Course Teacher:: Md. Zayed Bin Sultan

Constant Terminal Rate Solution
PME 311 | Reservoir Engineering

 describes the pressure drop in the wellbore due to constant rate
production
 is the basic equation used in well test analysis
Starting from the static equilibrium pressure 𝑷𝒘𝒇 = 𝑷𝒊 at 𝒕 = 𝟎, the

constant terminal rate solution of the radial diffusivity equation
describes how the bottom hole flowing pressure 𝑷𝒘𝒇 varies as a
function of time after imposing a rate change from 𝟎 to 𝒒. This is
illustrated in Fig 7.1.
Course Teacher : MD. ZAYED BIN SULTAN


Fig. 7.1 Constant terminal rate solution; (a) constant production rate
(b) resulting decline in the bottom hole flowing pressure

The constant terminal rate solution is therefore the equation of 𝑷𝒘𝒇
versus 𝒕 for constant rate production for any value of the flowing time.
The pressure decline, Fig. 7.1 (b), can normally be divided into three
sections depending on the value of the flowing time and the geometry
of the reservoir or part of the reservoir being drained by the well.
Initially, the pressure response can be described using a transient

solution of the diffusivity equation. It is assumed during this period
that the pressure response at the wellbore is not affected by the
drainage boundary of the well and vice versa. This is frequently
referred to as the infinite reservoir case since, during the transient flow
period, the reservoir appears to be infinite in extent.


The transient phase is followed by the so-called late transient period
during which the influence of the drainage boundary begins to be felt.
For a well producing from within a no-flow boundary both the shape
of the area drained and position of the well with respect to the
boundary are of major importance in determining the appropriate late
transient constant terminal rate solution.
Eventually, stabilized flow conditions will prevail which means that

for the no-flow boundary case the rate of change of wellbore pressure
with respect to time is constant. This corresponds to the semi-steady
state condition.

Constant Terminal Rate Solution for Transient and Semi Steady State Flow Conditions

During the initial transient flow period, it has been found that the
constant terminal rate solution of the radial diffusivity equation,
determined using the Laplace transform, can be approximated by the
so-called line source solution which assumes that in comparison to the
apparently infinite reservoir the wellbore radius is negligible and the
wellbore itself can be treated as a line. This leads to a considerable
simplification in the mathematics and for this solution the boundary
and initial conditions may be stated as follows
a) 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0, for all 𝑟
b) 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = ∞, for all 𝑡 (1)
𝜕𝑃 𝑞𝜇
c) lim 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑘ℎ , for 𝑡 > 0
𝑟→0


Condition (a) is merely the initial condition that, before producing, the
pressure everywhere within the drainage volume is equal to the initial
equilibrium pressure 𝑷𝒊 .
Condition (b) ensures the condition of transience, namely that the

pressure at the outer, infinite boundary is not affected by the pressure
disturbance at the wellbore and vice versa.
Condition (c) is the line source inner boundary condition.


Under the above conditions the diffusivity equation
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑃 𝜙𝜇𝑐 𝜕𝑃
𝑟 = … … … (2)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑘 𝜕𝑡
can be solved by making use of Boltzmann's transformation
𝑟2 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟 2
𝑠= =
4 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡 4𝑘𝑡
So that
𝜕𝑠 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟
= … … … (3)
𝜕𝑟 2𝑘𝑡
and
𝜕𝑠 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟 2
= − … … … (4)
𝜕𝑡 4𝑘𝑡 2

Eq. 2 can be expressed with respect to this new variable as
1 𝑑 𝑑𝑃 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 φ𝜇𝑐 𝑑𝑃 𝜕𝑠
𝑟 =
𝑟 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑘 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑡
and using Eq. (3) and Eq. (4), this becomes
2
1 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟 𝑑 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟 2 𝑑𝑃 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟 𝑑𝑃
= −
𝑟 2𝑘𝑡 𝑑𝑠 2𝑘𝑡 𝑑𝑠 2𝑘𝑡 𝑑𝑠
which can be simplified as
𝑑 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝑠 = −𝑠
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑃 𝑑 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
⇒ +𝑠 = −𝑠
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠


