Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 119918

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

An evaluation of the performance of hot mix asphalt containing calcium

carbide residue as a filler
Anmar Dulaimi a,b,c,⇑, Hayder Kamil Shanbara d, Hassnen Jafer e, Monower Sadique f
a
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Warith Al-Anbiyaa, Karbala, Iraq
b
Ministry of Education, Karbala, Iraq
c
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Kerbala, Karbala, Iraq
d
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Al-Muthanna University, Al-Muthanna, Samawah, Iraq
e
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Babylon, Babylon, Iraq
f
Department of Civil Engineering, Liverpool John Moores University, Peter Jost Enterprise Centre, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK

h i g h l i g h t s

The feasibility of using carbide lime as an alternative filler in hot mix asphalt was examined.

The use of CCR improved the stiffness of hot mix asphalt mixtures.

Improving crack initiation and propagation resistance have been achieved with the CCR.

The CCR filler enhanced the rutting performance of hot mix asphalt mixtures.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The reduction of both environmental problems and construction costs has motivated the asphalt pave-
Received 14 December 2019 ment industry to increasingly use waste materials as alternative raw materials in road pavements con-
Received in revised form 8 June 2020 struction. This investigation aims to explore the potential of waste calcium carbide residue (CCR) for
Accepted 9 June 2020
use as a filler in hot mix asphalt (HMA), by substituting traditional limestone filler in various proportions.
Asphalt mixes were prepared using different CCR ratios (0%, 3% and 6%) by aggregate dry weight, their
strength, properties and performance evaluated against the indirect tensile stiffness modulus, rutting,
Keywords:
crack initiation, crack propagation and moisture damage. The results show that stiffness modulus and
Calcium carbide residue
Durability
resistance to permanent deformation and cracks have been enhanced due to the addition of CCR. HMA
Filler modified with CCR was also found to be less sensitive to water damage than traditional HMA with lime-
Hot mix asphalt stone filler. A toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) test revealed that the CCR used in the pro-
Stiffness modulus duction of HMA has no environmental impact. Therefore, based on this study, CCR can be considered as a
Rutting resistance plausible alternative to conventional filler in HMA, the implication being that large amounts of waste car-
bide lime can be removed from landfill, thereby significantly reducing environmental damage.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction leading researchers and scientific authorities to develop ecological

Solid waste is currently a major cause for concern across many
countries. Continuing increases in such waste also intensifies
demands on available landfill space, implying that this situation
requires attention. Globally, societies are faced with issues around
environmental conservation and preservation as this has an impact
on our everyday lives. Our attitudes towards the use of resources,
conservation and recycling have become of crucial importance
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineer-
ing, University of Warith Al-Anbiyaa, Karbala, Iraq.
E-mail address: a.f.dulaimi@uowa.edu.iq (A. Dulaimi).
and economically sustainable recycling practices [1]. Increases in
the cost of virgin materials, ecological concerns and progressively
decreasing quantities of natural resources, have created an increas-
ing pressure to find alternative waste and by-product materials as
efficient substitutes for conventional construction materials [2].
Flexible pavement is the preferred pavement structure around
the world: around 95% of the world’s roads are made of this type
of pavement, these using bituminous mixes [3]. These mixes com-
prise asphalt binder, mineral aggregates and filler. Fillers are min-
eral grains representing 5–10% of the aggregate by weight in the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119918
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 A. Dulaimi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 119918

