Solar Radiation

1
 Contents
• Introduction
• Earth’s motion about the sun
• Basic Earth-Sun angles
• Relationship between clock time and solar time
• Derived solar angles
• Shading of surfaces from direct solar radiation
• Solar-radiation intensity at outer limit of atmosphere
• Depletion of direct solar radiation by Earth’s atmosphere
• Estimation of intensity of solar radiation during average
clear days
• Solar radiation striking a surface
2
 Introduction
• The external thermal environment of a locality results from the
combined influences of solar radiation and meteorological
effects. Physical influences such as topography and ocean
currents may also be of great importance.
• The sun is the source of most energy on the earth and is a
primary factor in determining a locality's thermal environment. It
is important for engineers to have a working knowledge of the
earth's relationship to the sun. They should be able to make
estimates of solar-radiation
solar radiation intensity and know how to make
simple solar-radiation measurements. They should also
understand the thermal effects of solar radiation and know how
to control or utilize them.

3
 Introduction
• The amount of solar radiation entering a zone of a building, or
"solar
solar gain,
gain " is a major factor in determining the zone cooling
loads. The designer must be able to estimate these solar gains.
To do so it is necessary to predict the intensity of the solar
radiation and the direction at which it strikes building surfaces.
In addition, since much of the solar radiation enters the building
through
h h windows,
i d i is
it i important
i that
h one understands
d d the
h solar
l
transmission characteristics of glazing materials and how window
design including shading techniques such as window setback
design,
and exterior overhangs, can affect the solar gain of a space

4
 The Earth & its motion about the sun
• The planet Earth is nearly spherical Winter Solstice.
with a diameter of about 7900 Frigid zones
(12 7 x 103 km).
miles (12.7 km)
• It makes one rotation about its axis Temperate
every 24 hours. zones
• It completes a revolution about the
sun in a period of 365.25 days
approximately.
• The earth
earth'ss mean density is about
5.52 times that of water.
• The earth revolves about the sun in In the torrid zone,
pp
an approximately circular ppath, sun is at the zenith
with the sun located slightly off the at least once a year.
circle's center.
• The earth's mean distance to the
sun is
i about 9 3 x 107 miles
b t 9.3 il (1.5
(1 5 x
8
10 km).

5
 The Earth & its motion about the sun
• About January 1 the earth is closest Winter Solstice.
to the sun, while on about July 1 it Frigid zones
i most remote, b
is being
i about
b 33.33
percent farther away. Temperate
• During equinox, sun appears zones
directly overhead at the equator.
All points have exactly 12 hours of
daylight.
• Since the intensity of solar
radiation incident upon the top of In the torrid zone,
the atmosphere varies inversely sun is at the zenith
with the square of the earth-sun at least once a year.
distance, the earth receives about 7
percent more radiation in January
than
h ini July.
J l

6
 The Earth & its motion about the sun
• The earth's axis of rotation is tilted Winter Solstice.
23.5 degrees
g with respect
p to its Frigid zones
orbit about the sun. The earth's
tilted position is of profound Temperate
zones
significance,
g , for,, together
g with the
earth's daily rotation and yearly
revolution, it accounts for the
distribution of solar radiation over
the earth's surface, the changing
length of hours of daylight and In the torrid zone,
sun is at the zenith
d k
darkness, andd the
th changing
h i off the th
at least once a year.
seasons.
• Duringg winter solstice,, south pole
p is inclined 23.5
deg towards sun. All points north of arctic circle are
in continuous darkness. All points south of the
Antarctic circle are in continuous daylight.
7
 Earth’s motion about the sun
March 21
23.5 •
(equal nights)
June 21

23.5 •
(sun standing
still) dmean = 1.5E8 km

December 21

Perihelion distance = 0.983 dmean

(J
(January 4th)

Aphelion distance = 1.017 dmean September 22

(July 5th)
8
 Basic Earth-Sun Angles
Position of P on earth w.r.t. sun is defined by:
• Latitude l
• hour angle h
• sun’s declination d

15° h = 1 hour time sun center to

earth center
h ranges from
0 at solar noon to
maximum at sunrise/sunset

Solar noon occurs when sun rays

y are
perpendicular to earth at P.

9
 Basic Earth-Sun Angles
g

• Point P represents a location on the

Northern Hemisphere.
• l : Latitude
L i d angle l is
i the
h angular
l distance
di
of the point P north (or south) of the
equator.
q It is the angle
g between the line
OP and the projection of OP on the
equatorial plane. Point O represents
the center of the earth.
earth Take North
latitudes positive and south
latitudes negative.

