ENG1001 Course Notes

SUPPORTS,
EQUILIBRIUM AND
CALCULATION OF
REACTIONS

Revised January 2020

2-1
 ENG1001 Course Notes
Week 2: Equilibrium and Calculation of Reactions

Table of Contents

2.1 SUPPORTS, RESTRAINTS & STABILITY ........................................................ 2-3

2.1.1 Outline and Introduction .................................................................................... 2-3
2.1.2 Different Support Types .................................................................................... 2-3
2.1.3 Joining members together .................................................................................. 2-6
2.1.4 Stable & unstable support to a structure ............................................................ 2-7
2.2 EQUILIBRIUM ................................................................................................... 2-10
2.2.1 Outline & introduction ..................................................................................... 2-10
2.2.2 Translational Equilibrium ................................................................................ 2-11
2.2.3 Rotational Equilibrium..................................................................................... 2-13
2.2.4 How to add applied moments .......................................................................... 2-14
2.3 CALCULATING REACTIONS .......................................................................... 2-16
2.3.1 Free Body Diagrams ........................................................................................ 2-16
2.4 SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 2-18

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2.1 SUPPORTS, RESTRAINTS & STABILITY

2.1.1 OUTLINE AND INTRODUCTION
Structures are supported in different ways. It is important that a structure has at least enough
support to make it stable, but if it has extra supports this makes the calculation procedures more
difficult. We will look at the different types of support, and how to decide if a structure has not
enough, just enough, or more than enough supports.

After working through this unit and watching the online videos and attending the associated
workshops and practical classes you should be able to:

 Describe the three different support types

 describe what is meant by stable and unstable supports, and determine whether a
structure has stable or unstable supports
 describe what is meant by determinate and indeterminate structures, and determine
whether a structure is determinate or indeterminate

2.1.2 DIFFERENT SUPPORT TYPES

A structure can be attached to its supports by connecting a member or members of the structure
to the supports in one of four ways. In the unit we will typically limit ourselves to two
dimensional systems when doing calculations.

Fixed (or Built In)

The member cannot move in any direction with respect to the support - it cannot translate and
it cannot rotate. An example would be a telegraph pole which is "built in" to the ground.

A fixed support provides 3 reactions (for a 2 dimensional structure); a force in the x direction,
Fx, a force in the y direction, Fy, an applied moment about the z axis, Mz.

Therefore, in general at a fixed support: Fx ≠ 0 Fy ≠ 0 Mz ≠ 0

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Pinned (or Hinge)

The member cannot translate in any direction with respect to the support, but it can rotate. For
example the back leg of the chair that you sit on cannot translate across the floor - it is "fixed"
by friction - but it can easily rotate with respect to the floor when you swing backwards on
your chair (don't try it!). Any member of a structure that is connected to the support with one
bolt will be a pinned connection - it cannot translate but it can rotate.

A pinned support provides 2 reactions (for a 2 dimensional structure); a force in the x direction,
Fx, and a force in the y direction, Fy

Therefore, in general at a pin support: Fx ≠ 0 Fy ≠ 0 but Mz = 0

Also, it is very important to understand that, for a structure to be stable, the entire structure
itself is not free to rotate about the pin, i.e. rotational equilibrium of the structure is to be
maintained.

The sum the moments due to all forces (and moments) acting on a structure, (taken about
the pin) must equal zero

ΣMabout the pin = 0

Roller
The member is prevented from translating in one direction only, and it is free to rotate. When
you stand in roller blades or on a skateboard, you are free to rotate (topple over), and you can

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translate in the direction of the rollers, but you cannot translate into the ground or at right angles
to the rollers. You are therefore connected to the earth through a roller.

https://www.quora.com/How-does-
roller-support-and-hinged-support-
look-actually-in-reality

A roller support provides 1 reaction (for a 2 dimensional structure), a force perpendicular to

the roller, Fy.

Therefore, in general at a roller support: Fy ≠ 0 but Fx = 0 and Mz = 0

Also, it is very important to understand that, for a structure with a roller to be stable, the entire
structure itself cannot be free to rotate about the roller nor can there be translation of the entire
system, i.e. rotational and translational equilibrium of the structure is to be maintained. In
other words,

The sum of the moments due to all forces (and moments) acting on a structure, (taken about
the roller) must equal zero AND the sum of the forces at the roller (in the direction of the
roller) must be zero.

ΣMabout the roller = 0


ΣFx at the roller = 0, where x is the direction of the roller

Free
When there is no connection between the end of a member and the support, then the end of the
member is free to translate and rotate with respect to the support. Think for example of the top
of a flagpole.

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A free support provides no reactions.

Therefore, at a free end: Fy = 0 , Fx = 0 and Mz = 0

Finally, it is important to note that while we draw the reactions for rollers and pins in the
positive axis direction only, it is understood that they can provide a reaction in both the positive
and negative directions. A more complete picture of the support would be:

Suggested Reading
Hibbeler, R.C., Statics and mechanics of Materials, Section 4.2

2.1.3 JOINING MEMBERS TOGETHER

In mathematically modelling the behaviour of structures (structural analysis) we classify the
ways in which members are joined to one another (at a node) into two types:

Fixed
If one member is fixed to another member, for example by welding or gluing, then they become
one member. There is no relative translation or rotation between the ends of the two members
once they are joined.