Letting
𝑑𝑃
= 𝑃′
𝑑𝑠
′
𝑑𝑃′
⇒ 𝑃 +𝑠 = −𝑠𝑃′
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑃′ 𝑠+1
⇒ = − 𝑑𝑠
𝑃′ 𝑠
Integrating
⇒ ln 𝑃′ = − ln 𝑠 − 𝑠 + 𝐶1
= − ln 𝑠 + ln 𝑒 −𝑠 + ln 𝐶2
𝑒 −𝑠
= ln 𝐶2 𝑠
𝑒 −𝑠
⇒ 𝑃′ = 𝐶2 … … … (5)
𝑠

where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration and 𝐶2 can be evaluated
using the line source boundary condition
𝜕𝑃 𝑞𝜇 𝑑𝑃 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑃
lim 𝑟 = =𝑟 = 2𝑠
𝑟→0 𝜕𝑟 2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑠
𝑞𝜇
⇒ = 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑠
4𝜋𝑘ℎ
𝑟 → 0, 𝑠→0
𝑞𝜇
⇒ 𝐶2 =
4𝜋𝑘ℎ
Eq. (5) ⇒
𝑞𝜇 𝑒 −𝑠
𝑃′ =
4𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑠


𝑑𝑃 𝑞𝜇 𝑒 −𝑠
⇒ =
𝑑𝑠 4𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑠
𝑃 𝑥 −𝑠
𝑞𝜇 𝑒
⇒ 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑑𝑠
𝑃𝑖 4𝜋𝑘ℎ ∞ 𝑠
𝑥 −𝑠
𝑞𝜇 𝑒
⇒ 𝑃𝑟,𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑑𝑠
4𝜋𝑘ℎ ∞ 𝑠
∞
𝑞𝜇 𝑒 −𝑠
⇒ 𝑃𝑟,𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑑𝑠 … … … (6)
4𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑥 =
𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟 2 𝑠
4𝑘𝑡
Eq.(6) is the line source solution of the diffusivity equation giving the
pressure 𝑃𝑟,𝑡 as a function of position and time.
𝑥 𝑒 −𝑠 ∞ 𝑒 −𝑠
The integral ∞ 𝑠
𝑑𝑠 = 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟2 𝑑𝑠 is a standard integral,
𝑥 = 4𝑘𝑡 𝑠
called the exponential integral, and is denoted by ei 𝑥 .
Qualitatively, the nature of this integral can be understood by

considering the component parts, Fig. 7.2.
Fig. 7.2 The exponential integral function ei 𝑥


ei 𝑥 ≈ − ln 𝑥 − 0.5772 … … … (7)
𝛾 = 𝑒 0.5772 = 1.781
ei 𝑥 ≈ − ln 𝛾𝑥 for 𝑥 < 0.01 … … … (8)
The significance of this approximation; is that reservoir engineers are

frequently concerned with the analysis of pressures measured in the
wellbore, at 𝒓 = 𝒓𝒘 . Since in this case 𝒙 = 𝝓𝝁𝒄𝒓𝒘 𝟐 𝟒𝒌𝒕, it is usually
found that for measurements in the wellbore, 𝒙 will be less than 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
even for small values of 𝒕.
Eq. (6) can then be approximated as
𝑞𝜇 4𝑘𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑤 ,𝑡 = 𝑃𝑤𝑓 = 𝑃𝑖 − ln
4𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝛾𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟𝑤 2


Including mechanical skin factor
𝑞𝜇 4𝑘𝑡
𝑃𝑤𝑓 = 𝑃𝑖 − ln + 2𝑆 … … … 9
4𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝛾𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟𝑤 2


Sometimes pressure tests are conducted in order to determine the
degree of communication between wells, for example, pulse testing. In
such cases pressure transients caused in one well are recorded in a
distant well and, under these circumstances, 𝒓 is large and the
approximation of Eq. (8) is no longer valid.
Eq. (6) must then be used in its full form, i.e.
𝑞𝜇 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟 2
𝑃𝑟,𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖 − ei … … … (10)
4𝜋𝑘ℎ 4𝑘𝑡
in which the values of the exponential integral can be obtained from

Fig. 7.3.