10
 Basic Earth-Sun Angles
g

• h: hour angle is the angle measured in

the earth's equatorial plane between the
projection of OP and the projection of
a line from the center of the sun to the
center of the earth. At solar noon, the
h
hour angle
l is
i zero. One
O hourh off time
i isi
represented by 360/24 or 15 degrees
of hour angle. g As p part of the
convention, take the hour angle
negative before solar noon and
positive after solar noon.
noon

11
 Basic Earth-Sun Angles
g

• d: declination angle is the angular

distance of the sun's rays
y north ((or
south) of the equator. It is the angle
between a line extending from the
center
t r off the
th sun to
t the
th center
t r off the
th
earth and the projection of this line
upon
p the earth's equatorial
q plane.
p
(Take the declination positive when
the sun's rays are north of the
equator and negative when they are
south of the equator.)

12
Variation of sun’s declination

13
 Variation of sun’s declination
Equation for d:
⎛ 284 + n ⎞
d = 23.45 sin ⎜ 360 ⎟
⎝ 365 ⎠

14
 Clock Time and Local Solar Time
• Longitude: 0 (Greenwich) to 360°
• Complete
p rotation about earth own 15° longitude
g = 1 hour
axis: 24 hours
• GCT: Universal (Greenwich) Civil Time: time along zero longitude.
• LCT: Local Civil Time: determined at the longitude of the observer.
Increases eastwards. 4 minute time for 1° longitude.
• CT: Standard Clock time: fixed for each 15
15° longitude zone by its center
(standard meridian).
Lstd − Lloc
LCT = CT +
15

– Lstd = standard
t d d meridian
idi for
f the
th local
l l time
ti zone, degrees
d westt
– Lloc = longitude of actual location, degrees west

15
 Local Solar Time (LST)
• Whereas a civil day is precisely 24 hours, a solar day is
slightly different, owing to irregularities of the earth's
rotation,
i obliquity
bli i off the
h earth's
h' orbit,
bi and
d other
h factors.
f
• The difference between Local Solar Time (LST) and Local
Ci il Time
Civil Ti (LCT) is i called
ll d the
h Equation
E i off Time,
Ti E
E.

LST = LCT + E − DT
– E = Equation of Time, hr
– E = 0.165 sin 2B – 0.126 cos B – 0.025 sin B, where B=360(n-81)/364
– DT = Daylight Savings Time Correction (DT = 0 if not on Daylight
Savings Time,
Time otherwise DT is equal to the number of hours that the time
is advanced for Daylight Savings time).

16
Equation
q of time and solar hour

Solar hour angle in degrees: h = 15(LST – 12)

LST varies from 0 to 24 Ä h varies from -180 to 180.

17
 Example
p
• Determine the local solar time in Beirut (33° 54' north latitude,
28' east longitude) at 2:45 PM on December 24th.
35° 28
35
• (n = 334 + 24 = 358)

• Lstd =-30° LCT = CT + (Lstd – Lloc)/15 = 2.75 + (-30 +

35.467)/15 = 3.114 hr.

• From Table 13.2,

13 2 E = 0.165
0 165 sin 2B – 0.126
0 126 cos B – 0.025
0 025 sin
B, B = 360(n-81)/364 = 273.956 E = -0.00646 hr.

• LST = LCT + E = 3.114 – 0.00646 = 3.108 hr = 3:06 PM

18
 Zenith,, altitude,, and azimuth angles
g
• the zenith angle θH is the angle
between the sun's rays y and local
vertical, i.e., a line perpendicular to
the horizontal plane at P
(
(extension
i off OP).
OP)
• the altitude angle β is the angle in
a vertical plane between the sun sun'ss
rays and the projection of the sun's
rays on the horizontal plane.
β+ θH =π/2.
• the azimuth angle φ is the angle
in th
the h
horizontal
riz nt l pl
plane
n mmeasured
r d Center of earth
from south to the horizontal
projection
p j of the sun's rays.
19
 PS is ┴ to 0P
Earth axis PS ´ 0P-0z pplane

