Technological Forecasting & Social Change 172 (2021) 121008

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Technological Forecasting & Social Change

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techfore

Can online higher education be an active agent for change? —comparison

of academic success and job-readiness before and during COVID-19
Gazi Mahabubul Alam a, *, Morsheda Parvin b
a
Department of Foundation of Education, Faculty of Educational Studies, University universiti Putra Malaysia, Persiaran Masjid, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Educational Studies, University universiti Putra Malaysia, Persiaran Masjid, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Adherents claim that online education mediated through technology can change society for the better, but critics
Higher education assert that it has failed to produce job- or career-ready graduates. With this in mind, the present study examines
Online technology the performance of academic and job-readiness of two groups of graduates. One group comprised a pre-COVID-
Online education and social change
19 cohort for face-to-face teaching mode while the other used the online mode during the pandemic. While the
Distance and open learning
COVID-19
official secondary data are collected from the sampled university, primary data are gathered through an
‘empirical survey’ of 120 students in each group (i.e., before and during COVID-19, a total of 240). Findings
suggest that the pre-pandemic group did poorly academically unlike their during-pandemic counterparts.
Although both groups achieved well academically, there is a difference when comparing their job-readiness
scores which included both aptitude and practicum tests. The pre-COVID-19 students achieved better job-
readiness scores than their counterparts. Performance in academy and job-readiness is not proportionately
linked. These findings suggest that higher education is generally not that active from the job market perspective,
while online learning has in fact made education much more passive. Under any circumstances, the integrity of
HE should not be compromised and hence a policy framework is hereby suggested to ensure that it functions well
during an emergency period.

1. Introduction graduates who can help to advance a well-functioning and

Distance and open learning (DOL) integrated with online technology
can be an effective delivery mode (Moore and Kearsley, 2011), and it is a
strategy that has become very popular (Harrison, 2020). Arif et al.
(2017) argued that ‘online education’ is a ‘misleading term’ because
both face-to-face and DOL, as well as online platform delivery, are
increasingly becoming the new normal of providing tertiary education.
Adult learners, who are also working and cannot attend a university,
generally consider DOL and online modes more suitable for them, while
face-to-face learning which is the ‘mainstream’ method, accommodates
‘regular students’ (Wieser and Seeler, 2018) better. The latter are
regarded as promising young people who can be the agents of social
change (Arif et al., 2017). Technology is now part and parcel of our daily
lives and deeply integrated into the design of higher education (HE)
programs and their contents (Phillips and Linstone, 2016). Both
face-to-face and DOL, as well as online modes, are able to provide a
technologically advanced HE system to their targeted groups of
community-minded society (Harrison, 2020). Despite the respect shown
to technology, ‘regular students’ in HE are still offered face-to-face
learning (Arif et al., 2017).
The institutions that were identified as ‘mainstream’ were not ready
to deliver HE via online platforms (Daniel, 2020). Thus, these places
should have ideally leveraged on technology that is primarily used in
online mode to deliver HE. Since the student population receiving the
online mode differs from those receiving the face-to-face mode (main­
stream) in many ways,1 the suitability and character of online delivery
mode for ‘mainstream’ merits research attention (Daniel, 2020; Gar­
cía-Peñalvo et al., 2021). To examine the efficacy of the online mode,
most studies have made comparisons between three modes, namely
face-to-face, DOL, and online technology. Research for this paper - the
first of its kind - examines the efficacy of online technology used by the
mainstream institutions to train their ‘regular students’ who formally
only received the face-to-face mode when there was no pandemic. A
comparison was made between the before and during COVID-19