whole mixture and considered the particles in the asphalt mixture CaC 2 þ 2H2 O ! C 2 H2 þ CaðOHÞ2 ð1Þ
as they are passed through a 63 mm sieve [4].
As can be seen from Eq. (1), 74 g of CCR comprised of Ca(OH)2
Different studies have been carried out to examine the impact
and 26 g of acetylene gas (C2H2), can be created from 64 g of calcium
of mineral fillers on the behaviour of bituminous mixes, their role
carbide (CaC2). As a result of the high alkalinity of the CCR, it causes
to enhance the bond between the binder and aggregates and to
many ecological issues when disposed of in landfill. However, in the
lower the optimum bitumen content required. Fillers also
last few years, CCR has been considered very attractive as it is rich
enhances both the density and stability of the mix, this facilitating
in hydrate lime compound (Ca(OH)2) contents, so it can be used as
improvements in the performance of the pavement [5]. The phys-
an activator, working in the same way as Portland cement [25]. CCR
ical properties of fillers such as texture, particle shape, porosity,
has been used as an alkaline promoter for geopolymerised clay–fly
size, specific gravity and size distribution, and chemical properties
ash for use in pavement subgrade [26]. It also has been used more
such as mineralogy and active clay content, all have a significant
recently as a promotor in a comparative study that used Portland
influence on pavement distresses including fatigue, moisture sus-
cement on bottom ash geopolymer [25]. The results revealed that
ceptibility, rutting, aging and low-temperature cracking [2,6-9].
strength development improved while its setting time decreased.
Ageing processes can also be modified by fillers [10]. As such, Car-
Nuh et al. [27] stated that CCR can potentially be used in HMA as
done et al. [11] suggested that due to the influence of cost and the
a filler where both the chemical and physical characteristics of CCR
performance of pavements, an appropriate filler should be chosen
are within specified limits for mineral fillers in such mixtures. They
for the bituminous mix. While the most commonly used filler is
found that HMA with CCR gave an improved high temperature
limestone, other filler materials include hydrated lime and Port-
resistance in comparison to that of mixes using limestone filler
land cement.
[28]. Although Nuh et al. [27] stated that CCR can be utilized as a fil-
Kim et al. [12] and Kim et al. [13] described how the filler helps
ler in bituminous mixes, they did not examine the performance of
control the engineering properties of asphalt mixes due to its
such mixtures regarding permanent deformation, fatigue and crack
major role regarding the properties of mixes such as stiffness,
propagation. Recently, a new cementitious filler that contains both
moisture susceptibility, and resistance to fracture and rutting of
CCR and ground-granulated blast-furnace slag, was developed as an
the asphalt concrete. Asi and Assa’ad [14] also found that even a
alternative to limestone filler to produce a sustainable cold asphalt
small amount of filler (around 7–5% of the aggregate in the mix)
emulsion mix [29]. Considerable changes in the microstructure lead
has a substantial influence on the characteristics of hot mix asphalt
to significant improvements in mechanical properties of said mix.
(HMA). They also stated that both the moisture resistivity and
Currently, there is a rapid depletion in the availability of natural
strength of asphalt concrete mixtures were enhanced by the inclu-
resources due to increases in civil infrastructures, making it crucial
sion of Jordanian oil shale fly ash. The incorporation of urban solid
to find an alternative to these. Recycling fillers from the industrial
waste incinerator fly ash in mixtures of stone matrix asphalt
sector is preferable as it is environmentally friendly as well as eco-
(SMA), as a partial substitution for the mineral filler, was examined
nomically viable. In 2014, the global manufacturing of acetylene
by Xue et al. [1]. They reported that the moisture susceptibility
gas was around 500,000 t, this generating around 1,423,000 t of
resistance of such mixtures increased and that the fatigue life
waste carbide lime. This figure is expected to increase by 3% in
showed substantial improvement.
2020 [30]. Given that increasing attention has been given to reus-
Al-Abdul Wahhab et al. [15] reported that using heavy oil fly
ing waste and by-product materials to manufacture asphalt pave-
ash in asphalt mixtures improved fatigue life, resilient modulus
ments, a situation which can be attributed to inflation in the cost of
and split tensile strength against rutting. Cement kiln dust was
traditional fillers, this paper will examine the feasible of the use of
used by Modarres et al. [16] in HMA, the findings indicating that
CCR as a filler material in HMA. The judicious selection of CCR as a
this material facilitated a higher fatigue life compared to that of
waste filler will not only reduce the manufacturing costs of asphalt
traditional HMA. The modification of bituminous mixtures using
mixes, but also promises to enhance the performance of the mix
date seed ash as a mineral filler, has been carried out to assess
against different distresses. In addition, the performance of a pave-
the moisture failure resistance of such mixes, findings indicating
ment mixture containing CCR has not been fully considered to
that the adhesion and cohesion between the aggregates and bitu-
date. This study uses CCR generated from acetylene gas production,
men were better developed and that resistance to moisture was
as the raw material to add to an asphalt mixture in order to reduce
improved [17].
both economical and environmental impacts. This industrial waste
A rich calcium fly ash and a fluid catalytic cracking catalyst
can be diverted from landfill and put to good use if attention is
residue have been used to create a binary mixture of cementitious
given to its innovative industrial potential.
filler to replace traditional mineral filler in cold asphalt mixes
[18,19]. In addition, experimental studies have been conducted
using agricultural waste / byproducts materials such as biomass 2. Materials and experimental program
ash as a replacement to conventional filler in HMA [20]. Findings
have revealed that replacing traditional filler with biomass ashes 2.1. Aggregate
such as date seed and rice husk ashes, improved both stability
stiffness and stability modulus compared to the reference mix Crushed granite aggregate was selected for this research, while
[20]. Employing biomass ash also enhanced thermal sensitivity the conventional mineral filler was limestone. A hot mix asphalt,
and rutting resistance, along with fatigue life. Carbide lime can prepared with a close-graded surface coarse gradation of 14 mm,
be used for soil stabilization as an alternative, low-cost, effective, was mixed as specified by BS EN 933–1 [31] (Fig. 1). The chosen
amendment [21]. aggregate is commonly used in the manufacture of bituminous
Acetylene gas (C2H2) production processes produce calcium car- mixes and is considered hard, durable, clean, of suitable shape
bide residue (CCR) as a waste product through the hydrolysis of and resist rutting [32]. Table 1 presents the mechanical character-
calcium carbide (CaC2). Acetylene and CCR are generated when cal- istics of the used aggregate.
cium carbide reacts with water. The end-product CCR is an aque-
ous slurry comprised of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2 (>80%), 2.2. Asphalt binder
some calcium carbonate (<10%) and some minor silicates and car-
bon [22,23]. The reaction mechanism can be described by the A conventional 100/150 penetration grade asphalt binder with
equation below [24]: 43.5 sC as a softening point, was chosen to produce the bituminous
 A. Dulaimi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 119918 3