•zenith angle θH
•th altitude
•the l β;
ltit d angle
β + θH =π/2. IDN ´ x-z plane
Sun’s rays
•the azimuth angle φ
Projection of sunrays
(South) on plane
Earth center

x-y plane:
Equatorial plane

20
• (a1, b1, c1): direction cosines of OP.
(a2, b2, c2): direction cosines of IDN.
– a1 = cos l cos h, b1 = cos l sin h, c1 = sin l
– a2 = cos d, b2 = 0, c2 = sin d
• The sun's zenith angle θH is the anglee
between OP and IDN. Therefore:
cos θ h = cos l cos h cos d + sin l sin d
• Since β= π/2 − θH
sin β = cos l cos h cos d + sin l sin d
• Azimuth angle (negative east of south and positive west of south)

cos φ =
1
(cos d sin l cos h − sin d cos l )
cos β
21
 Incidence angle θ on a surface
For a horizontal surface:
Incidence angle = zenith angle.
β

• Surface tilt angle: Σ

• Surface azimuth angle: Ψ
• Incidence angle: θ
Between sun’s rays and normal
to surface.

• The surface-solar azimuth angle γ is: γ = φ − Ψ

cos θ = cos β cos γ sin Σ + sin β cos Σ
Vertical surface: cos θ = cos β cos γ
Horizontal surface: cos θ = sin β = cos θH

22
 Summary of angles
Angle Definition Expression
l Latitude angle between OP and its projection OP’ on equatorial plane
d declination angle between sunray OS and its projection OS’on equatorial plane
d = 23.45 sin [360(284+n)/365]
h Hour angle between OP’and
OP and OS’
OS
θH Zenith angle between position vector OP and sun ray OS. θH = π/2− β
β Altitude angle between sun ray OS and its β = π/2
π/2− θH
projection OS”on Ø (horizontal plane
through P normal to OP.) sin β = cos l cos h cos d + sin l sin d

φ Solar Azimuth angle

g between OS” and South cos φ = (sin β sin l - sin d)/(cos β cos l)
Σ Surface tilt angle between normal to surface PNS and OP.
Ψ Surface Azimuth angle between projection of PNS on Ø and South. +ve west of south.
γ Surface-Solar Azimuth angle γ=|φ−Ψ|
θ Angle on incidence between sun’s rays OS an sin θ = cos β cos γ sin Σ + sin β cos Σ
normal to surface PNS.

23
 A summaryy of the sign
g convention
• l: north latitudes are positive, south latitudes are negative.
• d: the declination is positive
positi e when
hen the sun's
s n's rays
ra s are north of the
equator, i.e., for the summer period in the northern hemisphere,
March 22 to September
p 22 approximately,
pp y, and negative
g when the
sun's rays are south of the equator.
g is negative
• h: the hour angle g before solar noon and p positive after
solar noon.
• φ: the sun's azimuth angle is negative east of south and positive
west of south. The equation for cos φ does not give the sign of
φ. The sign of φ is same as the sign of the hour angle h.
• γ = |φ − Ψ|;| The sign convention for Ψ is same as for φ. φ

24
 Example
p
• Find the solar altitude and azimuth at 10:00 AM on July 21st in
Beirut (33• 54
54' north latitude,
latitude 35• 28
28' east longitude)
• LCT = CT + (Lstd – Lloc)/15 = 10 + (-30 + 35.467)/15 = 10:22 AM.
• The equation of time from Table 13-1 is -6.2
-6 2 mins:
• LST = LCT + E = 10:22 – 0:06 = 10:16 AM
• Table 13-2
13 2 : d = 20.6
20 6 degrees.
degrees

sin β = cos l cos h cos d + sin l sin d

h = 15(LST − 12) = 15(10.267 − 12) = −26 deg
sin β = cos 33.9 cos 26 cos 20.6 + sin 33.9 sin 20.6

25
 Solar Irradiation
• When the earth is at its mean distance
from the sun, the solar-radiation ultraviolet infrared
i
intensity
i i id
incident upon a surface
f
normal to the sun's rays and at the
outer limit of the atmosphere is
k
known as the
th mean solar
l constant.
t t
IN,o = 1367 W/m2=432 Btu/hr ft2
• The area under the entire curve is the
solar constant.
• Total irradiation on a surface normal
to the sun rays:
y

I t = I direct normal + I diffuse + I reflected

Scattered by dust,
From nearby
Water vapor or Visible
surfaces
Absorbed and re
re-emitted.
emitted 40% of Isc,o
26
 Depletion of Direct Solar Radiation by Earth’s Atmosphere

• Change in spectral intensity across dy/sin β:

dy
dI DN , λ (y) = −K λ (y)I DN , λ (y)
sin β
integrating from 0 to y
⎡ 1 y ⎤
( ) = I DN , λ (0) exp ⎢ −
I DN , λ (y) ∫
⎢⎣ sin β 0
( )d ⎥
K λ (y)dy
⎥⎦

where the monochromatic extinction

coefficient Kλ includes the effects τλ: Effective monochromatic
off attenuation
i byb absorption
b i and d transmittance
transmittance.
scattering.