Fig. 7.3 Graph of the ei-function for 0.001 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5.0

Exercise # 7.1 ei-FUNCTION: LOGARITHMIC APPROXIMATION


For semi steady state condition
𝜕𝑃 𝑞 𝑞
= − = −
𝜕𝑡 𝑐𝜋𝑟𝑒 2 ℎ𝜙 𝑐𝐴ℎ𝜙
𝑃 𝑡
⇒ 𝑐𝐴ℎ𝜙 𝑑𝑃 = −𝑞 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑖 0
⇒ 𝑐𝐴ℎ𝜙 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑖 = −𝑞 𝑡 − 0
𝑞𝑡
⇒ 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃 = … … … (11)
𝑐𝐴ℎ𝜙
The semi-steady state inflow equation
𝑞𝜇 1 4𝐴
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 = ln + 𝑆 … … … (12)
2𝜋𝑘ℎ 2 𝛾𝐶𝐴 𝑟𝑤 2


Adding Eq. (11 ) and Eq. (12)
𝑞𝜇 1 4𝐴 𝑞𝑡
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 = ln + 𝑆 +
2𝜋𝑘ℎ 2 𝛾𝐶𝐴 𝑟𝑤 2 𝑐𝐴ℎ𝜙
𝑞𝜇 1 4𝐴 𝑘𝑡
= ln + 𝑆 + 2𝜋
2𝜋𝑘ℎ 2 𝛾𝐶𝐴 𝑟𝑤 2 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝐴
𝑞𝜇 1 4𝐴 𝑘𝑡
⇒ 𝑃𝑤𝑓 = 𝑃𝑖 − ln + 2𝜋 + 𝑆 … … … 13
2𝜋𝑘ℎ 2 𝛾𝐶𝐴 𝑟𝑤 2 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝐴


Cumulative Production
𝑡 = Effective flowing time =
Final flow rate


Well testing involves producing a well at a constant rate or series of
rates, some of which may be zero (well closed in), while
simultaneously taking a continuous recording of the changing
pressure in the wellbore using some form of pressure recording device.
The retrieved record of wellbore pressure as a function of time can be
analyzed in conjunction with the known rate sequence to determine
some or all of the following reservoir parameters:
− initial pressure (𝑃𝑖 )
− average pressure within the drainage boundary (𝑃)
− permeability thickness product (𝑘ℎ), and permeability (𝑘)
− mechanical skin factor (𝑆)
− area drained (𝐴)
− Dietz shape factor (𝐶𝐴 )


Exercise#7.2 PRESSURE DRAWDOWN TESTING

Dimensionless Variables

For a variety of reasons, it is much more convenient to express
solutions of the radial diffusivity equation in terms of the following
dimensionless variables
dimensionless radius
𝑟
𝑟𝐷 =
𝑟𝑤
dimensionless time
𝑘𝑡
𝑡𝐷 =
𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟𝑤 2
and dimensionless pressure

2𝜋𝑘ℎ
𝑃𝐷 𝑟𝐷 , 𝑡𝐷 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑟,𝑡
𝑞𝜋


Substitution of these variables into the radial diffusivity equation
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑃 𝜙𝜇𝑐 𝜕𝑃
𝑟 = … … … (5.20)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑘 𝜕𝑡
Gives
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑃𝐷 𝜕𝑃𝐷
𝑟𝐷 = … … … (7.18)
𝑟𝐷 𝜕𝑟𝐷 𝜕𝑟𝐷 𝜕𝑡𝐷
the general solution of which will be for dimensionless pressure as a

function of dimensionless radius and time.


In particular, for analyzing pressures at the wellbore, 𝑟𝐷 = 1 and
2𝜋𝑘ℎ
𝑃𝐷 1, 𝑡𝐷 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑡𝐷 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓
𝑞𝜇
Finally, allowing for the presence of a mechanical skin factor, the

defining expression for 𝑃𝐷 𝑡𝐷 may be written as
2𝜋𝑘ℎ
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑡𝐷 + 𝑆 … … … (7.19)
𝑞𝜇
which is simply an alternative expression for the constant terminal rate

solution of the radial diffusivity equation.