fillers (CCR and LF) are 2.346 and 2.647, respectively. The specific
gravity of the non-soluble CCR is close to the range of 2.25 to
2.36 stated by previous studies [34-38] and it was measured using
gas jar method specified by BS 1377–2 [39].
Both the surface texture and the shape of the filler can affect the
performance of the asphalt mixture. As such, both have been
examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to evaluate
their morphology. Fig. 2 displays the microscopic morphology of
the various filler particles where it was observed that the lime-
stone particles are irregular in shape with a slightly rough texture,
while calcium carbide lime particles are small and commonly
agglomerated with a rough texture. These results are consistent
with a previously published article [25].
Fig. 3 displays the curves for grain size distribution of both the
Fig. 1. 14 mm close graded surface course. limestone filler and calcium carbide lime, obtained by laser particle
size analysis using a Beckman Coulter Laser Diffraction Particle
Size Analyser, LS 13 320. Most of the CCR particles fall in the region
Table 1
Physical characteristics of the aggregate.
of 9 lm to 70 lm, having d50 and d90 equal to 15.13 lm and
50.46 lm, respectively. Limestone dust particles have d50 and d90
Material Test Result Specification equal to 24.21 lm and 96.82 lm, respectively, falling within the
Coarse aggregate BPD*, g /cm3 2.60 BS EN 1097–6:20 l 3 range of 9 lm to 150 lm. A study performed by Kandhal et al.
APD**, g /cm3 2.65 [40] proposed that finer filler particles not only lead to improved
WA***, % 0.7
stiffening of the binder but also increased stripping resistance.
Fine aggregate BPD*, g /cm3 2.53
APD**, g /cm3 2.64 The mineralogical and chemical compositions of filler materials
WA***, % 1.5 play a crucial role in hot mix asphalt performance. Fig. 4 presents
the XRD diffractograms of the CCR and LF, performed using a
Bulk particle density*, apparent particle density**, water absorption***
Rigaku Miniflex diffractometer. It can be seen that calcite and port-
landite are predominant. It has been reported that both hydrated
mixtures. This bitumen grade was selected as it is normally used to lime and Ordinary Portland cement have these compounds, both
produce HMA mixtures. It has been reported by Shanbara et al. [3] commonly recognized anti-stripping materials [2,41]. Calcite gen-
that this binder is the ideal grade to manufacture bituminous mix- erally has good bitumen adhesion [42]. The X-ray diffraction pat-
tures with an AC 14 mm close-graded surface course aggregate tern of the LF displays that the most important crystal peaks in
gradation, in accordance with the British Standard PD 6691:2016 LF are calcite (CaCO3) and quartz (SiO2).
[33]. The binder content of such aggregate gradation conforms to Table 3 details the prime oxides identified via Energy Dispersive
British standards i.e. 5.1% of the dry aggregate. All bituminous X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF), using a Shimadzn EDX 720 for CCR,
specimens were prepared and tested with 5.1% binder content these namely calcium oxide and silica. There is 77.82% of calcium
according to this standard and the current literature [2,20]. The oxide in the LF, this representing a high content. However, it is con-
properties of the bitumen are displayed in Table 2. sidered an inert material, so when it is in contact with water, no
hydration occurs so the calcium oxide remains in a non-hydrated
2.3. Fillers state (pure calcium carbonate) [43].

