Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130.

113

[090.93]. Singh, Rana P.B. 1993 b. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos: An inner vision of sacred ecology in
Hinduism. National Geographical Journal India, vol. 39: 113-130. ISSN: 0027-9374/ 1993/
0915; also in: Singh, Rana P.B. (ed.) 1993, Environmental Ethics. Discourses and Cultural
Traditions. Varanasi: National Geogr. Soc. of India, Pub. 40. ISBN: 81-86187-39-1.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos: An Inner Vision of Sacred

Ecology in Hinduism
Rana P.B. Singh
Professor of Cultural Geography; Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 221005. INDIA
E-mail: ranapbs@gmail.com ; ranapbsingh@dataone.in

“He who knows the highest Brahman becomes even Brahman”. Mundaka Upanishad, 3. 2.9.

Abstract. In Hindu mythology there has been a strong tradition to present the archetypal
frame of integrity among matter, mind and spirit; of course this dialogue and revelation were
rooted in religious thought. The description of creation myth, cosmic time cycle, triad and
Chakras, the form of Earth/mother goddess, deity and direction ― all metaphorically narrate
the story of harmonic relationship between man and nature. The parallels between Hindu
mysticism and New Physics are meeting at certain point in search of the ultimate reality.
This idea has been vividly described in the purview of environmental ethics with an aim to
provide an indigenous root and search for a paradigm shift.
Key words. Archetype, cosmos, deity and direction, Earth/mother goddess, Hindu thought,
New Physics and metaphysics, primordial frame, sacred ecology, Triad and Chakra.

1. Introduction
About the ecological crisis, it is realised that the world is facing “a kind of cosmic
loneliness that we could not have foreseen” (Meadows, et al. 1992: xvii). ‘Ibis is an issue of
thought-process and revelation which somehow followed the divergent path in the past
history-to put it other way, i.e. crisis of thought and realisation. The scientific community
now affirms that the world is interconnected and ‘interdependent, that is how ecology is so
popular. Ecology considers the whole world as a system and projects it as worldview. There
exists a state of order and unity in the whole world, referred as cosmos which “includes the
invisible spirit as well as the tangible earth and skies” (Oates 1989: 1). Together with the
physical order exists an invisible principle of order linking human soul to the earth and
further up to stars. This way one can propose micro-, meso- and macro- cosmos. The
harmonic integrity in Cosmos-Spirit-Man has been a major issue of debate in the ancient
mythologies, however through the stigma of religion the basic meanings were misunderstood
in many ways under the purview of anthropocentrism. But it does not mean that theology
and religion have played a negative role. White (1967: 1207) argues:
“What we do about ecology depends on our ideas of man-nature relationship. More
science and more technology are not going to get us out of the present ecological crisis
until we find a new religion, or rethink of old one.”
From the viewpoint of practice and thought ecology is generally grouped into two
divisions: Deep Ecology, referring to feelings, emotions and sensuous activities, and Shallow
Ecology,

114. Rana P. B. Singh

Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 114

explaining the experimental observations. Individuals do not exist in isolation, but in

relationship to the community, and their functioning is operated by a tradition, thought,
belief systems ―all shaped in the long run of time. Here comes Deep ecology to be narrated
better in cosmological thinking for searching harmony while seeking ground for humans’
psychic relation to the cosmos. In Indian perspective where deep faith of human psychic
developed in the past and still common through the sacred performances, for better
understanding I propose the idea of Sacred Ecology ― not identical, but very close to deep
ecology and ecospirituality. When an order of divine manifestation is realised it turns to
sacralisation. Hindu mythology describes the Sky as father and the Earth as mother, that is
how whole world is a family and we all are brothers and sisters, as said in Maha Upanishad
(6.72): “For those who live magnanimously the entire world constitutes but a family”
(Udaracharitanam Vasudhaiva kutumbakam), and further elaborated in the Hitopadesha
(1.3.71).
Hindu thought has survived from the remote past-at least since 3500 BCE. In the
primitive mode of existence in those days, high value was ascribed to the unity of life and to
emotional attachment and sympathy with nature in different forms at various levels, and
through variety of rituals and sacrifices (Singh 1992: 139). Of course there exists discussion
about matter, life, and mind in Vedic mythologies, no clear distinction was made. Nature has
been perceived by sensory awareness and such intuitively perceived knowledge has been
expressed with the help of symbols. Viewed historically Hindu symbolism could shed light
on the Hindu thought process itself and on its basic metaphysical assumptions (ibid.: 140).
This paper in no way attempts to propose that Hindu view of Cosmos-Spirit-Man
relationship is the only alternative direction; it only presents some of the selected viewpoints
and spots with an aim to understand the cultural-historical roots of Indian thought.