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: gazimalamb@yahoo.com (G.M. Alam), mparvin222@yahoo.com (M. Parvin).
1
For example, age, economic conditions, working experience, learning attitude, and anticipated learning outcomes.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121008
Received 28 March 2021; Received in revised form 9 June 2021; Accepted 1 July 2021
Available online 12 July 2021
0040-1625/© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
G.M. Alam and M. Parvin
graduates who went through the ‘mainstream’ education system. It was
also intended that this comparative analysis be used to develop a policy
framework supporting a substantial delivery of HE for mainstream
learning via online technology during an emergency.
1.1. Research problem, aim, objectives and questions
Generally, the DOL mode has managed to obtain a significant portion
of the HE market due to its effectiveness. Online provision of DOL has in
fact developed an extended market for HE (Ortagus, 2017). On the other
hand, some obvious limitations of online education have allowed the
‘face-to-face’ provision to retain a major share of HE. Young people who
are bona fide participants seeking to advance their economic prospects
primarily choose the face-to-face mode (Williamson et al., 2020). On the
other hand, such market segmentation might help students get their
skills through certificates; vice versa the skilled professionals who are
currently working might have got their certificates through the DOL
mode (Ortagus, 2017).
The COVID-19 pandemic has hugely derailed the international
economy, whole societies and the wheels of commerce (Hossain, 2020;
Talwar et al., 2021). It has also badly affected the psychological and
emotional health of millions of people regardless of their age, gender,
race, ethnicity and socioeconomic status (Laato et al., 2020). Both
economic and psychological outbreaks have stopped many vocations
(Khanra et al., 2021). Education was no exception to this and whole
systems of education simply ceased functioning in early 2020 as the
lockdowns took force (Talwar et al., 2021). However, education in­
stitutions and especially those in the private sector could not afford to
not operate for any length of time. Given that it is unknown when the
pandemic will end, the private sector has started offering online learning
more aggressively. Many public sector institutions are still waiting for
the pandemic to end and want to resume their normal operations (Tal­
war et al., 2021). As the pandemic continues to spread and impact the
world, some public institutions have welcomed much more extensive
online provisions in some countries (García-Peñalvo et al., 2021).
While online learning is now available for primary, secondary and
tertiary phases of education, it mostly applies to higher education
(Daniel, 2020). The ongoing dialogue regarding online education during
the pandemic have raised a few important concerns: whether online
education has helped students from a privileged socioeconomic status
(SES); it is simply a way to earn revenue without ensuring the appro­
priateness of the education being offered; or it has helped the education
sector produce well-timed and well-trained graduates (Daniel, 2020).
Defining well-timed graduates is a complex task that makes it
impossible to reach agreement on (Ortagus, 2017). A relatively well
accepted definition is often used and is guided by a number of factors
(such as culture, economy and context). Primary school education helps
young children develop citizenship skills. Secondary schooling plays an
intermediary role by injecting both citizenship and academic skills to
help young people get a job or go to university, and also learn to
contribute to the society (Marginson, 2019). Hence, the chief role of HE
is to inject advanced skills and knowledge which are required to carry on
specialist careers, professional development and research (Marginson,
2019). In doing so, HE provision has to cover both practical and theo­
retical knowledge (Alam, 2021).
A campus with enough laboratories, libraries, faculties, etc., to
develop intellectual discourse is seen as an important part for the
cognitive, psychosocial, knowledge and skills development of young
people (Trudeau et al., 2019). On the contrary, DOL depends completely
on the online mode in the HE environment, as modern campuses look
upon it as a worthwhile logistical resource (Arif et al., 2017). Arguments
are often made that online education would weaken the skills of
job-ready graduates (Daniel, 2020). Moreover, an over reliance on on­
line education would worsen the ‘diploma disease’ crisis where certifi­
cates become essentially meaningless or worthless if everyone has one
(Arif et al., 2017). This would ultimately compromise the core role of
2
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 172 (2021) 121008
HE. In light of the above discussion, this project aims to investigate the
effectiveness of online mode of HE delivered for ‘regular students’ by
comparing two groups: the before and during COVID-19. The following
objectives were developed: firstly, to compare the academic learning
outcomes of the before and during COVID-19 groups; secondly, to un­
derstand the difference between academic achievement and
job-readiness of these two groups; and thirdly, to explore HE’s responses
to value the concept of active HE from the perspective of job-readiness.
The following questions are outlined to achieve these objectives:
Does academic performance of both groups reflect the active
learning concept in HE?
Do academic learning outcomes actively align with job-readiness
competencies?
How can HE in an emergency be retained within the concept of active
learning?
2. Literature review
The following sections tackle the subject of active learning in edu­
cation and what it means for social change, before identifying whether
the online technology platform plays an active or passive role in edu­
cation delivery.
2.1. Active learning in education and social change
Since their emergence in the 1980s, three major models are identi­
fied as defining the concept of ‘active learning in education’ (Tharayil
et al., 2018). They are ‘outcome-centric,’ ‘stakeholders’ participation’
and ‘methodological production function’ (Tharayil et al., 2018; McCoy
et al., 2018). Rocher (2020) argued that a transformation in the para­
digm of active learning in education has refined these models to respond
to different demands of the society in different eras. A substantial
implementation of these modes was undertaken as part of the “active
learning process,” so that education delivery in society is well-timed.
Conversely, McCoy et al. (2018) argued that these models are
inter-connected and one cannot thrive without the others. Hence, they
complement each other irrespective of when they were devised. While
these are generic models applicable to all provisions, the following
discussion largely explains their links to HE.
‘Outcome-centric’ active learning model seeks to achieve the desired
outcomes (Gurukkal, 2020). Consequently, this model is predominantly
devised to achieve certain outcomes that a society aims for (Alam et al.,
2020a). For example, if a system in a particular society fundamentally
sets good academic performance as the key outcome, this model may
theoretically bring about the goal but ignores other important elements
needed to develop a balanced society (Dobber et al., 2017). Moshoeshoe
et al. (2019) argued that the outcomes of education in many societies,
especially in developing countries, are also set following the ‘ratio
model’ where predetermined targets are set for the primary, secondary,
and tertiary schooling systems. For example, Alam et al. (2020b) noted
that following EFA prescription, many developing countries made a
‘ratio milestone’ to be achieved in primary schooling by comparing with
the school age population. Subsequently, the enrolment ‘ratio milestone’
required for the secondary and tertiary systems is also predetermined
(Nordin et al., 2019).
Alam et al. (2020a) further argued that the ratio of graduates’ aca­
demic performance (for example the ratio of A, B, C, D grade-holders) is
worked out beforehand to establish the enrolment ratios for primary,
secondary, and tertiary systems of education. Under such circumstances,