The CCR utilized in this investigation was supplied by BOC UK &
Ireland. Acetylene gas is the main product derived from the reac-
tion between calcium carbide and water, while lime slurry is gen-
erated as a by-product. The reaction is exothermic, water used to
control the temperature in the generator; this creating a ratio of
between 6 and 10:1 water: lime. The lime slurry is drained off into
holding tanks where it is either loaded into tankers as slurry or
pumped to a filter press to produce a cake. The water from the cake
is recycled. The carbide lime (lime cake) used in this study was first
subject to grinding using a pestle and mortar for 15 min. This pro-
cess prevents particle agglomeration and takes sustainability into
account. Limestone filler (LF) was used as the conventional filler,
supplied by Francis Flower in the UK, of BS EN 13,043 grade, with
a CaCO3 content>70%, particle size > 70% passing through a 63 mm
sieve with a moisture content < 0.1%. The specific gravity of both
Table 2
Properties of 100/150 bitumen.
Property Value
Appearance Black
Penetration at 25 °C, 0.1 mm 142
Softening point, °C 43.5
Kinematic viscosity at 135 ‘C, mPa.s 179
Density, g /cm3 1.02
2.4. Experimental program
Tests for stiffness, crack propagation and resistance to both rut-
ting and fatigue, have been applied to mixtures made with CCR and
a reference mixture made with traditional LF. A water sensitivity
test was also undertaken to understand the role of CCR with refer-
ence to moisture resistance.
2.4.1. Indirect tensile stiffness modulus test (ITSM)
This test is conducted by applying repeated compressive load
pulses to obtain a target horizontal displacement of 0.005% of the
sample diameter. Based on the standard BS EN 12697–26 [44],
ITSM was carried out at 20 °C. The load is applied vertically on
the specimens, according to the compaction direction. All cylindri-
cal samples were mixed and compacted in one of the specified
impact compactors suggested by BS EN 12697–30 [45]. All the
required parameters such as mass and height of fall of the hammer,
number of blows (50) and compaction temperature were strictly
followed as specified by the standard and allowed to cool to room
temperature before conducting relevant tests. A similar procedure
was also followed by the current literature [46-48]. Furthermore,
relevant standard [49] specified sample preparation and com-
paction procedure were also followed in this research for wheel
tracking, fatigue and crack propagation tests. Moreover, the statis-
tical significance of volumetric properties shown in section 3.1
4 A. Dulaimi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 119918

LF CCR

Fig. 2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of filler materials.

Fig. 3. Comparative PSD of candidate materials.

Table 3
Comparative chemical properties of both CCR and LF.

Chemical composition CCR LF

CaO, % 81.84 77.82
A12O3, % 0.90 0.0
SiO2, % 14.08 17.21
(CCR) Fe2O3, % 0.00 0.0
MgO, % 0.77 0.89
Na2O, % 1.32 2.27
TiO2, % 0.12 0.19
K2O, % 0.20 0.35
SO3, % 0.77 0.01