27
Depletion of Direct Solar Radiation by Earth’s Atmosphere
• Integrating over all spectrum:
∞ dy ∞
∫0 dI DN ,λ ( y) dλ = dI DN ( y) = − sin β ∫0 K λ ( y) I DN ,λ ( y) dλ
D fi the
Define th total
t t l extinction
ti ti coefficien
ffi i t K suchh th thatt
∞

K ( y) ≡
∫ 0
K λ ( y ) I DN ,λ ( y ) dλ
I DN ( y )
dy
⇒ dI DN ( y ) = − K ( y ) I DN ( y )
sin β
integrating from 0 to y
⎡ 1
Y
⎤
I DN ( y ) = I DN (0) exp ⎢− ∫
⎣ sin β 0
K ( y )dy ⎥
⎦

28
 Solar Irradiation
• In solar-radiation calculations, unit depth of the
atmosphere
t ph is i taken
t k as depth
d pth when
h the
th sun is
i att the
th
zenith. The air mass m is the ratio of the length of path
off th
the sun’s’ rays
r thrthrough
h th
the atmosphere
tm ph r tto ththe length
l th
of path if the sun were at the zenith. Except for very
l altitude
low ltit d angles,
n l theth air
ir mass
m is i equal
q l to
t the
th cosecantnt
of the altitude angle.

m=cosec(β)

29
 ASHRAE Clear Skyy Model
• The value of solar irradiation at the surface of the earth on a
clear day is given by:
A
I DN =
exp(B / sin β )
where the coefficients A and B are empirically determined from
measurements off IDN made
d on typical
i l clear
l days.
d Th coefficients
The ffi i
can be interpreted as:
– A = apparent direct normal solar flux at the outer edge of he earth's
atmosphere
– B = apparent atmospheric
h i extinction
i i coefficient
ffi i
– β = solar altitude

30
The direct radiation ID on a surface of arbitrary orientation,
corrected for clearness is
I D = C N I DN cos θ

31
 Diffuse radiation on a vertical surface
• The diffuse radiation on a vertical wall is more
accurately given by:
For cosθ > -0.2 ( )
I dV = 0.55 + 0.437 cos θ + 0.313 cos 2 θ I dH
For cosθ ≤ -00.22 I dV = 0.45I dH

32
 Diffuse radiation on a surface
• The diffuse radiation falling on a horizontal surface is

I dH = CI DN

• Where C is the ratio of diffuse irradiation on a horizontal surface to direct

normal radiation.
k is the fraction of diffuse radiation from the sky falling directly on the
• Fs-sky
surface.
1 + cos Σ I d
Fs − sky = = I dH = CI DN
2 I dH

33
 Energy
gy reflected onto a surface
• The rate at which energy is reflected onto surface is

I R = I tH ρ g Fs − gnd
Where
• ItH is the total (diffuse + direct) irradiation on (horizontal) ground near
s rface
surface.
• ρg is reflectance of ground.
• Fs-gnd is fraction of radiation leavingg surface and fallingg directlyy on the
ground.
1 − cos Σ
Fs − gndd =
2

34
Reflectance

35
 Summaryy
I t = FS I D + I d + I R
I D = C N I DN cosθ
1 + cos Σ
I d = I dH (non − vertical)
2
I d = I dH (0.45) cosθ ≤ −0.2 ⎪⎫
(
I d = I dH 0.55 + 0.437 cosθ + 0.313(cosθ )
2
) ⎬ verticall
cosθ > −0.2 ⎪
⎭
1 − cos Σ
I R = ρg I H
2
I H = I DN cosθ H + I dH

36
Total incident solar radiation on a surface of arbitrary orientation
It = I D + I d + I R
= C N I DN cos θ + CI DN Fs − sk + ρ g Fs − g I tH
= C N I DN cos θ + CI DN Fs − skk + ρ g Fs − g (C N cos θ H + C )I DN
[
= C N cos θ + C Fs − sk + ρ g Fs − g (C N cos θ H + C ) I DN ]
⎡ 1 + cos Σ 1 − cos Σ
= ⎢C N cos θ + C + ρg (C N cos θ H + C )⎤⎥ I DN
⎣ 2 2 ⎦
⎡ 1 + cos Σ 1 − cos Σ ⎤
I t = ⎢C N cos θ + C + ρg (C N cos θ H + C ⎥ ) A
⎣ 2 2 ⎦ exp( B / sin β )
Where
• CN is atmospheric clearness number
• A and B are obtained from Table 13-3, and C is ratio of diffuse irradiation to direct
normal radiation on horizontal surface.
• ρg is reflectivity of ground or horizontal surface.
• Fs-sk and Fs-g are view factors from surface to sky and ground respectively.