the ‘outcome-centric’ active learning model is a tool that generates the
required numbers. Measuring success by numbers is simply a misuse of
this model and so it fails to confirm that primary, secondary, and tertiary
G.M. Alam and M. Parvin
education are rightly producing ‘well-timed graduates’ who are able to
bring positive changes in the society (Nordin et al., 2019). Success of HE
greatly depends on the inputs2 that it receives from other stages of
learning (Alam and Forhad, 2021). Considering the constraints, a
greater reliance on the ‘outcome-centric active learning’ model is
replaced by a newer one known as ‘stakeholders’ participation’.
The goal of the ‘stakeholders’ participation’ active learning model is
to identify the principals and agents of education and their roles (Small
et al., 2018). This model ensures that the ‘appropriate stakeholders’
across the society are adequately consulted and their role is relevant to
improving the process of designing education programs and how they
are delivered (Small et al., 2018). In doing so, this model incorporates a
number of approaches (such as student-centred learning, workplace
learning, factory-based university, etc.). While it is quite straightforward
to determine the stakeholders of primary and secondary education and
their role, it is not the case for tertiary education (Alam et al., 2020b).
The demand and supply sides of HE are often ambiguous in that their
roles are not well differentiated. For example, Suleman (2018) argued
that students and parents constitute the core of the demand side, while
teachers and both the public and private sectors represent the supply
side. These views were challenged by Biagi et al. (2020) who argued that
industries and societies are the most important aspects of the demand
side, while both parents and students, being the beneficiaries, are on the
supply side. They therefore further argued that while higher education
helps the society to have better economic and social settings, a sensible
society is fundamental to construct a decent HE atmosphere. In such a
complex scenario, a suitable mechanism for stakeholders’ participation
in higher education has yet to be developed, which prevents the learning
process from taking a more active role (Small et al., 2018). For example,
Alam (2021) noted that “many countries, especially the developing
ones, heavily protest against industries’ participation in HE production.”
Since industries are the major stakeholders in society, an unproductive
HE system without their involvement cannot ensure an active learning
process.
The ‘methodological production function’ in education as part of the
active learning process is often investigated to discover the best models
for: pedagogy; curriculum and instructional technology; assessment
practice and procedure; classroom management; and infrastructure
settings. The aim is to leverage on modern technology to produce the
best possible outcomes of education (Moura, 2021). Modern innovations
and equipment are one of the core aspects of this model, which requires
the use of online and digital platforms for the active learning process
(Boeren, 2017). If the model is incomplete, any online tool of this
particular model should not be used as an alternative—a fundamental
postulate that has been formulated in the discourse of the active learning
process (Moura, 2021).
2.2. Online education: active and passive mode
Online education is a misinterpreted concept and one that has been
abused in attempts to gain market popularity and leverage (Daniel,
2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has intentionally or unintentionally
helped this situation to arise (Talwar et al., 2021). Online learning may
function as an incomplete substitute for the face-to-face mode (Gar­
cía-Peñalvo et al., 2021). Communication is not the fundamental aspect
of production. A sustainable production system needs a complete pro­
duction cycle that involves raw materials,3 processors4 and delivery
(Tanco et al., 2021). A delivery should only take place if the right
product5 is made in the first place.
2
Quality of primary and secondary graduates
3
Course curricula are referred as raw materials of education.
4
Human resources and infrastructure.
5
Hence the right product offered by education is one that generates knowl­
edge and skills.
3
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 172 (2021) 121008
Different modes of delivery might take place under different cir­
cumstances. However, physical delivery is the end phase of any mode of
delivery (Tanco et al., 2021). For example, we may order food online
without visiting the restaurant in person but neither its production nor
its delivery can be done without physical movement. Moreover, physical
presence is needed for some orders due to their unique nature/feature
and for better usability. Hence, online media can be forms of logistical
resources which should not be a substitute for certain production and
delivery methods (Tanco et al., 2021). Production processes and sensi­
tive delivery are the key to a quality product and this requires dealings
with people, while online methods may act simply as a process man­
agement tool. The product of education remains an ambiguous entity,
for example Unterhalter and Howell (2021) argued that graduates are
the products of the education system, while Chankseliani et al., 2021
explained that knowledge and skills are the products. While the debate
on the product of education generates heat, little discourse is made to
demarcate the demand and supply sides and the roles they play to ensure
active learning in education (Alam et al., 2020b).
In this scenario, knowledge discovery purely depends on research
(Alam, 2021). Research is the core business of higher education and the
product known as knowledge/skills is made possible by teaching and
practice (Stauss et al., 2018). Many teaching aids might be used for
effective delivery. Some of these aids might benefit if implemented
online but a complete change to online education is a misleading step to
take (García-Peñalvo et al., 2021). Higher education and its unique
product knowledges/skills discovered through the research process will
be jeopardised by the passive agent, namely ‘online education’ (Alam
et al., 2020b). A passive agent should not dominate an active learning
model in higher education, yet many internal and external agencies are
advocating to transform the paradigm into online learning. This is found
predominantly in the private sector due primarily to vested interests to
support their business operations (Wieser and Seeler, 2018).
The effectiveness of an active learning process is often measured by
its contribution to graduates’ development (Stauss et al., 2018). As a
result, academic performance is now considered as the main parameter
or KPI even for primary and secondary education (Wieser and Seeler,
2018). While academic performance is also used as one of the indicators,
production of knowledge and job-ready graduates are the key indicators
for measuring the efficacy of an active learning process of HE (Alam,
2021). In order to examine whether online education is an active or
passive system, we compare both academic knowledge and
job-readiness competencies of students who studied before and during
COVID-19. Hence, a greater response towards job-readiness compe­
tencies would be considered as a positive correlation for active learning
in HE. Academic performance scores provided by the university’s in­
ternal evaluation unit will be considered as a secondary indicator for the
effectiveness of active higher education since ‘fabricated grades’ are
being provided in an era of ‘commodification in higher education’.
Given the research time framework, comparing the production of
knowledge through the university before and during COVID-19 is not
feasible because evaluating it requires longer time series data.
3. Country context
Brief discussion covers the operation phenomena of institution of HE
during COVID-19 and experience of DOL in Bangladesh. Responses to
COVID-19 in Bangladesh were mixed (Huda et al., 2021). For example,
the Bangladesh government claimed that it has managed COVID-19
outstandingly well and the economy has been saved (Joarder et al.,
2021). Critics argue that the government has actually hidden the real