indicates that consistent air voids content was achieved through-

out this research. By applying the following equation, ITSM mea-
surements for each specimen were the average value of two
diameter repeated measurements:
(LF)
P:ð0:27 þ v Þ
Sm ¼ ð2Þ
z:h
where P is the maximum applied vertical load, z the maximum
lateral resilient displacement, h the specimen thickness and t the
Fig. 4. Powder XRD pattern of CCR and LF. Poisson’s ratio, supposed to be 0.35 following the European Stan-
 A. Dulaimi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 119918
dards [44]. To prepare the samples for both the ITSM and water
sensitivity tests, both fillers and aggregate were heated overnight
at 150–175sC. Following this, the coarse and fine aggregates and
fillers were mixed with the 100/150 pen bitumen at temperatures
of 150-160sC.
2.4.2. Wheel track testing
Rutting commonly occurs under heavy traffic loads and can be
considered as a main cause of flexible pavement failure [50,51].
In the laboratory, wheel tracking devices are an accepted, common
technique used to run simulative tests that evaluate the quality of
bituminous mixtures in terms of rutting. Tests are typically con-
ducted on 400  305  50 mm bituminous mixture slabs under
a moving wheel load stress of 0.7 MPa. A small, loaded, flat solid
rubber tyre was rolled repeatedly (42 passing per minute) across
a prepared bituminous slab specimen, applied at a fixed tempera-
ture of 45 ℃, the wheel track test performed based on BS EN
12697–22 [52]. HMA was prepared and placed in rectangular steel
moulds, then compacted using a steel roller compactor by applying
32 cycles to achieve the equivalent air voids as those obtained for
the cylindrical specimens. All the bituminous specimens were
loaded and kept in the temperature controlled chamber of the
wheel tracking device, at a test temperature of 45 ℃, for at least
six hours prior to testing. A data acquisition system was used to
observe the progression of the accumulated rut depth under
10,000 applied, moving, wheel load cycles (20,000 load passes).
Three different bituminous slab specimens were performed for
each combination of mixture, the average values reported. The
wheel tracking tests using small device were performed in dry
mode.
2.4.3. Fatigue test
The generation of fatigue cracking affects the in-service perfor-
mance of the pavement [20,53]. The resistance of HMA to fatigue
damage is influenced mainly by the material characteristics used
in the asphalt mixture [51]. As such, and to avoid premature fati-
gue, it is essential to investigate the fatigue cracking of HMA. A
four-point bending test (4 PB) was used to determine the fatigue
crack resistance for the HMA, as specified by the BS EN 12697–
24 [54]. The fatigue life (Nf), is the number of cycles required to
reach a 50% decrease in the initial stiffness of the mixture. Brown
and Needham [43] stated that the strain levels in a pavement
structure are likely to be lower than 200 microstrain, this depen-
dent on variables such as layer thickness, subgrade, the type of
mixture and load. Tests were performed at a temperature of
20 °C and a frequency of 10 Hz, under a sinusoidal waveform in
a controlled strain mode, on prismatic samples measuring
400  50  50 mm.
2.4.4. Crack propagation test
The CCR and LF mixtures were produced according to the Euro-
pean Standards followed when making semi-circular bending
(SCB) test specimens. Different specimens of cylindrical forms of
diameter 150 mm and depth 50 mm were extruded from com-
pacted slabs. The cylindrical specimens were then cut into two
halves along the diameter. Accordingly, 6 specimens were pro-
duced from each slab sample. After preparing the SCB specimens,
a table saw was used to make a 0.35 mm wide notch in the middle
of each sample. A 10 mm notch length was performed to measure
the tensile strength of the bituminous mixes using SCB geometry. A
temperature-controlled room was used to keep all tested speci-
mens at a temperature of 5℃, for at least four hours before testing.
After this conditioning process, a loading rate of 5 mm/min (was
applied to the top centre line of the samples), and a testing temper-
ature of 5℃, were designated to examine the fracture behaviour of
the bituminous mixes. The SCB test was achieved based on the BS
5
EN 12697–44 [55] using a Universal Testing Machine type (H25KS).
The equivalent force rises to the highest value (Fmax) with the high-
est stress (rmax), this associated with the fracture toughness of the
samples (KIC) as shown in equations (3) and (4) below:
4:263  F max
rmax ¼ N=mm2 ð3Þ
Rh
where:
R = sample diameter (mm)
h = sample thickness (mm)
Fmax = the highest load of sample (N), and
z
K IC ¼ rmax  f N=mm3=2 ð4Þ
W
where:
W = sample height (mm)
z = sample notch depth (mm)
rmax = stress at failure of sample (N/mm2)
f(z/W) = sample geometric factor, for 9 < z < 11 mm and
70 < W < 75 mm, then, f(z/W) = 5.956.
2.4.5. Moisture susceptibility test
The service life of bituminous pavements can be reduced signif-
icantly by water damage. Both strength and durability can be lost
as a result of water permeating into the bituminous mixture. The
loss of cohesion of the bitumen and the loss of adhesion between
aggregates and bitumen, are the major mechanisms which cause
water damage [56]. In this study, the moisture susceptibility test
was evaluated as specified by the BS EN 12697–12 [57]. Following
this standard method, samples are divided into two groups. The
first set was the unconditional (dry) set of three samples which
were tested without moisture, the second set the wet set of three
samples which had been saturated in water. The first set (dry
set), which serve as reference samples, were left in their moulds
for 1 day at room temperature before being extruded and kept in
the lab at 20 °C for 7 days. The samples in the second group were
kept in water at room temperature for 4 days then placed in a vac-
uum container to obtain the required saturation. The specimens
were then removed and placed in a water bath at 40 ℃ for 3 days.
Both sets of specimens were then subjected to an ITSM test which
was carried out at 20 °C to measure the stiffness modulus ratio
(SMR). The SMR of samples can then be obtained from the follow-
ing equation:
SMR ¼ ðwet stiffness  dry stiffnessÞ  100 ð5Þ
2.4.6. A toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) test
The inclusion of waste materials in pavement layers could cause
the chronic emission of pollutants, specifically concentrated heavy
metals, this a considerable risk to human health [58]. Both surface
and underground water are in direct contact with pavement layers,
meaning that there is the potential for metal pollutants to be dis-
persed into underground water supplies thus increasing soil con-
tamination [59]. The major functions of the human body
involving liver, heart, kidneys, immune system, nervous system,
and joints are all effected by hazardous materials that comprise
heavy metals[60]. In light of this, a TCLP test has been utilized to
evaluate the extent of leaching of hazardous metals including zinc
(Zn), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), chromium
(Cr) and strontium (Sr). Xue et al. [61] and Modarres et al. [59] used
a TCLP test established by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) [62], to determine heavy metal leaching, the same
test used here, measurements performed using an atomic adsorp-
tion spectrometer. The TCLP was first performed on the CCR in a
powdered state, i.e. CCR, along with LF for comparison purposes.
5.7 ml acetic acid was diluted with deionized water to a volume
6 A. Dulaimi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 119918