2. Primordial Frame of Evolution and Unity

The first reference of cosmic evolution is given in the Purushasukta of the Rig Veda
(10.129), and considered to be the earliest description of the mystery of the cosmos (Balslev
1990 48). According to this hymn:
At first there was only darkness wrapped in darkness.
All this was only unilluminated water.
That One which came to be, enclosed in nothing,
arose at last, born of power of heat.
(Rig Veda, 10.129.3)

The Rig Veda (RV) further explains that in the beginning came the golden germ
(hiranyagarbha), i.e. the primal seed (RV 10.121.1). The other Vedic sources refer that the
first seed was the sound, known as Omkara ― a combination of A, U, M ― the primeval
sound from which the world and other planets came into existence (cf. Fig. 1).
The three basic sound alphabets (A, U, M) represent the three Vedas ― Rig, Yajura,
and Soma ― symbolising the three states, i.e., waking, dream, and sleep. Parallel to this in
the Gita (17. 23) threefold symbol of the absolute reality is described as supremacy (aum),
universality (tat) and reality (sat). This mystical idea is similar to Big Bang theory, which
deals with expanding universe and identifies the sound to be root cause of universal
evolution (cf. Radhakrishna Rao 1982 79). Compare the Maitrayaniya Upanishad (6.22):
There are two Absolutes, Sound and Silence. Inundated by the Absolute-that-is Sound,
one arrives in the Absolute-that-is Silence.
Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 115

Fig. 1.The Triad of Omkara

Table 1. Indian Cosmic Time Cycle

Yuga / time epoch Divine Year Human Year (HY),
(length), DY HY = DY x 360
Satya/ Krita 4,800 1,728,000
Treta 3,600 1,296,000
Dvapara 2,400 864,000
Kali 1,200 432,000
Mahayuga/ Divyayuga 12,000 4,320,000
Manvantara (71 Mahayuga) 852,000 306,720,000
A day of Brahma, a Kalpa 12,000,000 4,320,000,000
(Source : Mahabharata 3.12.826).

Following Edwin Hubble’s law it is believed that the universe came into being about
10,000 million years ago (Capra 1991: 197). According to Hindu cosmology this period
comes to 8,640 million years, equal to Brahma’s one day (a kalpa) and one night (a kalpa).
The kalpa is an unimaginable time span between the beginning and end of one creation. The
Indian time is divided into four epochs (yugas), first defined as multiples of 4:3:3:1 of a Kali
Yuga of 1,200 human years. Later they were explained by the device of replacing human
years by divine years of 360 human years (Thompson 2000: 228). One cycle of the four
yugas is called as Mahayuga (cf. Table 1). Thousand such Mahayugas known as a kalpa, i.e.
4,320 million human years (cf. Eliade 1991a: 114). Mythology further says that a hundred
“years” of Brahma constitute his life, i.e. 311,040 billion years by which a million Indra
(king of the divine realm) will pass away. But this is not the end as gods are not eternal and
the cosmic creations and destructions succeed one another. By this period a great destruction
would take place, however again re-creation starts. And this way the cycle continues
endlessly. Says Capra (1991: 198):
Experiencing the universe as an organic and rhythmically moving cosmos, the Hindus
were able to develop evolutionary cosmologies which come very close to our modem
scientific models.
Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 116

The idea of endless cycles is described as lila, the divine play of the Absolute
Brahman: “the One becoming the many and the many returning into One.” The Gita (9.7-10)
says:
― All beings pass into nature which is My own at the end of the cycle; and the
beginning of the next cycle, I send them forth. ― 7.
― Taking hold of nature which is My own, I send forth again and again all this
multitude of
beings which are helpless, being under the control of nature. ― 8.
― Nor do these works bind Me, for I am seated as if indifferent, unattached in those
actions. ― 9.
― Under My guidance, nature gives birth to all things, moving and unmoving and by
this means the world revolves. ― 10.

The Vedic cosmology describes the universe with respect to three vertical levels:
heaven, atmosphere, and earth (RV 10.90.11-14). Having being associated to the top of the
human body, the head, and earth is associated to its bottom, the feet (Lincoln 1986: 5). The
description goes on as to how from the Absolute Brahman, the first man was created and in a
process of self-transformation the various forms of microcosmic body and macroscopic
universe came into being (Lincoln 1986: 32). However, on the other end the unified form of
cosmos is also perceived. Says the Gita (10.8):
I am the origin of all; from Me the whole creation proceeds.