data or is fully unaware about the actual number of COVID-19 infections
and deaths (Huda et al., 2021). The government revealed a poor attitude
when running some sectors of the economy while the pandemic was
raging on, especially in areas concerning underprivileged people
(Joarder et al., 2021). The health of the economy might have been over
managed at the expense of people’s lives (Huda et al., 2021).
G.M. Alam and M. Parvin
Consequently, the success in balancing COVID-19 and people’s liveli­
hoods depends on knowing how much information has been hidden.
Despite parts of the economy continuing to operate during the
pandemic, education institutions have been closed since March 2020.
However, online functions are only made optional because many
educational institutions, teachers and students do not have adequate
facilities (Alam, 2021). Those institutions which are equipped with
adequate facilities are encouraged to conduct online education (Dutta
and Smita, 2020). The private sector’s university system is taking
advantage of this option (Dutta and Smita, 2020). Despite the motiva­
tion provided by the Ministry of Education, the public sector universities
constitute an autonomous body that does not offer online education and
it has made excuses for this (Dutta and Smita, 2020). Surprisingly, not
only private universities but also private wings of the public universities
are continuing with their online modes of education (Dutta and Smita,
2020). Under these circumstances, discrimination in higher education
during COVID-19 is worth investigating, which is not part of the scope of
this research.
DOL culture was neither socially accepted nor widely popular in
Bangladesh (Chowdhury, 2020). Following the Open University- UK
model, Bangladesh Open University (BOU) was established in 1992 as a
public sector entity and that same year saw the beginning of the private
university sector following WTO’s GATS agreement (Alam et al.,
2020b). Initially, the BOU delivered secondary and higher secondary
education for drop-out students from the mainstream (Chowdhury,
2020). University education was not on the agenda of BOU. In offering
secondary education, BOU offered weekend and evening classes via the
face-to-face mode. They had some video tutorials shown in the class­
room (Chowdhury, 2020). Initially, Bangladesh Television provided a
small slot during the week for BOU’s education programs but it lasted
less than one year (Chowdhury, 2020). After a few years, BOU started
providing university education in the market-driven area and mainly via
its business wing. However, online education was not a part of BOU
before COVID-19. BOU’s private wing started online education opera­
tions during COVID-19.
Currently, 112 private universities and most of the private wings of
public universities are operating online education during COVID-19
(Dutta and Smita, 2020). Most universities and relevant agencies
(such as Private University Association, University Teacher Association,
University Grants Commission, Ministry of Education) protested against
HE operating according to the DOL and online modes (Chowdhury,
2020). For example, ‘external programs’ offered by London University
and Open University, UK, were banded in Bangladesh by making an
ordinance (Alam et al., 2020b). Some foreign universities that used to
offer their programs via ‘dual mode’ in Bangladesh had to stop because
of new regulations legislated in the early 2000s. While the private uni­
versity sector in Bangladesh is the product of ‘neoliberal’ thinking
following the WTO’s prescription which is taking many ‘undue privi­
leges of free-market theory’, it ignores actual international competition
(Alam, 2019).
The private university association protested against the US and UK
initiatives at the beginning of 2020, arguing that quality higher educa­
tion needs contextual reflection and regular supervision and monitoring
(Chowdhury, 2020). This association recently noted that their online
education models should meet international standards (Chowdhury,
2020). Moreover, this association surprisingly claimed that online ed­
ucation is more effective in many ways than the face-to-face mode; it is
therefore requesting the government to allow private sector universities
to provide online education in all circumstances (in emergency or
otherwise). Questions may be asked about the motives for such a
request.
4. Research design
Given the nature of this research enquiry, both the academic and job-
ready performance of the two groups of students (before and during
4
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 172 (2021) 121008
COVID-19) are compared. The secondary data which comprises the ac­
ademic results of students are collected from the university for evalu­
ating academic performance. Two types of primary data, namely
‘aptitude’ and ‘practicum’ scores are employed to evaluate the students’
job-ready performance. Given the nature of the data, this paper used a
‘descriptive analysis’ model. To analyse the data and present them in the
findings, simple statistical parameters known as ‘mean’ and ‘median’ are
used. No dependant or independent variables were devised to draw a
causal relationship. Therefore, given the normative and narrative forms,
this research is a qualitative one. The rationale for adopting such an
approach is justified in the data analysis sub-section (4.4). The following
text explains the reasons that motivated us to collect primary data in
addition to official secondary data, before we justify the significance of
sampling and instruments developed to collect primary data.
Neither the government regulations nor practices in Bangladesh
support industries’ participation in the HE sector. Only academics pro­
duce, deliver and assess the curricula. Academic performance measured
by the universities is the only scale that justifies the competencies of
graduates. Thus, student’s job-ready performance is examined through
primary data collected using standardised tools developed by profes­
sional bodies. These tools include the results of ‘experimental tests’ and
apprenticeship scores. Some may question why the concept of ‘signalling
theory’ is not used to measure graduates’ job-ready competencies
instead of developing a new tool. The higher the salary is, the better the
quality is—a fundamental postulate identified by Spence’s (1973)
concept known as ‘signalling theory’. This theory might work well in
advanced economies where a salient link exists in the job market, higher
education and skills through substantial mapping and projection (Alam,
2021).
Obtaining jobs and the wages or salaries that go with them in
developing nations is often prejudiced by political connections, social
networking and socioeconomic contexts or circumstances (Alam, 2021).
Consequently, ‘job-market validity’ through the wage scale is now
considered to be obsolete. Moreover, this model is ‘incompetent’ and not
able to ensure that employed graduates have the right job skills. Poon
(2020) and Al-Tabbaa and Ankrah (2018) argued that if an education
system does not produce proficient graduates, employers literally have
no choice but to pick from the existing pool that the system has made
available. This is why instruments are developed to test the aptitude and
practicum competencies of graduates.
4.1. Sampling
Most of the universities in Bangladesh neither qualify for an inter­
national ranking (such QS, THE) nor compete for it. In the absence of an
international ranking, some local agencies (such as StudyBarta.com,
UniRank) often publish local ranking and as a basis, employ criteria
developed by the University Grants Commission-Bangladesh. We con­
sulted 3 local agencies’ ranking for the last 10 years to select one uni­
versity. The sampled university is a private one which has ranked itself
within the top 5 for the last 10 years under the combined category6 of
each ranking body that we consulted. Since we wanted to compare be­
tween before and during COVID-19 students, a private sector institution
was suitable because public sector ones were not operating during the
COVID-19 pandemic. The trimester academic calendar with an ‘open
credit system’ is followed by the sampled university as a result of which
two semesters were completed during COVID-19, while one was ongoing