of 1:l in order to create the TCLP leachates with a pH of 2.88 ± 0.05. 2500
The specimens (10 g) were placed in an extractor vessel that
already included 200 ml of the TCLP leachant and the prepared 2000
samples. These were agitated at 30 ± 2 rpm for 18 ± 2 h by a rotary
extractor machine at lab temperature. A glass fibre filter was then

used to filter the solutions, the filtrates then acidified to a pH
below 2, using acetic acid. An atomic adsorption spectrometer
(type: Thermo, Model: ICE 3300) was then used to measure the
concentration of heavy metals.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Volumetric properties
The volumetric properties of the modified and unmodified mix-
tures are listed in Table 4. Given that volumetric properties of com-
pacted bituminous mixtures can be affected by the filler, it was
important to establish that all mixtures satisfied British Standard
volumetric requirements [33]. This means that the CCR investi-
gated in this research can be used as a filler replacement in
HMA. The varying results obtained for different mixtures with dif-
ferent fillers with the same asphalt content, were attributed to the
relative bulk density of the materials in the mix [2]. Air voids (AV)
are an essential element that affects water sensitivity and aging
asphalt mixtures. Using the same quantity of binder, the air voids
in the control mixture (0% CCR) was 4.65%, and for 3% and 6% CCR
mixtures, 4.89% and 5.13%, respectively in terms of cylindrical
specimens. Besides, the air voids content of the slabs containing
0%, 3% and 6% CCR was found to be 4.63%, 4.88% and 5.11%, respec-
tively which were used to conduct rutting, fatigue and crack prop-
agation tests. Mixtures prepared with 3% and 6% of CCR also had
more voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) than the conventional
mixture. The VMA occupied by the bitumen is called the ‘void filled
with bitumen’ (VFB). The VFB values of mixtures with 3% and 6% of
CCR were less than the conventional mixture. CCR as a filler can
therefore be used in areas defined as hot environments as there
is less probability of bleeding.
3.2. Indirect stiffness modulus test (ITSM)
An ITSM test was achieved at 20 ℃ to evaluate the stiffness
modulus of the bituminous mixtures. As detailed in the technical
literature [32,63-66], modified bituminous mixtures have notice-
able higher stiffness moduli than those of traditional mixtures.
The comparison of ITSM tests, as illustrated in Fig. 5, shows that
the CCR mixtures with 3% and 6% have higher stiffness values than
the control LF mixture (0% CCR). These results indicate that the
ITSM increased by 24% and 37%, for 3% CCR and 6% CCR mixtures,
respectively. Therefore, calcium carbide lime has improved the
mixture’s stiffness, the test revealing that the best replacement
for increasing ITSM was the substitution of traditional LF with 6%
CCR. The CCR mixture facilitates this enhanced ITSM value due to
the existence of both calcite and portlandite minerals, the primary
constituent of carbide lime (as shown in the XRD analysis), this
enhancing the adhesion of the bitumen filler. Furthermore, the
ITSM , MPa
1500
1000
500
0
0% CCR 3% CCR 6% CCR
CCR replacement
Fig. 5. ITSM results.
fineness of the CCR expedited the packing of the asphalt mix. It
was reported by Choudhary et al. [67] that higher stiffness in addi-
tion to a strong chemical interaction with the bitumen, can be gen-
erated by finer fillers. Modarres et al. [59] concluded that this was
due to a tendency towards a uniform distribution in asphalt mixes.
Also, Mohammad et al. [68] stated that the viscosity of the binder
can be enhanced due to increased binder film thickness by the
smaller particles, which in turn improves the binder cohesion.
For all mixtures, the ITSM was calculated at the average stiff-
ness values of five specimens as a measure of test repeatability.
Based on these outcomes, it is expected that the asphalt mixtures
comprising CCR filler, will show better rutting resistance. These
results are similar to the findings obtained by Tahami et al. [20]
and Pasandín et al. [9].
3.3. Results from wheel tracking test
Wheel track testing was carried out to check the sensitivity of
the bituminous mixtures containing CCR, to permanent deforma-
tion (rutting). It is crucial to mention that bituminous mixtures
enter the plastic zone immediately due to the rutting phenomenon
that commonly occurs at elevated temperatures [69]. Fig. 6 shows
the accumulative permanent deformations and the flow number
derived from the wheel track testing for the mixtures. According
to these results, better rutting resistance was achieved in the mix-
tures containing CCR in comparison to the control sample. These
results indicate that using 100% replacement of CCR is reasonable
and can enhance the rutting resistance of asphalt mixtures. A sam-
ple containing 6% CCR as a filler, has 5.75 times better rutting resis-
tance compared to the control sample (0% CCR). This development
can be attributed to the hardness of the bituminous mixes and its
improved stiffness. In addition, the findings of the wheel tracking
test are in agreement with the results of the ITSM tests in that
there were higher stiffness modulus values displayed by the CCR
mixtures, compared to the traditional asphalt mixture.
The wheel track test results suggest that substituting traditional
filler with CCR decreases the thermal susceptibility of bituminous

Table 4
Volumetric properties of bituminous mixtures.