116. Rana P. B. Singh

Again says the Gita ( 11.7):

Here today, behold the whole universe, moving and unmoving and whatever else thou
desirest to see, all united in My body.

The vision of all in One is comparable to the quantum theory which “abolished the
notion of fundamentally separated objects” and forces to see “the universe as an
interconnected web of physical and mental relations whose parts are only defined through
their connections to the whole” (Capra 1991: 142). Nature (as cosmic soul) is the mother and
God is the father of all living forms (cf. Gita 14.4). ‘As Nature is also the nature of God,
God is the father and mother of the universe’ (Radhakrishnan 1970: 315-316). Nature
springs from the Divine and the entire activity of the world is traceable to it (ibid.: 137).
Following the Yoga philosophy, one might say, “psychological growth or
development in humans is simply a microcosmic reflection of universal growth as a whole
and has the same goal: the unfolding of ever higher-order unities and integrations” (Wilber
1990: 84). At the highest level of contemplation (dhyana) and super-consciousness
(samadhi) one dissolves into “Deity as Deity ― that Deity which from the beginning has
been one’s own self or highest archetype” (ibid.)
At the outermost reaches of human consciousness, Indian mystics experienced the
universal unity between microcosmic man and macrocosmic planetary system. Says
Aurobindo (1957: 993):
We have to see all becomings as developments of the movement in our true self and
this self as one inhabiting all bodies and not our body only. We also to be consciously,
in our relationships with this world, what we really are-this one self becoming
everything that we observe. All the movement, all energies, all forms, all happenings
we must see as those of our one and real self in many existence.
Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 117

Similarly, Albert Einstein (1934) also expressed:

A human being is a part of the whole, called by us “Universe” ― a part limited in time
and space. He, experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings as something separated
from the rest ― a kind of optical delusion of consciousness.

In Hindu tradition the basic thought is the awareness of unity and mutual interrelation
of all things and events. The Gita (10.20) mentions: “The world is a living whole, a vast
interconnectedness, a cosmic harmony inspired and sustained by the One Supreme”. Ibis is
comparable to Bell’s theorem demonstrating that the universe is fundamentally
interconnected, interdependent, and inseparable (Capra 1991: 313). The picture of an
interconnected cosmic web is portrayed by modern atomic physics, however in ancient past
Hindu mystics experienced the similar reality. Says the Mundaka Upanishad (2.2.5):
He on whom the sky, the earth, and the atmosphere are woven, and the wind, together
with all life-breaths, Him alone know as the one Soul.

The philosophic dialogues from the Vedic to Upanishadic age, all explain religion as
a sense of connectedness to the cosmos as a whole, and further a quest and way to
understand this. This idea is similar to the modern idea in particle physics (cf. Capra and
Steindl-Rast 1991: 14, 15). It is now affirmed that “religious faith addresses the whole
human beings, as a human being, in the context of other human beings and the whole
cosmos” (ibid.: 25). It seems “certain that the physical realities of the earth, as well as the
psychological and spiritual needs of its human inhabitants, will guarantee an interacting and
creative future for the worldview of ecology” (Oates 1989: 208). Above all, “whatever
meanings may be found in the religious life need to be connectible with the deployable into
the character of nature at the micro levels and cosmic levels” (Rolston 1987: 75). One of the
symbols and deep thoughts involved therein is explained with the help of ‘triad’.

3. The Triad and Chakras

The origin and unity of organic life in Nature are perceived as the product of Purusha (male
energy; yang) and Prakriti (female energy; yin), each represented by a triangle: one with its
apex up, and the other with apex down. Together these two triangles make a hexagon which
symbolises the continuity of creation and existence (cf. Singh 1992: 141).
The symbol of triad, or triangle, is a reduced form of the upper layer (transmental) of
the Chakras as described in the Kundalini Yoga. The seven Chakras system “is probably the
most archetypal paradigm of existence ever devised” (Wilber 1990: 162). According to the
Chakras system the life energy is activated in seven layers arranged systematically in the
human body (Table 2). However, this is a problem in the scientific paradigm, but in deep
therapies such as Reichian vegetotherapy, Stanislav Grof’s holotrophic breathing or Gestalt
therapy this is convincingly evident (Swan 1990: 111).
Among the seven Chakras, the lower four (1, 2, 3, 4) are considered as the pre-mental
state, while the higher three (5, 6, 7) represent transmental state. The upper three states
sequentially represent matter (5), mind (6) and spirit (7), comparable respectively to the three
stages of human consciousness, i.e., sub-consciousness (instinct), self-consciousness
(reason), and super-consciousness (intuition)― in other words sensibilia, intelligibilia, and
transcendelia. The spatially manifestive form of the Chakras is represented in a temple in
Varanasi/Banaras, known as Gurudham temple; it is fully planned according to the Chakra
system (see Singh 1987). According to transpersonal psychology, “each higher level cannot
be fully explained in terms of a lower level. .... All the lower is in the higher but not all the
higher is in the lower. A three-dimensional cube contains two-dimensional squares, but not
vice versa” (Wilber 1990: 163). Those three states are identically parallel to gross-realm,
Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 118