when this research was conducted. Students from the two completed
semesters and who studied online were sampled as were their counter­
parts from the during COVID-19 group. Many sections7 of a subject were
6
Both public and private sector.
7
We found that each sampled subject has more than one section which were
up to five in some cases. Each section had a minimum of 30 to a maximum of 45
students.
G.M. Alam and M. Parvin
offered in each semester.
To confirm the similarity of the sample of both before and during
COVID-19 student groups, parents’ income, social status, previous aca­
demic results (such as secondary school certificate, higher secondary
school certificate) were examined to ensure that students in each cate­
gory shared similar features. 40 before and during COVID-19 under­
graduate students who were qualified as ‘sample of similarity’ were
randomly selected from each of three categories: science, business and
arts. In total, 240 students were sampled of which 120 were in each
group, i.e. before and during COVID-19. Within the science category, 40
students were selected who studied two subjects, namely ‘Computer
Science Application’ and ‘Electrical and Electronics Communication’
before COVID-19 and another 40 students were chosen who studied
these two subjects during the pandemic but did so online.
Following the same principle, students from the business and arts
streams were sampled. For instance, Applied Financial Accounting,
Business Communication and Civil Law, Language for Law Communi­
cation subjects were respectively considered for business and arts
streams. Meanwhile, to make triangulation of the findings possible,
various areas were selected, and practical-driven subjects were selected
to maintain the research focus.
4.2. Instrument development to measure job-readiness competencies and
scoring
The academic results of selected subjects from each counterpart were
collected from the registrar’s office. The syllabuses of ‘Computer Science
Application’ and ‘Electrical and Electronics Communication’ were pro­
vided to the Bangladesh Computer Council which is the premier pro­
fessional body working on the development of Computer Business in the
country. The council was requested to design an aptitude-based ques­
tionnaire to test the competencies of both groups. They conducted the
tests and tabulated the scores of both groups which are to be used to
compare job competencies labelled as ‘Aptitude score’. Similarly, the
Bangladesh Institute of Bank Management (BIBM) and Bangladesh Bar
Council were consulted on the testing of both counterparts of business
and arts streams respectively. To ensure freedom from bias, coding was
assigned to prevent the students being identified.
The top seven students from each group (science, business, arts) of
before and during COVID-19 were assigned a supervisor to work with for
five days. One professional from each respective field having more than
10 years of industry experience was deployed as the supervisor. Their
relevant employment experience was based on studying the same sub­
jects when they went to university. Upon completion of the tasks, this
supervisor graded each student with what is called a practicum score.
Hence, aptitude and practicum scores are combined and served as the
parameters for job-ready competencies. The university uses a calcula­
tion software to convert the obtained marks of each subject into CGPA
which is here referred to as the academic score. We used the same
calculation to convert the marks attained in the aptitude and practicum
tests. This alignment of three types of scores confirms the ability to make
a better comparison.
4.3. Data collection
Data collection was conducted in sequence to remove personal
subjectivity and ensure objectivity. Students’ personal data were
collected and analysed in the first phase to ensure the similarity of the
samples without collecting the academic results. Aptitude tests to
examine job-ready skills were conducted in the second phase. Data of
academic results and aptitude tests were collected and analysed at the
same time during the third phase to avoid the possible influences of
academic results that may bias the researchers. Combining both scores,
the top seven students from the before and during COVID-19 groups
were selected to assign the supervisors. Both the students and supervi­
sors were unaware of the criteria for the allocation of supervisors; this
5
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 172 (2021) 121008
provided a feeling that others might have been assigned with different
supervisors. Hence, the supervisors’ scores were not influenced by a
graduate’s earlier performance. Similarly, students could do a job freely
and fairly.
4.4. Data analysis
Given the nature of the research questions, an individualistic
approach is used for selecting the tools. This qualitative study sets out to
find both primary and secondary data. While secondary data, which is
known as official data, were collected from the university’s registrar
office to analyse the academic results, primary data were gathered by
conducting an aptitude test. Practicum scores provided by the industry
experts8 are also part of the primary data set. Three types of data (scores
for academic, aptitude and practicum) are used to report the findings. In
the event of ‘data variety’, Bell (2010) argued that neither the ‘endo­
geneity’ nor ‘heterogeneity’ models can effectively determine the
variables.
One risk that hinders the ability to determine variables also poten­
tially restricts making ‘regression’ and ‘causal’ analysis possible as
claimed by Merriam and Tisdell (2016). Furthermore, the objective of
this research is to contribute to designing a policy framework for an
online technological platform to deliver HE during an emergency
period, and is particularly applicable to the world’s developing econo­
mies. Following the advice of Creswell and Creswell (2017), statistical or
empirical modelling was avoided as critics argue that gathering a larger
amount of data by adopting a model is what helps to explain a causal
relationship between variables that may not always provide substantial
outcomes for a policy framework. In this kind of scenario, Creswell and
Creswell (2017) further suggested utilising the ‘descriptive analysis’
model by engaging a multiple ‘research domain’ to report the findings
which is the central focus of this study. Consequently, this case study
compares between two groups of students, namely before and during
COVID-19 by adopting three main domains. Following the suggestion of
Hinterhuber (2013), we used ‘multi-dimensional domains9’ represented
by a number of panels in Figs. 1- 4, which is the basis for comparing
between two groups and three domains.10
After explaining the design of this research study, the findings and
discussion will be presented before explaining the implications of this
research. Certain conclusions are then made with an acknowledgement
of the limitations encountered in this work.
5. Findings and discussion
5.1. Academic achievement: active vs passive learning
Academic score achieved by the graduates is often used as an indi­
cator to identify the activeness of education. Disjointed higher education
from industry and misleading grades provided by the university’s in­
ternal evaluation unit limit the acceptance of academic scores as the
prime indicator of the HE sector’s activeness. Despite this shortcoming,
academic score is an important record that graduates must produce to
show their credentials. We therefore investigate the performance of
online HE to produce the required grades. In doing so, we compare
between students before and during COVID-19.
Students from the science, arts and business who studied during
COVID-19 collectively achieved higher academic grades compared to
those studying prior to the pandemic (Fig. 1, panel A, B). During COVID-
19 group from each stream has individually performed better than the
counterparts who studied before COVID-19 (Fig. 2, panel A, B, C). These
findings make it possible to draw a general note that online education
8
Here they are labelled as supervisors.
9
Also known as the triangulation dimension.
10
Specifically, these are the academic, aptitude and practicum scores.
G.M. Alam and M. Parvin Technological Forecasting & Social Change 172 (2021) 121008