Mixture type Bulk specific gravity AV (%) VMA (%) VFB (%)
Cylindrical specimens 0% CCR 2.339 4.65 13.55 73.51
3% CCR 2.334 4.89 13.86 71.63
6% CCR 2.331 5.13 13.99 70.89
Slab specimens 0% CCR 2.345 4.63 13.41 73.57
3% CCR 2.337 4.88 13.79 71.65
6% CCR 2.335 5.11 13.91 70.94
 A. Dulaimi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 119918 7

4 Furthermore, the roughness of the CCR could provide an additional

stable cohesive system that generates an improved reinforcing fac-
tor, causing better cohesion in the asphalt mastic. For all tests, fati-
3
gue was calculated at the average values of four tested samples as a
Rut depth, mm

Rung (mm) 0% CCR at 45

measure of test repeatability.
Rung (mm) 3% CCR at 45
2
Rung (mm) 6% CCR at 45
3.5. Crack propagation results
1
According to Fig. 8, the addition of CCR improves the fracture
resistance of the bituminous mixes. This significant improvement
0 (i.e., an increase in fracture resistance of 22% and 49% when CCR
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
contents increased to 3% and 6%, respectively), reveals that the ten-
Time, s sile strength of the asphalt mixtures has been improved. It appears
Fig. 6. Wheel track results.
that carbide lime adheres well to bitumen, modifies the asphalt
mixtures, performs as a cementitious material which bonds both
sides of the crack in the SCB specimens and resists the propagation
mixtures. The CCR filler influences the increase in rutting when the and opening of cracks. Accordingly, when bitumen viscosity is high
asphalt mastic is at an elevated temperature. The 6% CCR asphalt at low temperatures, the asphalt mixtures have their greatest ten-
mixture demonstrates improved performance at elevated temper- sile strength as a result of the modified mixtures that have higher
atures, indicating that this mixture is more rut resistance in a hot fracture resistance in tension mode (KIC). It has been observed that
environment. It is worth mentioning that this environment- an integrated structure can be generated by fine fillers uniformly
friendly and cost-effective material, i.e. CCR could be an alternative distributed in the mixture, leading to an enhancement in fracture
to Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) and Styrene Butadiene Styrene resistance [59,77].
(SBS) as additives which have proven to provide a positive impact
on permanent deformation behaviour of HMA [70-74]. 3.6. Moisture susceptibility

3.4. Fatigue test results The Stiffness Modulus Ratio (SMR) of HMA mixtures made with
calcium carbide lime and the control mixture, are shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 7 shows that the mixture with 6% CCR has the highest fati- The modified mixtures have a higher SMR than the reference mix-
gue life this having a substantial impact on fatigue behaviour in ture, this a result of the improved adhesion of bitumen to crushed
comparison with the control HMA with LF. The data indicating this
was based on controlled strain criteria with 150 microstrain. There
was a 30% increment in the fatigue life of the 6% CCR mix in com- 6000
parison to that of control LF mix, this due to the valuable enhance- 0% CCR 3% CCR 6% CCR
5000
ments in the cohesive characteristics of the asphalt mixture. This
enhancement in the fatigue life of the modified asphalt mixes is
4000
due to an increase in the adhesive force between the asphalt binder
Load, N

and aggregates, for improved cohesive force of the bitumen. Clopo-

3000
tel and Bahia [75] reported that the surface area of the filler
accounts for the adsorption of the asphalt binder, this adsorption 2000
improving the adhesion between aggregates and asphalt mastic
[76]. CCR particles are finer than that of traditional filler, thereby 1000
having a greater surface area. As such, CCR particles have improved
adsorption abilities and can generate better adhesion characteris- 0
tics, this resulting in a stronger bond to hold the aggregate parti- 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
cles together. Aggregate particles may be better bonded due to Displacement, mm
the thicker asphalt surrounding the aggregates, this generated by
Fig. 8. Crack propagation results.
the greater roughness of the CCR in comparison with the LF filler.