animic-realm, and causal-realm (cf. Fig. 2). The association of triad can be symbolised with
3-eyes of flesh, of reason, and of contemplation-together forming the “greatest chain of
being.” The interaction of these forms five levels of simple sensory-material perception. The
number five refers to five fundamental organic elements of Nature (Mahabhutas, or
Mahatattvas). The Mahabharata (12.182.14-19) states that the Supreme God created
Primordial Man who first made sky; from sky water is made and from the seed of water fire
and air ― these latter two together made the earth. Hence in a metaphysical sense, these
elements are not separated from each other (cf. Singh 1992: 142).

Fig. 2. The triad association of Spirit, Matter and Mind.

The triad phenomenon in various contexts like faith, food, sacrifice, penance, gifts,
and mystical utterance is described in the Gita (17.1-28), and again in the context of
knowledge, work, doer, understanding steadiness and happiness (Gita 18. 20-39). ‘Me trio-
state of Low-Middle-High is taken in terms of reference while describing qualities and
identification of varieties of aspects. The trinity gods of Hinduism: Brahma (the creator),
Vishnu (the protector) and Shiva (destroyer), also refer to the similar idea of triad. Together
in symbolic form they are called as trimurti, identifying the three situations of the cosmos:
evolution, existence, and involution (cf. Fig. 3 ).Similar interpretation is also presented for
the Shiva lingam as cosmic mandala (Singh 1992: 141).

Fig. 3. The Trimurti symbol of Hindu painting (after Easwaran, 1989 : 29).

The apex-up triangle as phallus, and apex-down triangle as vulva together make a
design (yantra) of creation. This design is frequently used, (of course in advanced form), in
the Tantric tradition for explaining the creative energy, mystery of the universe and several
associated myths and symbols. Popularly this is perceived as the symbol of mother goddess.
Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 119

According to mystic philosophy of Upanishads, the human drama, of course is

basically a function of interaction between matter, (Prakriti) and spirit (Purusha), however
both are regulated by the mix-up of the two, known as maya ―a central mystery of life,
parallel to Mind.

Table 2. Chakras System and Associated Elements

Chakra Associative Plexus Element colour Consciousness Lotus petal
Sanskrit name Organ symbol
7. top of head pineal gland brain Supreme light spirituality 1000
Brahmarandhra
6. brow pituitary medulla Great white thinking 2
Ajnakhya gland tattva
5. throat thyroid carotid sky /space smoky will, communi- 16
Vishuddakya cation
4. heart thymus gland cardiac air red love, 12
Anahata compassion
3. Solar plexus pancreas epigastric fire blue assertion, 10
Manipuraka community
2. chi spleen hypo- water vermi- creativity, 6
Svadhishthana gastric lion emotion
1. spinal base/ Sexual pelvic earth bloody power, and 4
Kundalini glands pleasure
Muladhara

Maya ‘is derived from the root, ma, to form, to build, and originally meant the
capacity to produce forms’ (Radhakrishnan 1991: 40-41). The creative power of the Supreme
Lord is ya (identified to yoga). ‘Maya is the power which enables Him to produce mutable
nature. It is shakti or the energy of Ishvara’ (ibid.: 42). This is the cosmic aspect of maya,
worshipped in Hinduism as divine mother. Says Easwaran (1989: 31): “It is & feminine face
of the Godhead, ever creating, sustaining, destroying, and recreating the endless web of life.”
Maya is also known as the World other (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Maya as the World Mother (after Easwaran, 1989: 30).

Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 120

4. Earth and Mother Goddess

Hinduism, in its wider context, is not a well-defined religion. In fact, it is, rather, a
large and complex socio-religious-organic-belief system consisting of varieties of ways,
sects, performances and countless gods and goddesses. In the most popular way of
approaching the Divine is to worship one or many forms of a god or goddess, however,
Shiva, Vishnu and Divine Mother are the most worshipped divinities. The idea of female
divinity has its roots in the primitive form of life when goddess Earth was perceived as the
mother and nourisher of life and receiver of the dead for rebirth. This natural/ biological
aspect in course of time developed into transcendental/ mystical aspects. Following the two
broad idea of consciousness Wilber (1986: 118) introduced the two forms of female divinity,
respectively as the Great Mother, and the Great Goddess.
The imagination of Father-Sky and the Mother-Earth is a very old idea. This myth
serves as model for human behaviour. “That is why human marriage is regarded as an
imitation of the cosmic hierogamy. “I am Heaven”, the husband proclaims in the
Brihadaranya Upanishad (6.4, 20), “thou art Earth” (Eliade 1959: 146). As early as in the
Atharva Veda (12.1) the earth as mother goddess is prayed vividly:

1: Truth, greatness, Universal Order (rita), strength, consecration, creative fervour

(tapas), spiritual exaltation (brahman), the sacrifice, support the earth. May this
earth, the mistress of that which was and shall be, prepare for us a broad domain!
22: Upon the earth men give to the gods the sacrifice, the prepared oblation: upon the
earth mortal men live pleasantly by food. May this earth give us breath and life,
may’ she cause me to reach old age !
63: O mother earth, kindly set me down upon a well-founded place! With (father)
heaven cooperating, O thou wise one, do thou place me into happiness and
prosperity!

Following the argument that the earth is life support entity made up of the biosphere
and its atmospheric environment capable to maintain its stability (homeostasis), the
atmospheric chemist James Lovelock (1979, 1988, and 1991) has proposed the Gaia
hypothesis. Gaia was the Greek goddess of the Earth, and the novelist William Golding
suggested the name to call earth goddess in its above form as Gaia. However, it has more
ancient connotation in the early Vedic period (c. 2000 BCE). In the ancient Hindu
mythology the earth (Prithvi) is eulogised as the mother of all the divinities in the form of
integrative energy between the sky and earth. That is how the Earth is described as ‘the first
creation.’ More commonly the Earth is symbolised as Gai (“cow”) ―a witness of the
universal order (rita) and truthful action (satya), and nourisher of life form (palak).
Ecosystem ethics and ecosphere (or Gaian) ethics are often referred to “as ethical
holism since they are seen as emphasising the value of entities that are generally perceived as
wholes” (Fox 1990: 177). This idea of wholeness is vividly described in the Upanishads.
Among the five fundamental organic elements of Nature (Mahatattvas, i.e. earth, water, fire,
air, and ether), water serves as a unifying fluid between sky/heaven and earth (RV 10.90.11-
14). However, one prominent ecophilosopher, Tom Regan, has characterised this approach
as environmental fascism, but understanding the reasoning that underpins ecosystem ethics
and ecosphere the charge of environmental fascism be treated as facile (Fox 1990: 178). One
has to remember that “the new vision of reality... is based on awareness of essential
interrelatedness and interdependence of all phenomena ― physical, biological,
psychological, social and cultural” (Capra 1982: 285). One may call it the Gaia, Gai, or
Prithvi, the idea of wholeness and unity always exists there.
The materialisation of the exterminating aspect of the Mother of the world is
represented with Great Goddess Kali as reported in the Devi-Mahatmya of the Markandeya
Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 121

Purana (81-93). She (Devi, the Great Goddess) “is described as an unconquerable, sublime
warrior-maid, who came into being out of the combined wraths of all the gods gathered in
council” (Zimmer 1993: 190). “For her the whole course of this universe, including her own
apparition in the role of its rescuer, is but part of a cosmic dream. It is only a feature of the
universal display of Maya” (ibid.: 196-197). Praised and perceived in so many forms and
names She is regarded as the primeval two-fold personalisation of the Absolute.
Kali is the symbol for the infinite diversity of experience, and represents entire
physical plane. For Kali is “usually pictured with all the old symbols of the devouring Great
Mother ― sacrificial knife, skulls, blood, the serpent ―but in her worship by the true saints
and sages (e.g. Ramakrishna) and in her pure metaphysical form, she was always the Great
Goddess, never demanding human blood sacrifice but always calling for the interior sacrifice
of the separate-self sense” (Wilber 1986: 188; Fig. 5). Moreover, “the old and terrifying
imagery of the devouring Great ‘Mother is retained as a reminder that the life of the separate
self is indeed surrounded by pain, suffering, and ultimately death, and that one must
transcend the self to transcend that anguish. Kali, then, is the perfect Great Goddess: she
preserves but transcends the Great Mother, and thereby integrates the lower with the higher”
(ibid. 188-189).
There are innumerable characteristics, metaphors and myths related to Kali. Zukav
(1979: 315) feels that “these powerful metaphors have application to the developing drama
of physics ― physics itself has become a powerful metaphor.” Moreover, “the Wu Li
Masters know that physicists are doing more that “discovering the endless diversity of
nature.” They are dancing with Kali, the Divine Mother of Hindu mythology.”