Academic Aptude Praccum Academic Aptude Praccum

4.0 4.0
3.5 3.5
3.0 3.0
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
Science Business Arts Science Business Arts Science Business Arts Science Business Arts
Mean Median Mean Median

Panel A: Scores of before COVID-19 group in three different domains. Vertical Panel B: Score of during COVID–19 group in three different domains. Vertical
axis represents the scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis axis represents the scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis
represents the streams and domains. represents the streams and domains

Fig. 1. Score of two groups in three different domains (Academic, Aptitude, Practicum): Panel A: Scores of before COVID-19 group in three different domains.
Vertical axis represents the scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the streams and domains. anel B: Score of during COVID–19
group in three different domains. Vertical axis represents the scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the streams and domains.

Before Covid -19 During Covid -19 Before Covid -19 During Covid -19
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
Science Business Arts Science Business Arts Science Business Arts Science Business Arts

Mean Median Mean Median

Panel A: Academic test score of two groups. Vertical axis represents the scores Panel B: Aptitude test score of two groups. Vertical axis represents the scores
(mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the streams and (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the streams and
domains. domains.

Before Covid -19 During Covid -19

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
Science Business Arts Science Business Arts
Mean Median

Panel C: Practicum test score of two groups. Vertical axis represents the scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the streams and
domains

Fig. 2. Three test scores (Academic, Aptitude and Practicum) of two groups: Panel A: Academic test score of two groups. Vertical axis represents the scores
(mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the streams and domains. Panel B: Aptitude test score of two groups. Vertical axis represents the
scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the streams and domains. Panel C: Practicum test score of two groups. Vertical axis
represents the scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the streams and domains.

