
as non-threatening by the Chinese government and so the issue could be openly argued in the
media (Zhao & Guo, 2012). In terms of individualisation of Chinese society (Yan, 2010),
individuals involved have become progressively vocal about their rights and they have
increasingly acknowledged the specific regions that they were born in and where they grew from
childhood to adulthood. As a result, the Chinese government is now required to endorse new
approaches and methods in dealing with public outrage and discontent.

This is done by the Chinese government by acknowledging individuals’ concerns on the

vanishing of familiar and traditional ways of life and language that are practiced as legitimate
and genuine issues (Tanner, 2004). However, the Chinese government also uses the media in
justifying their choice of national language policy because of the vital role it plays in relation to a
wide range of citizens. The range is covered from individuals to state organisations in terms of
issues and debates related to civil society and corporate bodies (Blommaert et al, 2009).

Ireland Media

Spencer (2004) questions how news affects interaction between audiences and whether
it aids to legitimise the inclusivity process. There was a critical response in the investigation. It
was reported that concerns were based on temporary political situations and simplistic
reasonings rather than extensive complexities of the political process. It was also noted that,
majority agreed that female politicians are taken less seriously rather than their male
counterparts in the media. Not only that, it was also found that the majority has the perception
that political agendas were presented and discussed almost exclusively from male perspectives.

It was concluded that news media were aligned towards the differences between the
dominant parties. Moreover, the prospect for political change in which the media portrayed as
being necessarily regulated by governments and the dominant parties. Other than that, there is
also an issue of the articulation of a women's agenda which is designed to impact the direction
of communications is also less likely to happen because of the government’s refusal to play a
conflictive role, which is then what the media might be more attracted to share with the public.

Stakeholder: Media organisations; government regulated, audience, gender based

variable, culture based variable, common practices; Government; dominant parties.
Language Inclusiveness in Education

The term language inclusiveness means differently in the education domain, the term
refers to an educational approach in which it acknowledges the benefits of multilingualism and
adapts the theory into the education system. This is usually done by recognising all races and
cultures within a particular demographic and implementing all the languages that are present in
the same society. Not only that, the approach and strategy used varies between countries.

Language inclusiveness is also an approach in education that calls for space of the
languages of all participants within the educational environment. It forms part of an aspiration
shared amongst teachers and educators for better educational outcomes for children with
different cultural backgrounds, immigrant children, and advocates for innovative approaches in
education that recognise the benefits of foreign language learning and the strengthening of first
languages. Within education, language inclusiveness comprises strategies used in the
education system in order to better cater students with diverse backgrounds. It is made up of
understanding the students needs and language capabilities then modeling the syllabus
according to students as a benchmark. Language inclusiveness means differently in different
schooling systems, countries and cultures. This is because of the different nuances of the
variety of languages involved in relation to each other. For example, for Australia, language
inclusivity means to include migrants in their education policy whereas in the United Kingdom,
language inclusiveness also involves the learning capabilities of students with special needs.

Global Perspective

According to Nagaraj and Guha (2012), in India, there is a difference in emphasis on skill
orientation and practical based methods in education between public sector and private sector
institutions. The private sector does not rely on heavy theory approaches. Yet, most of the
institutions are embedded with expensive fee structures and only cater to the affluent parts of
the society. Given that aspect, policies in regard to social and language inclusivity is not a
priority to them. In the study, the focus was on journalism education in India. A rising issue that
is related to journalism education is that both educators and students are divided by the caste
system and the communities surrounding the setting. The issue is more prominent in the public
sector rather than the private sector. This leads to internal conflicts as well as impacting the
education process and outcome. Thus, inclusive policy initiatives have produced a hostile
internal-environment with categories of inclusion and exclusion conflicted against each other.

Australia Education Policy

Australia’s language and multicultural policies have constructed the intercultural

dimension of Australian identity in different ways depending on different community groups.
Liddicoat (2009), noted that there is an evolution through the main national policies in examining
the comprehension of multiculturalism and the participation of different cultural groups within a
multicultural community and society. It was mentioned that even though the methods related to
multiculturalism and ethnic groups interrelationship has changed, the positioning of the
monocultural-majority and ethnic-minorities within the overall multicultural setting has been
managed in many ways. The result was a policy context in which there are different perceptions
of ideologies related to multiculturalism and the pre-existing tensions between communities. The
history of Australia’s language and multicultural policies provides a series of discourses and has
constructed shifting ideologies of Australia’s relationship with linguistic and cultural diversity.
Each policy has framed Australia’s multiculturalism and its ideals of interculturalism in different
ways and has privileged particular understandings at different times. Such understandings orient
to various positions, such as assimilation, pluralism, equity, economy, and multilingualism.