Fig. 5. The Great Goddess Kali of Hinduism.

Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 122

The prominent colour symbols involved in Kali-image are red and black. Red
represents creation, a form of primordial energy, planning and producing the evolution of the
universe. Her face is Black showing death ― the ultimate drama of time. The skull-garland
contains 51 pieces, symbolising the integration of a triangle, of which each axis contains 16
letters, thus in total it comes to 48. And, adding the three intersecting points (symbolising
light, sound and time) it reaches to 51. The number 51 denotes the total Sanskrit
(Devanagiri) alphabets, and also 51 Shakti Pithas (holy sites associated to the different parts
of the body of Great Goddess) located at 51 different places in Indian subcontinent. This way
the garland itself identifies unity and wholeness of ― cosmos and nature (in the form of
spatial manifestation).
The triad symbol ultimately emerges into a circle and the centre therein identified as
the primordial seed (bija). The most dynamic symbol of the interconnectedness and
wholeness is the mystic design, called Shri Yantra ―summarising in a glance the whole
sense of the Hindu world of myth and symbol (Zimmer 1993: 140; Fig. 6). There are three
structural elements in the Yantra: (1) a squared outer frame, composed of two straight lines
turned according to a regular pattern, (2) an enclose arrangement of four concentric circles
and two stylised lotus petals (16, and 8), and (3) a concentric composition of nine
interpreting triangles thus covering to form 45 smaller triangles in three series (cf. Fig. 6).
The Yantra is a mechanism to yield energy for some definite purpose from the gradual
evolution of vision.

Fig. 6. Shri Yantra.

The number of converging 45 triangles into three series at once form symmetry and
asymmetry together. According to the Shiva Purana (dated c. CE 9th century) the Surya
Yantra (Sun-Yantra gives highest religious merit. This is identical to the Chinese magical
square of three which is based on asymmetrical proportions of 7: 5: 3; where from any
straight-side the total comes to 15, and thus finally 45 (see Fig. 7). In Taoism the proportion
Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 123

7:5:3 is a magic square, an image of the harmony of the universe around which royal
buildings and landscape environments were oriented (cf. Johnson 1991: 179; also
Cammanan 1961). There is much possibility that either Brahmanic cosmology went to China
during the arrival of Buddhism, or in course of time it might have arrived India and get
emerged in the Brahmanic thought. In general these mystical designs as cosmograms are
soteriological ― seeing the universe as a network and stage for the drama of salvation.

Fig. 7. Three Forms of the Surya (sun) Yantra.

(a) Octagonal for Karma (desire), (b ) Lotus for Artha (wealth), (c ) Grid-square for dharma
(right act); and Chinese Magic square

5. Deity, Direction and Cosmic Unity

If for the archaic mentality, reality manifests itself as force, effectiveness, and duration, the
varieties of symbols and forms to be assumed as representation of various characteristics. An
old folk saying provokes existence of 330 million divinities in Hinduism. Recently as a satire
a person has counted the present total number of divinities in Hinduism: 840 million! (equal
to India’s total population in 1991). Following the mythic tradition of ancient India, the
deities are placed as controller of different directions (dikpalas). With their manifestive
power they look after the well being of mankind and organic world in the rhythm of space
and time. The earliest reference to dikpalas is found in c. CE 1st century, however only by c.
8th-9th centuries they were described in various forms, of course in most cases there appear
similarities.
The Agni Purana (51, 56, 96) and the Matya Purana (260-261) mention eight
directional regents--considered to be the advanced form of development. The earliest
reference of directional guardian (lokapala) is narrated in the Mahabharata (8.45.31), the
Ramayana (6.131.64), the Atharva Veda (1.31), the Taittiriya Samhita (5.5-10) and the
Manu Smriti (5.96) [see Table 3; Figs. 8, 9].

Fig. 8. Directional deities (Dikpalas)

Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 124

Fig. 9. Images and temple affiliation of Directional guardians.