6
G.M. Alam and M. Parvin
has performed well compared to the face-to-face mode as far as aca­
demic grades are concerned. Academic score provided by the academic
advisors refers to four domains: theory, practical, class attendance &
participation, and presentation. While theory and practical aspects are
the two fundamental domains, both class attendance & participation,
and presentation are supplements to both domains.
While students who studied during COVID-19 have collectively
scored better compared to the before counterparts, according to Fig. 3
the same trend is noted for the scores achieved individually for each
domain (theory, practical, class attendance & participation, and pre­
sentation). This success is not limited to the students of one of the
streams (science, business, arts). Students, irrespective of streams,
maintained the same trend (Fig. 1, panel A, B). These findings suggest
that online education is more active than the face-to-face mode since
students who took the online method achieved better scores at all
domains.
Practical knowledge is thoroughly tested for students in the science
stream via internships that are available in some laboratories and in­
dustries. Internship is used for students in the business and arts streams.
We understand that both arrangements can be only done via face-to-
face. However, universities claim that by using the latest instructional
technology and innovative tools, they have enabled such arrangements
to inject the necessary skills. This suggests that the online education
mode is not just limited to delivery method, but is now a critical part of
the production function. If this claim is authentic, it sounds very
promising for active learning in HE. Concerning the academic scores,
according to Fig. 3, students in the during COVID-19 group did well
mainly in three domains (practical, class attendance & participation,
and presentation).
Moreover, students from the science stream during COVID-19 did
well compared to their business and arts counterparts (Fig. 1, panel B).
This suggests online education is not just a great medium to develop
good theoretical grounding, but actively efficient enough to generate
practical skills. It was thus expected that the during COVID-19 group
would perform well for the aptitude and practicum tests conducted by
education professionals and their colleagues working in the industry. If
this group passes the ‘realism test,’ we should be compelled to accept
online teaching and learning as an active mode. In the event of failure, it
Before Covid -19
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Praccal Aendance Presentaon
& &
Parcipaon
Mean
Academic test score of two groups in three domains (practical, attendance & participation, presentation).
Vertical axis represents the scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the
streams and domains.
Fig. 3. Academic test score of two groups in three domains (practical, attendance and participation & presentation): Academic test score of two groups in three
domains (practical, attendance & participation, presentation). Vertical axis represents the scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents
the streams and domains.
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 172 (2021) 121008
might mean that being a passive mode of learning, online education
undermines the active learning atmosphere required in HE to positively
influence the changes in the society.
5.2. ‘Realism test’: online education—an active mode of actively passive
insect
Theoretically, practice and theory bear a reciprocally symbiotic
relationship. The gradually increasing gap between practical and theo­
retical knowledge means this tenet can be questioned. Often the blame
falls on the ‘commodification and commercialisation in HE’ for
widening this gap. Despite this tension, evidences suggest that
academically better qualified graduates do well in the job market.
However, Alam (2021) argued that although both academic and job
market success are inter-connected, the foundation of success is based on
the privileged socioeconomic backgrounds of graduates.
The performance of both groups (before and during COVID-19)
declined in the ‘realism test,’ as their job-readiness competencies
marked by aptitude and practicum scores fell sharply (Fig. 4). The ratios
of academic, aptitude and practicum score became smaller in the sub­
sequent stages. Students from each stream (science, business, arts)
performed well academically but this success narrowed for the aptitude
score and further still in the practicum (Fig. 4). These findings suggest
that higher education in general fails to get students through the ‘realism
test.’
Students from the before COVID-19 group have performed well in
job-readiness competencies despite their poorer showing for academic
success (Fig. 2, panel A). The Before COVID-19 group from each stream
(science, business, arts) has achieved higher scores in both the aptitude
test and practicum validation. Although, graduates of HE were not able
to maintain the same pace throughout the race of the ‘realism test’ as
what they had in the academic test, the before COVID-19 group was able
to maintain a relatively better performance as compared to the during
COVID-19 group. The former group did not pass outstandingly the ‘re­
alism test’, while the latter clearly failed it (Fig. 2, panels B, C).
These findings suggest that the online mode contributed to the
increasingly dysfunctional nature of the symbiotic relationship between
practice and theory. This is definitely disappointing in as far as the
During Covid -19
Praccal Aendance Presentaon
Parcipaon
Median
7
G.M. Alam and M. Parvin Technological Forecasting & Social Change 172 (2021) 121008

Academic Aptude Praccum

4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Science Business Arts Science Business Arts
Mean Median

Combined score of both groups in three domains (Academic, Aptitude, practicum). Vertical axis represents
the scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the streams and domains

Fig. 4. Combined score of both groups in three domains (Academic, Aptitude and Practicum) Combined score of both groups in three domains (Academic,
Aptitude, practicum). Vertical axis represents the scores (mean & median) of graduates while the horizontal axis represents the streams and domains.

concept of active learning in higher education is concerned and it is not
acceptable. The most alarming concerns are as follows. Firstly, the on­
line mode tended to lead to fabricated grades, reflecting higher educa­
tion as a market-driven commodity; secondly, it is making money out of
the good reputation of HE without cultivating or producing new
knowledge and skills that future generations need; and thirdly, this so-
called online mode only values the concept of active learning in
higher education if it adds to their bottom line. While responses to
address these concerns are needed to ensure active learning in higher
education, we should always ensure that HE is in place, even during
emergency times. The section below describes a substantial policy
response during an emergency.
5.3. Substantial he policy framework during an emergency
Stopping higher education during an extremely critical situation is
not viable in the 21st century. An alternative strategy is suggested to
keep operations in place, but it is not a complete substitute or

Specialised
taskforce

Revision/expansi- Designing an
on of ad-hoc ad-hoc project
project following Policy to deal with HE
evaluation framework: during a crisis
active learning
in HE during
an emergency

Ensuring both Ensuring

rigorous diligent and
internal and prudent
external delivery of the
evaluation ad-hoc project

Diagram 1. Specialised policy framework for HE during a crisis.