Comparison: Finnish and Norwegian

Vlachou (2004) recognizes that inclusivity has become a global issue and notes that
there is a difference in national policy adjustments of different nations. Inclusion analysis aids in
discussing tensions that exist among different parties that are involved. Although the position of
inclusion and equality has supported a comprehensive school system and teachers’ value
base, the rhetoric and reforms of education in Finnish and Norwegian are also influenced and
manipulated by conservative reconstruction of education, student autonomy, and individuals’
own responsibility for learning (Beach et al, 2003). There is a contradiction between policies of
inclusivity and the national policies of raising standards. National policies for raising standards,
which is determined by the accumulation of test results and examination scores contradicts the
policies of celebrating diversity and inclusion while concurrently increasing exclusion and
marginalization (Dyson et al, 2003). Arnesen, Mietola and Lahelma (2007) investigates the
context of diversity as formulated in policy documentations which correlates with the
approaches of teachers in schools as well as diversity in the context of inclusive practices.

In comparing Finnish and Norwegian schools, which includes special education classes.
It was found out that policy documents regarding language planning in the two countries
suggest that individualism is emphasized. However, the countries are different in how inclusion
policies are embedded and overall organisation of classes and special educational classes. In
the Finnish policy documents less emphasis is put on the diverse mix of students within the
same social context than there is in the Norwegian curriculum. (NBE, 2004)

Migrants in France and New Zealand

France and New Zealand provide two examples of countries that are diverse
linguistically, yet both countries take different approaches in the inclusion of immigrant
languages in the educational environment. Smythe (2020) compared the impact of language
policies on the inclusion of immigrant students in both schools. There were two levels identified,
which are second language options in schools and the treatment of immigrant languages. A
number of similarities rose, as well as differences between France and New Zealand.

The similarities are that both countries’ school systems are dominated by
monolingualism whereas the differences are the methods of language inclusiveness being
utilised in the policy and practices. It was found out that the argument to plurilingual strategies in
teaching and learning could improve educational based outcomes for the immigrant students,
and justifies that educational environments that include language inclusiveness are beneficial to
support the learning process of immigrant students in both France and New Zealand schools.

Iran: Religion Influence

99% of the population in Iran is Muslim. Daniel and Mahdi (2006) noted that there are
two different groups of Muslims in Iran which are Sunni Muslims and Shi’ite Muslims. Iranian
ethnic and religious groups have different cultures and traditions (Francoeur, 2004). Cheng and
Beigi (2012) discovered that there is an influence of Shi’ite religious and cultural practices in
ELF textbooks. However, the presentation of religion as a subject is covert. If seen from the
Western perspective, the EFL textbooks failed to include minority groups. However, it should
also be noted that Western inclusiveness may not be relevant in Iranian theocracy. The analysis
of the EFL textbooks took into consideration lexical items and narrative texts and dialogues. The
findings showed that there was no direct reference to Islam. However, during closer inspections,
it was revealed that many dialogues, lexical items and narratives of the content in the Iranian
EFL textbooks were found to be implying the reinforcement of religious notions.

Language Inclusiveness in Malaysian Education

Hypothetically, if the language inclusiveness policy were to be implemented in Malaysia,

the first stakeholder impacted is the government. Mainly, the education ministry. Firstly, they
need to know which strategy and elements of language inclusivity that they would like to adopt
from the policies of other countries. They would have to determine the one that is most suited to
adapt to Malaysian students in terms of race, culture and social backgrounds in comparison to
other countries that have implemented language inclusive policy in their education policy.