Hindu temples are the superb manifestation of the idea of sacred space, directions
and associated divinities. According to Hindu architecture the ground plan of a temple-or
worship place is to be made in a square pattern with nine outer grids on each side, including
four open grids showing cardinal gates; the inner portion is divided into nine grids. Thus,
altogether there exist 41 grids, each representing a part of the body of the divine image. ‘Me
temple is considered here as Human Body, Vastu Purusha Mandala (see Fig. 10). In fact, the
plan represents the symbolic merger of body, space and cosmos (cf. Singh 1988: 445).
Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 125

Fig. 10. Vastu Purusha Mandala (The Temple as Human-body).

Table 3. Directional Deities and their associated symbols

Direction Dikpala Divine- vehicle weapon Divine realm and function
character
East Indra storm-god elephant Vajra lord of heaven, storm,
(thunderbolt) lightening
Southeast Agni fire-god ram Danda head of ancestors
(a staff)
South Yama death-god buffalo Gada sovereign of the infernal
(a club) regions
Southwest Nirutti evil-god witch/ Gada leader of elves, (nairritas)
female (a club)
West Varuna ocean-god fish Pasha living in terrestrial ocean &
(a noose) watching demons
Northwest Vayu wind-god deer Pattaka destruction god of violent
(a flag) desires
North Kubera wealth-god horse sword lord of richness, & metal
stored inside the earth
Northeast Ishana purifier- bull Trishula a particular aspect of Shiva,
god (a trident) the embodiment of air

Sometimes, at two directions the Sun-god (Surya) ―the source of light and warmth,
and the Moon-god (Chandra) ― associated to essence of life and the beverage of
immortality, are also described.
Full knowledge of the whole is certainly impossible, yet it is only with this
“wholesense” that any part is comprehensive. The transfigurational aspects of supreme lord
is described in the Gita (11.5) as:
Behold, My forms, a hundred-fold, a thousand-fold, various in kind, divine, of various
colours and shapes.
Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 126

However (ibid. : 8),

But thou canst not behold Me with this (human) eye of yours; I will bestow on thee the
supernatural eye. Behold My divine power.

Fig. 11. Vishvarupa (archaic) image (after Maxwell 1973: 65).

Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 127

Afterwards the great lord of Yoga, Krishna, revealed His Supreme and Divine Form
(ibid.: 9). Radhakrishnan (1972: 273) notes that “this is Krishna’s transfiguration where
Arjun sees all the creatures in heaven and earth in the Divine Form.” This is the overall form
of the universe (Vishvarupa). The similar myth of Vishvarupa is described in the Rig Veda
and the later epics and mythologies (see Maxwell 1973). The Vishvarupa icon is, “rather, a
theological statement in the sense that it is a cosmograph to which is lent the powerful
dynamics of the Vishvarupa (archaic)-myth become (classical) legend, the element which
distinguishes it from a mere cosmic yantra. Its purpose is not instruction, but revelation”
(ibid.: 65; Fig. 11). This revelation, in fact, is the “sacred unity of the biosphere” what
Bateson (1979: 17) calls as earth-oriented affirmation of the innate goodness of life.

6. Transgression: Harmony with Nature

The whole of human life, says Schumacher (1973), is a dialogue between man and
environment, a sequence of questions and responses. We threat the universe by our action
and resultant progress, and in consequence universe reacts to our actions with a trial to
harmonise the cosmic order with its law or even violate them (Chaitanya 1983: 131). If in
spite of repeated warnings, we continue out threats, the consequences lead to loss of order ―
resulting to disharmony. Presently we are facing this situation. The Vedic hymns meant the
same idea through rita ― a natural order of harmony between Nature and Man (RV 2.23.3).
With respect to nature’s benediction, the Rig Veda (1.90.6-7) prays:
May sweet to us be the night and sweet the dawns;
Sweet the dust of the earth! Sweet be our father the sky to us!
For one who lives according to Eternal Law,
the winds are full of sweetness, the rivers pour sweets.
So may the planets be full of sweetness to us.