8
G.M. Alam and M. Parvin
replacement. An alternative strategy should not destroy the basic prin­
ciples of education, which are the product of a long process of devel­
opment and have passed through rigorous tests. It is important to note
that an education system requires continuous revision and updating,
hence any ad-hoc/contingency model should not be implemented
completely until it has been validated. Under such circumstances, we
propose a policy framework (see Diagram 1) that can deal with educa­
tion delivery during an emergency.
A dedicated taskforce that includes specialists from different sectors
(such as higher education, public policy and legislative bodies, ICT,
private and public sector leaders, elites, etc.) should be established to
affirm that the higher education sector must continue to operate and
deliver active learning during a crisis. A well-devised and well-timed ad-
hoc project that is able to overcome ongoing challenges should ideally
be developed by this taskforce. To ensure that the profit-making men­
tality does not prevail, the ad-hoc project should be funded and
managed by the government and “one in which the governance and
regulatory mechanisms are not compromised.” The universities with a
track record of proven worth should be the only ones permitted to
participate. After the successful completion of the ad-hoc project, a se­
ries of evaluations (both internal and external) must be made. Based on
the recommendations of these evaluations, a balanced ad-hoc project
might help to restrict market players from changing how the HE sector
behaves during a crisis. A totally market-driven approach could
endanger the concept of active learning in higher education.
5.4. Implications
Having presented the findings and discussion, we explain the im­
plications of this study here. This study has both important theoretical
and practical implications for this topic under discussion. Firstly, like
other studies such as Marginson (2019), Spence (1973) and Alam
(2021), this study argues that a heterogenous higher education system
may fail to contribute substantially to the development of human capital
theory. Studies such as Dhir (2013), Dhir et al. (2015), Dhir et al. (2017),
Evers et al. (2020) and Harrison (2020) argued that modern techno­
logical innovations (such as computer- aided learning, online education
and social media) can complement ‘instructional technology’ and help
to reduce heterogeneity of systems that beset higher education. How­
ever, following Dhir et al. (2015) and Harrison (2020), this study
strongly argues that only a substantial policy framework will enable
online technology to play a constructive role. Following the concept of
‘adaptive technological policy to social change theory’ suggested by
Moshoeshoe et al. (2019), Phillips and Linstone (2016), Hamarat et al.
(2013) and Walker et al. (2010), this paper devises a policy framework
that supports the delivery of HE via online technology.
A majority of previous studies demonstrated that there is a correla­
tion between human capital theory and higher education in the devel­
oped economies. This study, however, examines if this is also the case in
a developing economy. To develop an ‘instructional technology’ in order
to remove unproductive heterogeneity in HE, the education infrastruc­
ture of a developed country often serves as the benchmark for measuring
improvements in how learning takes place. A contextual challenge al­
ways prevails in developing nations, one of which was the subject of this
study. When the concept of adaptive technological policy to social
change is used within ‘deep uncertainty’ circumstances as explained by
Walker et al. 2010), this study utilises such a theory to resolve a serious
emergency situation being experienced in Bangladesh.
6. Conclusion, limitations and further studies
An active stakeholder participation that is derailed from the funda­
mental purpose and philosophy of HE does not only undermine the
active learning attitude, it also advances the ‘diploma disease’ crisis.
Although the ‘diploma disease’ does have a long history, ‘commodifi­
cation in education’ has lately worsened the transmission of ‘diploma
9
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 172 (2021) 121008
disease’ not just in Bangladesh, but in other countries as well. Using
online mode of learning as a logistical resource, higher education has
benefited in many ways. These benefits have enabled HE to achieve
certain milestones determined by ‘active learning in HE.’ The misuse of
online logistical resources in the name of dealing with the crisis caused
by COVID-19 has to some extent warped the philosophy of higher ed­
ucation. This has helped to trigger negative opinions about higher ed­
ucation which can subsequently affect the rationale of online education,
thus creating constraints for the well-established DOL mode. This
adverse impact would raise questions on the role of education as an
agent of social change. A policy framework that can manage higher
education during an emergency in a society is urgently required as
indicated in the present study.
The limitations of this study and what future analyses could do are
noted here. This case study was conducted in one developing nation,
Bangladesh. Due to non-availability of data, it was not possible to
compare what is happening in Bangladesh in HE regarding technology
with other developing countries. While this case study provides some
generic insights into a widespread problem in developing nations, a
larger-scale research project that encompasses several such countries
could generate solid comparative evidence.
The scope of this study was limited to devising a policy framework
that is applicable in higher education during an emergency period. With
only limited funding available for this research, collecting a large
amount of data was not realistic. Despite these limitations, the present
analysis has been able to generate important insights about the policy
situation regarding HE in Bangladesh. Further research should be con­
ducted to design a designated ‘instructional technology’ using modern
technological innovation that is particularly applicable for higher edu­
cation during an emergency. Such technological changes occurring in
higher education should be able to play a constructive role in bringing
about meaningful social changes. It can do this by resolving the
discrimination which is very typical of societies in developing countries.
Declaration of Competing Interest
Manuscript title: Can online higher education be an active agent for
change? —comparison of academic success and job-readiness before and
during COVID-19. The authors whose names are listed immediately
below have contributed jointly and certify that they have NO affiliations
with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial
interest (such as honoraria; educational grants; participation in
speakers’ bureaus; membership, employment, consultancies, stock
ownership, or other equity interest; and expert testimony or patent-
licensing arrangements), or non-financial interest (such as personal or
professional relationships, affiliations, knowledge or beliefs) in the
subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
Acknowledgments and Funding
We greatly acknowledge the comments made by the reviewers and
Professor Stefano Bresciani (Associate editor- Technological Forecasting
& Social Change). Without their thorough input, the manuscript would
not have been improved. We would also like to express our gratitude to
Professor Charles J. Russo, University of Dayton, for his kind insights on
how to deal with the reviewers’ comments. He also edited this paper. We
are also indebted to Mr. Woon Wee Kim Anthony (former Registrar,
Nanyang Polytechnic, Singapore) for his kind feedback. Finally, we
thank the Asian Council of Science Editors for funding this project.
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Professor Gazi Mahabubul Alam, PhD, FRSA is an internationally recognised Public
Policy Analyst with an especial focus to Higher Education. Countries of his work experi­
ence include Malaysia, Bangladesh, UK and the USA. He works for both institute of Higher
Education and Partner for Development. Before he moved to the University Putra
Malaysia, He was a professor at the University of Malaya and East West University. Alam
acquired MA in International Education and Development from the University of Sussex
and a PhD from the University of Nottingham. He received a distinguished fellowship from
the Royal Society of Arts. He has published a number of papers and they received a notable
amount of citation in the Scopus and ISI indexed. His-paper on private Higher Education
received best citation award from the Web of Science.
Morsheda Parvin is a senior education specialist and activist. Her current role as Deputy
Director (Program) of UCEP Bangladesh is to ensure that the UCEP programs are righty
contributing for the development. Although she occasionally publishes in the area of ed­
ucation and development, she has been actively involved in education research since early
2000′ s. She had made a significant contribution for the development of teacher training
programs of BRAC.