History

In Malaysia’s current educational climate, there are some strategies put into practice that
involve students from different cultural backgrounds. For example, the existence of Sekolah
Jenis Kebangsaan Cina and Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan Tamil. In these schools, teachers and
students are able to communicate, teach and learn using their mother-tongue. With this, the
students are able to maintain their first language without jeopardizing their education as these
schools are recognized and regulated by the government. Having said that, Malaysia is not
opposed to implementing language maintenance policies for minorities. Not only that, there is
also a rise in the demand for aborigin languages to be a part of the schooling system. Bahasa
Iban and Kadazan are some languages that have been accepted in the education syllabus.

This means that there is a high chance that language inclusivity policy would be
accepted by Malaysian schooling system as well as the students themselves. The difference
between Malaysia’s current strategy and other countries’ strategies is that there is segregation
between the schools whereas the policy of other countries is that the strategy is implemented
within the same type of public schooling system. By segregating the races for each type of
school, it would create a barrier between the students of one type of racial school to another
and would have a reverse effect of what language inclusivity goals should be. Instead of
considering multilingualism as a benefit for the students, it could stop the process of
multilingualism for the students themselves since the strategy focuses on just maintaining the
mother tongue without consideration of using multilingualism as a common goal for all schools.

Implementation

In order for the policy to be effective, the similarities of different countries and their
educational policies have to be kept in mind, as these similarities will provide a basis that can
support Malaysia’s educational system. Among the similarities are factors of language
resemblance, diversity of ethnic groups and culture as well as correlation to existing strategies.
Having said that, these three elements would be a determining factor in the choosing of
language inclusiveness policy to be implemented in Malaysia’s current educational system while
also maintaining an achievable rate of success. The stakeholder involved in this process is
among educators, teachers, school administration, education syllabus and students themselves.

As stated previously, there are many types of language inclusiveness strategies that
have been put in place for education. The focus and the goal of the strategy also differ such as
the students in the context, the environment and setting as well as the cultural demographic.
Between Malaysia and other countries, there should be similarities in the language policy and
previous strategies that have been used. Thus, in order to know which language inclusive
strategy will work, an overall view of the current education should be observed and studied.

Observation

Just the same as China, Malaysia has priorities in establishing and maintaining the
national language policy which is the Malay language. It is compulsory for all government
bodies to utilise the national language as a main medium of instruction and communication. This
includes school and education institutions. Not only that, after Malaysia's independence from
Britain, English and Malay languages were the main medium of instruction, particularly in the
education sector (Zaaba et al, 2011). This leads to a strong demand of using the second
language, English, as a regular language use as well. However, Malaysia is also known for
being a multicultural country that is rich with diverse races, ethnicities, religion and cultural
backgrounds. This must be taken into consideration in developing an effective language
inclusiveness policy as the goal of the strategy is to create better intercultural and non-prejudice
communications among students. Not only that, the goal of language inclusivity is also to
improve the quality of education for students with different backgrounds and to create the feeling
of belonging for all the students in the school setting for a better learning process.

Focus

The focus of the language inclusivity policy should also be observed. To reiterate, the
focus of Finland and Norway is on teachers’ role in implementing language inclusiveness and
inclusive practices, individualism of students and special needs education. These elements are
not included in the Malaysian education system. Malaysia’s approach in inclusivity is more so on
the inclusivity of different languages in the schooling system which resembles more of the
Australian education policy. This is because both countries have a need to cater to a
multicultural society to which nation identity plays a huge role in the making of education policy.
To simplify, there is a similarity in the general role of teachers in the policy but also difference in
the specific role of how teachers’ implement the policy into their classroom. In Finland and
Norway, inclusivity is done through acknowledging students as individuals and incorporating
special needs students in the schools’ communication setting whereas in Malaysia, inclusivity is
connected to applying diverse languages in the formal school setting such as in exam papers.

This is different when comparing Malaysia to France and New Zealand education policy
as these countries share the same type of population with Malaysia which is the existence of
linguistic diversity. However, the key difference is that France and New Zealand have a focus on
including immigrant students and immigrant languages in their schooling system while Malaysia
only focuses on including languages of Malaysians even though there are also migrants in
Malaysia. Nevertheless, the strategy used by France and New Zealand should be observed as it
could illuminate effective methods of including multiple languages in the schooling system.