In a hymn to Varuna, the Rig Veda (2.28.5) mentions:

Loose me from sin as from a bond
that binds me; may be swell, Varuna, the spring of Eternal Order

Further in a hymn to Pavamana (Soma, the elixir of life), the Vedic seer asks for bliss
to the eternity of life through the cosmic fluid (Indu) which maintains the Eternal Order (RV
9.113.7):
O Pavamana, place me in that deathless
undecaying world, wherein the light of heaven is set, and
everlasting lustre shines.
Flow, Indu, flow for Indra’s sake

The inner vision of man portrays the fact that he is the divine being representing the
totality of cosmos. Says the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (3.12): “That person indeed is the
great lord, the impeller of the highest being. (He has the power of) reaching the purest
attainment, the imperishable light.” However, Aurobindo (1979: 14) laments that “nothing in
all the universe is frail as man.”
As a call of the time, Arne Naess (1989: 33, 195-197) begins the ultimate value system
of human being by ‘Self-realisation’ that expands from each of us to include all. The
philosophy of oneness, what Naess calls ― Ecosophy ― has its root in the Hindu
mythology. He has compared this with the Gita (6.29):
Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 128

He whose self is harmonised by yoga seeth the Self abiding in all beings and all being
in the Self; everywhere he sees the same.

Commenting on the ecological crisis and its historical root, White (1967: 1207)
remarks: “Since the roots of our trouble are so largely religious, the remedy must also be
essentially religious, whether we call it that or not. We must rethink and refeel our nature
and destiny.” The father of ‘deep ecology’, Arne Naess (1989: 212) closes his book with a
great hope for an ordered and harmonic unity between man and nature in the coming future:

It is my hope that beings endowed with a brain like ours, developed through hundreds
of millions of years in close interaction with all kinds of life will inevitably support a
way of life not only narrowly favourable to this species, but favourable to the whole
ecosphere in all its diversity and complexity. A uniquely endowed part of this
ecosphere will not turn into its eternal enemy.

8. Closing Down
The Sky above: Father.
The Earth below: Mother.
The mind above, matter below.
Spirit interconnects together.
Cosmos: Order and Unity ― the elixir of life.
Sacred Geography― inner vision of ecology.
Cosmos―Theos―Anthropos―/
.............../………/…………../

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Singh, Rana P.B. 1993. Cosmos, Theos, Anthropos…Hinduism. Nat. Geog. Jl. In., 39: 113-130. 130

The Author
Contact & Corresponding Address:
Prof. Dr. RANA P. B. SINGH
Professor of Cultural Geography & Heritage Studies,
Banaras Hindu University
# New F - 7, Jodhpur Colony; B.H.U.,
Varanasi, UP 221005. INDIA.
Tel: (+091)-542-2575-843. Cell: (+91-0)- 9838 119474.
Email: ranapbs@gmail.com ; ranapbsingh@dataone.in

§ Rana P.B. Singh [born: 15 Dec. 1950], M.A. 1971, Ph.D. 1974, F.J.F. (Japan) 1980,
F.A.A.I. (Italy) 2010, Professor of Cultural Geography & Heritage Studies at Banaras Hindu
University since January 1999, has been involved in studying, performing and promoting the
heritage planning, sacred geography & cultural astronomy, pilgrimage studies and goddess
landscapes in the Varanasi region for the last four decades, as consultant, project director,
collaborator and organiser. He is also the Member, UNESCO Network of Indian Cities of
Living Heritage (- representing Varanasi), since 2005. As visiting scholar on these topics he
has given lectures and seminars at various centres in Australia, Austria, Belgium, China PR,
Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, USA (&
Hawaii), USSR. His publications include over 220 papers and 41 books on these subjects,
including Banaras (Varanasi), Cosmic Order, Sacred City, Hindu Traditions (1993),
Environmental Ethics (1993), The Spirit and Power of Place (1994), Banaras Region: A
Spiritual & Cultural Guide (2002, with P.S. Rana), Towards pilgrimage Archetypes:
Panchakroshi Yatra of Kashi (2002), Where the Buddha Walked (2003), The Cultural
Landscape and the Lifeworld: The Literary Images of Banaras (2004), Banaras, the City
Revealed (2005, with George Michell), Banaras, the Heritage City: Geography, History,
Bibliography (2009), and the eight books under ‘Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding
Series’: six from Cambridge Scholars Publishing UK: Uprooting Geographic Thoughts in
India (2009), Geographical Thoughts in India: Snapshots and Vision for the 21st Century
(2009), Cosmic Order & Cultural Astronomy (2009), Banaras, Making of India’s Heritage
City (2009), Sacred Geography of Goddesses in South Asia (2010), Hindu Tradition of
Pilgrimage: Sacred Space and System (2012), and three from Shubhi Publications (New
Delhi): Heritagescapes and Cultural Landscapes (2011), Sacredscapes and Pilgrimage
Systems (2011), and Holy Places and Pilgrimages: Essays on India (2011). Presently he is
working on a book, Kashi & Cosmos: Sacred Geography and Ritualscape of Banaras.
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