Exercise#7.3 DIMENSIONLESS VARIABLES

Superposition Theorem

Mathematically the superposition theorem states that any sum of
individual solutions of a second order linear differential equation is
also a solution of the equation.
In practice, this is one of the most powerful tools at the reservoir

engineer's disposal for writing down solutions to complex flow
problems in the reservoir without explicitly solving the full differential
equation on each occasion. Applying the superposition theorem means
that individual constant rate wells can be placed in any position in the
reservoir at any time and an expression for the resulting pressure
distribution in space and time derived by inspection. The principle will
be illustrated with an example of superposition in time at a fixed
location which is particularly relevant to well test analysis.


Let us consider the case of well producing at a series of constant rates
for the different time periods shown in Fig. 7.6. To determine the
wellbore pressure after a total flow time 𝑡𝑛 when the current rate is 𝑞𝑛 ,
the superposition theorem is applied to determine a composite
solution of Eq. (7.18) in terms of

That is, a solution is obtained for the initial rate 𝑞1 , acting over the
entire period 𝑡𝑛 .
At time 𝑡1 a new well is opened to flow at precisely the same location
as the original well at a rate (𝑞2 − 𝑞1 ) so that the net rate after 𝑡1 is 𝑞2 .
At time 𝑡2 a third well is opened at the same location with rate(𝑞3 − 𝑞2 )
which reduces the rate to 𝑞3 after time 𝑡2 ………… etc.


The composite solution of Eq. (7.18) for this variable rate case can then
be formed by adding individual constant terminal rate solutions, Eq.
(7.19), for the rate-time sequence specified above, i.e.


in which 𝑃𝑤𝑓𝑛 is the specific value of the bottom hole flowing pressure
corresponding to the total time 𝑡𝑛 which may occur at any time during
the 𝑛𝑡ℎ period of constant flow, when the rate is 𝑞𝑛 . In this summation
all the skin factor terms disappear except for the last, 𝑞𝑛 𝑆 . The
summation can be expressed as
𝑛
2𝜋𝑘ℎ
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓𝑛 = ∆𝑞𝑗 𝑃𝐷 𝑡𝐷𝑛 − 𝑡𝐷𝑗−1 + 𝑞𝑛 𝑆 … … … (7.31)
𝜇
𝑗=1
in which ∆𝑞𝑗 = 𝑞𝑗 − 𝑞𝑗−1

Well Testing

The three most common forms of well testing are –
– the single rate drawdown test,
– the pressure buildup test, and
– the multi-rate drawdown test.
The analysis of each of these tests using Eq. (7.31) is briefly described
here.

Single Rate Drawdown Test

In this type of test the well is flowed at a single constant rate for an
extended period of time so that
𝑞1 = 𝑞; ∆𝑞1 = 𝑞 and 𝑡𝐷𝑛 = 𝑡𝐷
and Eq. (7.31) can be reduced to
2𝜋𝑘ℎ
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑡𝐷 + 𝑆 … … … (7.19)
𝑞𝜇
which is simply the constant terminal rate solution expressed in

dimensionless form.

Pressure Buildup Testing

This is probably the most common of all well test techniques for which
the rate schedule and corresponding pressure response are shown in
Fig. 7.7.

Ideally the well is flowed at a constant rate q for a total time 𝑡 and then
closed in. During the latter period the closed-in pressure 𝑃𝑤𝑓 = 𝑃𝑤𝑠 is
recorded as a function of the closed in time Δ𝑡. Eq. (7.31) can again be
used but in this case with
𝑞1 = 𝑞; ∆𝑞1 = 𝑞; 𝑡𝐷𝑛 = 𝑡𝐷 + ∆𝑡𝐷
𝑞2 = 0; ∆𝑞2 = 0 − 𝑞 ; 𝑡𝐷𝑛 − 𝑡𝐷1 = ∆𝑡𝐷
the skin factor disappears by cancellation and the equation is reduced

to
2𝜋𝑘ℎ
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑤𝑠 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑡𝐷 + ∆𝑡𝐷 − 𝑃𝐷 ∆𝑡𝐷 … … … (7.32)
𝑞𝜇


Eq. (7.32) is the basic equation for pressure buildup analysis and can be
interpreted in a variety of ways.
The most common method of analysis is to plot the closed in pressure

𝑃𝑤𝑠 as a function of log (𝑡 + Δ𝑡)/Δ𝑡. This is called the Horner plot and
can be used to determine 𝑃𝑖 or 𝑃 , 𝑘ℎ, and 𝑆.