37
 External Shading

• An important problem in solar-radiation

calculations is determining whether a surface is
sunlit.
li
• A window may be partially shaded because of
setback from the external p
plane of a buildingg
• a flat roof may be partially shaded by parapet
walls.
• Any
A externall building
b ildi surface
f may be
b partially
i ll or
wholly shaded by nearby buildings.

38
 External Shading

x = b tan γ
y = b tan δ
y
tan δ = δ : the profile angle x”
b
y ⎫
tan β =
x" ⎪⎪ y tan β
⎬ ⇒ t
tan β = cos γ ⇒ t
tan δ =
b ⎪ b cos γ
cos γ =
x" ⎪⎭
Fs =
(a − y )(c − x ) = (a − b tan δ )(c − b tan γ )
39
ac ac
 External Shading

• Another typical configuration consists of a window with setback plus a solid overhang
positioned a distance e above the window. The overhang extends a length f out from the
wall and width g beyond each side of the window.
window

40
 External Shadingg
• From the plan view, x is equal to:
(b f) tan γ - g
• xx=(b+f)
• and from the elevation view it is seen that y=(f+b) tan δ - e

41
 External Shadingg
• Many shading applications involve south-facing surfaces. For this special case
the daily variation of the p
profile angle
g follows an interestingg pattern.
p On the
equinoxes the profile angle remains constant from sunrise to sunset and is
equal to 90°-l. During the winter the profile angle is a maximum at solar
noon,, and duringg the summer it reaches its minimum at solar noon.

Profile angles for a south facing

surface at 40 deg. North latitude

42
 External Shadingg
• The Figure shows a flat roof partially shaded by two parapet walls.

a a
x1 = x2 =
tanδ1 tanδ 2

δ1 and
d δ2 are the
th profiles
fil angles
l
• for walls 1 and 2, respectively.

43
 Example
p
• Calculate total radiation falling on a vertical surface facing
AM ρg = 0.5.
South in Beirut on June 21 at 10 AM. 0 5 CN = 1.
1
• E = -0.0344 hr, LST = 10.33 hr. h = -25.05•. d = 23.45 •.
• β = 65.75 •, A = 346.3 Btu/hr.ft2, B = 0.185 Ä IDN = 282.7 Btu/hr.ft2
• φ = -71.06 •, Ψ = 0 •, γ = | φ − Ψ | = 71.06 •. Σ = 90 • Ä θ = 82.34 •.
• ID = CN IDN cos θ = 37.67 Btu/hr.ft2
• Fs-sky = 0.5, Id = C Fs-sky IDN = 23.77 Btu/hr.ft2
• Fs-gnd = 0.5, ItH = IDH + IdH = 296.5 Btu/hr.ft2
Ä IR = Fs-gnd ρg ItH = 74.1
74 1 Bt /h ft2
Btu/hr.ft
• It = ID + Id + IR = 135.57 Btu/hr.ft2

44
 Example
p
• Calculate total radiation falling on a vertical surface
AM ρg = 0.5.
facing East in Beirut on June 21 at 10 AM. 05
CN = 1.
• E = -0.0344 25.05•. d = 23.45 •.
0.0344 hr, LST = 10.33 hr. h = -25.05•.
• β = 65.75 •, A = 346.3 Btu/hr.ft2, B = 0.185 Ä IDN = 282.7
Btu/hr.ft2
• φ = -71 •, Ψ = −90 •, γ = | φ − Ψ | = 19 •. Σ = 90 • Ä θ =
67 •.
• ID = CN IDN cos θ = 109.8 Bt /h ft2
109 8 Btu/hr.ft
• Fs-sky = 0.5, C = 0.137, Id = C Fs-sky IDN = 29.7 Btu/hr.ft2
• Fs-gnd = 0.5,
0 5 ItH = IDH + IdH = 296.5
296 5 Btu/hr ft2
Btu/hr.ft
Ä IR = Fs-gnd ρg ItH = 74 Btu/hr.ft2
• It = ID + Id + IR = 213.6
213 6 Bt /hr ft2
Btu/hr.ft
45