Firstly, the method of offering a second language as an option to students. This method
could help students who have a different mother tongue other than Malay or English. This is
especially in terms of subjects that are not language bound like science, history and
mathematics. Students should be able to choose the language of their preference as it could
help them in understanding concepts and formulas better as well as for students to learn
subjects without having to go through language limitations and barriers. The next method is by
improving the treatment of other languages aside from the first and second language. This
means that the government must also aid in changing how Malaysians perceive cultural and
language differences as a means to ease the process of introducing other languages in the
schooling system. Not only that but also for the best learning outcome for students involved.

Drawbacks

One drawback that could be presumed if language inclusivity policy is implemented is

the acceptance between different races and cultures. An example that can be drawn for this
assumption is when the Deputy Education Minister, Muslimin Yahaya, announced the decision
to have bahasa Jawi to be taught in national and vernacular schools in 2019. The decision
caused arguments from parents of vernacular school students. Even though the choice was
made by the Cabinet and is implemented at policy level of the education ministry yet it was still
received poorly by people who are of different religion background than Islam. This is because
the Jawi language is commonly recognised as a language of the Muslim. Bahasa Jawi is
actually still Bahasa Melayu but written using the arabic alphabets. Given the connotation of the
language to the Arabic culture, the debate was that it was not a part of the Malaysian identity.

To be specific, the education ministry regulated the policy through the introduction of a
calligraphy module in the primary school standard 4 Bahasa Melayu syllabus. However, The
Straits Times reported that the policy was put on hold as of December 30th 2019 because of the
delay in discussing the issue with stakeholders. It was suggested that Bahasa Jawi should be
offered as an elective in school rather than a formal syllabus since there should be more focus
put on the national language teaching and learning which is Bahasa Melayu. Therefore, this
could become a challenge if language inclusivity is moderated with regulations of including
multiple languages in the education setting, especially if there is a gap between people’s
perception of the languages. In this case being Bahasa Melayu in arabic alphabets.

The second incidental drawback that could happen is that given the wide definition of the
term language inclusivity as well as the various variables that are entailed in the issue, there
could be an influx of policy change and adjustments during the initial years. This is because in
including language inclusivity, the rule of thumb must be applied according to the response of
teachers and students in the schools towards the strategies. Other than that, given that
Malaysia has a multicultural society then it would take time to include all cultural, religious and
social backgrounds of the students into the syllabus and schooling system effectively.
 Strategy

Walton (2011) suggested that teachers and educators have to be intentional during the
implementation of strategies that promote inclusive behaviors in diverse classrooms. This is in
regards to reports of school bullying caused by different cultural backgrounds. In order to create
an effective inclusivity strategy, literature sources should be used in order to address the issues
of cultural inclusion and exclusion. This includes students with different cultural backgrounds as
well as students with disabilities. Selecting materials that promote inclusivity could be beneficial
in the interactions of students as it could develop understanding by addressing sensitive issues
using the characters and context of the text. The strategies could be implemented in diverse
classrooms through written and verbal activities as well as having diverse sources of materials.

According to Pauwels, A., & Winter, J. (2006) there should be sex-based difference
between the two gender-inclusive strategies applied by teachers in schools. In his study,
teachers were reported to have a preference using neutralisation strategy through the use of
singular they. However, a number of gendered patterns emerge in teachers’ adoption and
surveillance of linguistic prescriptivism and language reform. Male teachers mentioned that
using the word they neutralised the political aspect to feminisms in language and often their
participation in gender-inclusive reforms was only initiated by female role models. Female
teachers reported a smaller difference between classroom and non-classroom use of
gender-inclusive generic pronouns. In particular the word they appeared to be most sensitive to
the potential for conflict through their decreased personal use of the term in the classroom and
subsequent greater interventionist strategies with their students than their male counterparts.

According to Callahan, Gautsch, Hopkins and Unda (2020), with the 2015 passage of
the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in the US, the oversight of language policy in U.S.
schools shifted from federal to state governance. By exploring EL educational equity through the
lens of states’ immigrant inclusivity, this could be a strategy of how these policy spheres inform
each other. Negative anti-immigrant discourse and violently polarized political context could be
resolved with the transition of EL education and the elimination of oversight to state and local
contexts. Current US EL education policy situated at the local context echoes local policies and
attitudes toward immigrants and immigration which poses threat to ELs’ linguistic civil rights.
Thus, there is a need to put strategies in including immigrants and foreigh languages in schools.
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