MBH Pressure Buildup Theory

The Matthews, Brons, Hazebroek (MBH) pressure buildup analysis
technique will be examined from a purely theoretical standpoint, the
main aim being to illustrate a simple method of evaluating the 𝑃𝐷
function for a variety of drainage shapes and for any value of the
dimensionless flowing time.
The theoretical buildup equation was presented in the previous section

as
2𝜋𝑘ℎ
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑤𝑠 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑡𝐷 + ∆𝑡𝐷 − 𝑃𝐷 ∆𝑡𝐷 … … … (7.32)
𝑞𝜇
…….
…….


2𝜋𝑘ℎ 1 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 1 4𝑡𝐷
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑤𝑠(𝐿𝐼𝑁) = ln + 𝑃𝐷 𝑡𝐷 − ln … … (7.37)
𝑞𝜇 2 ∆𝑡 2 𝛾
in which 𝑃𝑤𝑠 , the actual pressure in Eq. (7.36), is now replaced by

𝑃𝑤𝑠(𝐿𝐼𝑁) which is simply the pressure for any value of Δ𝑡 on the
extrapolated linear.
In particular, the MBH method involves the extrapolation of the early

linear trend to infinite closed in time. The extrapolation to
ln (𝑡 + Δ𝑡)/Δ𝑡 = 0 gives the value of 𝑃𝑤𝑠(𝐿𝐼𝑁) = 𝑃∗ . In the particular
case of a brief initial well test in a new reservoir the amount of fluids
withdrawn during the production phase will be infinitesimal and the
extrapolated pressure 𝑃∗ will be equal to the initial pressure 𝑃𝑖 which
is also the average pressure 𝑃.

Pressure Buildup Analysis Techniques

It is considered worthwhile at this stage to change from Darcy to field
units since, in practice, tests are invariably analyzed using the latter
and the majority of the literature on the subject employs these units.
Eq. (7.37), which in Darcy units, on conversion to field units becomes
𝑘ℎ
7.08 × 10−3 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑤𝑠(𝐿𝐼𝑁)
𝑞𝜇𝐵𝑜 𝑖
𝑡 + ∆𝑡 1 4𝑡𝐷
= 1. 151 log + 𝑃𝐷 𝑡𝐷 − ln … … (7.48)
∆𝑡 2 𝛾


Fig. 7.18 Typical Horner pressure buildup plot

The Horner plot for a typical buildup is shown as Fig. 7.18.
The first part of the buildup is usually non-linear resulting from the
combined effects of the skin factor and afterflow. The latter is due to
the normal practice of closing in the well at the surface rather than
downhole. Thereafter, a linear trend in the plotted pressures is usually
observed for relatively small values of 𝚫𝒕 and this can be analyzed to
determine the effective permeability and the skin factor. The former
can be obtained by measuring the slope of the straight line, 𝒎, and
from Eq. (7.48) it is evident that
𝑞𝜇𝐵𝑜
𝑚 = 162.6 psi log. cycle … … … (7.50)
𝑘ℎ


𝑃𝑤𝑠 𝐿𝐼𝑁 1−ℎ𝑟 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑘
𝑆 = 1.151 − log + 3.23 … … … (7.52)
𝑚 𝜙𝜇𝑐𝑟𝑤 2
in which 𝑃𝑤𝑠 𝐿𝐼𝑁 1−ℎ𝑟 is the hypothetical closed-in pressure read from
the extrapolated linear buildup trend at Δ𝑡 = 1 hour as shown in Fig.
7.18.


Exercise#7.6 HORNER PRESSURE BUILDUP ANALYSIS, INFINITE RESERVOIR CASE

Reference
Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering
L.P. Dake
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Constant Terminal Rate Solution

PME 311 | Reservoir Engineering

 is the basic equation used in well test analysis

Starting from the static equilibrium pressure 𝑷𝒘𝒇 = 𝑷𝒊 at 𝒕 = 𝟎, the