90000
Condioned Uncondioned SMR, %
80000 2250 110
70000 2000 100
Fague life , cycle

90
60000 1750
80
1500
ITSM, MPa

50000 70
SMR, %

1250 60
40000
1000 50
30000 40
750
20000 30
500
20
10000
250 10
0 0 0
0% CCR 3% CCR 6% CCR 0% CCR 3% CCR 6% CCR
Mix type Mixture type
Fig. 7. Fatigue results. Fig. 9. Moisture susceptibility results.
8 A. Dulaimi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 261 (2020) 119918
Table 5
TCLP test results.
Materials Nickel Cupper Lead
(Ni) (Cu) (Pb)
CCR 0 0.0034 0 0
LF 0 0 0.007
TCLP regulatory level 25 25 5 1
aggregate particles due to the positive effect of the CCR. The
replacement of limestone filler with calcium carbide lime produces
improved HMA water sensitivity, as indicated by an increase in
SMR from 95% to 99.5%. It is clear that good cohesion is mainly
responsible for this improved performance, versus the water action
in HMA mixtures made using CCR as filler. The pH values of the
CCR (13.1), reveal the alkaline nature of this filler. As bitumen
has a somewhat acidic nature, alkaline materials produce a stron-
ger bond with it [41], creating better resistance to water action and
superior stripping resistance [78]. In addition, the existence of both
portlandite and calcite as primary constituents in the structure of
CCR, increases water resistance and adhesion due to their anti-
stripping properties. The rough texture of the CCR particles may
positively affect the durability of mixes against water attack
because of better bitumen absorption on its surface.
This result can open a new promising route of investigation using
CCR as a filler in cold asphalt emulsion mixtures with wet aggregates
due to the existence of both calcite and portlandite minerals.
3.7. Heavy metal concentrations
The procedure recommended by the USEPA has been used to
perform the TCLP test in order to investigate ecological concerns
and the potential for heavy metal leachate from the waste CCR
and LF. The concentrations of heavy metals, Pb, Cu, Ni, Cd, Sr and
Cr in the leachates, has been shown in Table 5. According to
Modarres and Nosoudy [79] and Modarres et al. [16], the concen-
trations of the tested heavy metals in both CCR and LF, meets stan-
dard limits within regulatory levels. This means that CCR has no
harmful impact on the environment.
4. Conclusion
The use of calcium carbide lime instead of limestone filler in
HMA, was examined in this research. According to the findings,
the following points summarize the outcomes:

The mixture’s performance, in terms of stiffness modulus, can
be improved using CCR as a filler. Accordingly, comparing this
with the reference LF mixture, the stiffness modulus developed
by 37% for the mixtures containing CCR. This indicates that cal-
cium carbide lime could be positively utilized as a filler in HMA.

The experimental outcomes of wheel track testing indicated
that a significant development in permanent deformation resis-
tance was obtained due to the substitution of conventional filler
by CCR. This might be as a result of the developed stiffness mod-
ulus and a decrease in the thermal sensitivity of the CCR
mixture.

In terms of crack initiation, CCR created an enhancement in the
fatigue life of bituminous mixes due to improvements in the
cohesion and adhesion of such mixtures. With regard to crack
propagation resistance, a significant improvement was achieved
in the CCR mixtures due to the development of better adhesive
properties between the aggregates and binder.

The water sensitivity results improved for CCR mixtures in com-
parison with LF mixtures. This means that CCR mixtures are
more durable in comparison to LF mixtures in terms of water
damage: CCR can be used as an antistripping agent.
Cadmium Zinc Strontium Chromium
(Cd) (Zn) (Sr) (Cr)
0.0326 0 0.0841
0.014 0.291 0.241 0.002
25 - 5

The mineralogy of waste carbide lime filler, a predominance of
portlandite and calcite, created a stronger bond with bitumen
and facilitated adhesion.

The ecological analysis revealed that CCR does not pose any
threat to the environment as it satisfies the minimum require-
ments of regulatory levels specified for hazardous materials.

Based on the results of this research, calcium carbide residue is
a promising sustainable material to use as a filler in HMA. Sub-
stantial quantities of this waste material can therefore be used
in asphalt pavements instead of being sent to landfill sites.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Anmar Dulaimi: Supervision, Resources, Project administra-
tion, Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - original draft,
Writing - review & editing, Investigation, Formal analysis, Valida-
tion, Resources. Hayder Kamil Shanbara: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing,
Validation, Resources, Investigation, Formal analysis, Validation,
Resources. Hassnen Jafer: Writing - original draft, Writing - review
& editing, Investigation, Formal analysis. Monower Sadique: Writ-
ing - review & editing, Resources.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the co-operation of Francis Flower
and BOC UK & Ireland for their donation of materials to the present
research.
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