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Actual Diagram

Pinned
If one member is "pinned" to another member, for example by a single bolt/pin connection,
then there cannot be relative translation between the ends of the two members, BUT there can
be rotation. We refer to this as an internal pin or a hinge in the structure (it is called an ‘internal’
pin to distinguish it from a pin support. This has an important consequence for equilibrium of
the structure. If the sum of all the applied moments due to all the forces to one side of the pin
does not equal zero, then the structure will rotate about the pin - it will not be in equilibrium.
Therefore, at an internal pin we can write equilibrium equations to say that, at an internal pin:

ΣM taken to one (either) side of the pin = 0

Activity
Look closely at the structures around you. Try to find fixed, pinned and roller supports. Try to
find fixed and pinned connections between members. (Hint - in real structures, a pin is often
not a perfect pin, instead it is a connection which will allow some rotation between the two
parts, so may comprise of a number of bolts, not just the one.)

2.1.4 STABLE & UNSTABLE SUPPORT TO A STRUCTURE

One of the main tasks of the structural engineer is to design a structure which will not collapse
when loaded. The most magnificent structure will be of no use if the supports are not adequate
to prevent collapse, so the structural engineer must pay careful attention to see that the structure
is adequately supported.

A structure is stable when it has a set of supports that provides adequate support to prevent the
structure from rotating or translating. A stable structure has a load path from an applied load
to the support.

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A structure is unstable when the set of supports do not prevent rotation and/or translation, so
the structure will collapse. An unstable structure does not have a load path from an applied
load to the support.

Determinate and Indeterminate Structures

If a structure has just enough support to make it stable, then we can calculate exactly how much
of the applied load is carried by each support, using the equations of equilibrium. When the
reactions can be determined from the equations of equilibrium alone, we say that the structure
is determinate.

If a structure has extra support, so that the equations of equilibrium do not give enough
information to calculate how much of the applied load is carried by each support then we say
that the structure is indeterminate.

A determinate structure has only one load path from an applied load to the support. An
indeterminate structure has a choice of load paths from an applied load to the support. In this
case, the proportion of the load that is carried by each load path depends upon the stiffness of
the various load paths.

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A useful way of checking whether a 2 dimensional stable structure is determinate or

indeterminate is to count up the number of reactions that the supports provide. If this equals 3
the structure is determinate. If there are more than 3 reactions the structure is probably
indeterminate, and has alternative load paths (although this is not always the case), and if there
are less than 3 reactions then the structure does not have enough support, and it will collapse -
it is unstable. The support of a structure can be classified as shown below:

Video Link: This video discusses determinate, indeterminate and unstable structures.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lx-1CkSdbqA

Activity
 Place one end of your ruler onto a round pen or pencil, lying on your desk (a roller).
Leave the other end unsupported. Is this unstable or stable?
 Place the other end of you ruler onto a second round pen or pencil. Apply a horizontal
force to your ruler. Is this stable or unstable?
 Hold the ruler at one end to prevent it moving horizontally, so this end is now a pin
support. Is this stable or unstable? If stable, is it determinate or indeterminate?

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2.2 EQUILIBRIUM

2.2.1 OUTLINE & INTRODUCTION

Once you know the structural form, the load path, the loads, and that the structure is stable, it
is necessary to calculate numerical values for the reactions at the supports and for the forces in
the members that make up the structure. To do this we use the principle of equilibrium, that all
forces must sum to zero.
After working through this unit and watching the online videos and attending the associated
Workshops and practical classes you should be able to:
 Understand the concepts of forces and applied moments, and appreciate the need for
these to be in equilibrium.
 Apply the mathematical equations for equilibrium of forces and applied moments.
 Calculate the reactions for 2 dimensional determinate structures

A fundamental requirement of a successful structure is that when loaded it resists that load
without collapsing. All structures deform when loaded, but they reach stable equilibrium,
where the structure supports the applied loads. If this does not occur - if equilibrium is not
reached - the structure collapses.

We can consider two types of equilibrium

 Translational (or force) equilibrium
 Rotational (or applied moment) equilibrium

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2.2.2 TRANSLATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM

Consider the following cart. The only force acting on the cart is the weight. On a horizontal
road the cart is in equilibrium - the downward force due to gravity is exactly balanced by the
upwards reaction on the wheels. The net vertical force on the cart is zero, so the cart does not
move in the vertical direction. Likewise there is no net force in the horizontal direction, so the
cart does not translate in that direction.

If the cart does not move horizontally or vertically, then it does not move in any direction
(because any movement can be resolved into horizontal and vertical components). This is a
concept that we will use often - if the translation in two perpendicular directions is zero, then
the translation in any other direction must be zero also, as any translation can be resolved into
components in the two perpendicular directions.

Likewise, if the force in any two perpendicular directions is zero, then the force in any other
direction must be zero, as any force can be resolved into components in the two perpendicular
directions. Both displacement and force are vectors as they have a magnitude and a direction.
All vectors can be resolved into components.

So our cart has translational force equilibrium. Expressed mathematically,

The cart is now placed on an inclined slope. Again the only force acting is that due to gravity.
The wheels are free to rotate, so the reactions can only be directed perpendicular to the road
surface.

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The cart is no longer in equilibrium. To see this, resolve the load into components parallel and
perpendicular to the road surface. The perpendicular component is balanced by the reaction, so
we have translational equilibrium in that direction, but there is no reaction to balance the
component of the load which acts parallel to the road surface. A lack of equilibrium is
acceptable for a cart, which is intended to roll from place to place, but in a structure it is
unacceptable.

Translational equilibrium occurs when every force acting on a structure (every load)
has an equal and opposite resisting force (reaction)

F1 to F6 are LOADS and

REACTIONS in any direction. For
equilibrium, we require ΣF=0.

Many structures can be considered to be two dimensional - that is they can be drawn in the
plane of a page. For these structures we can ensure that translational equilibrium is satisfied
by choosing two perpendicular axes (call them x and y), and making sure that and ΣFx = 0
and ΣFy = 0.
In the more general case, and for more complex structures, we will have forces and reactions
acting in all three directions. In these cases we need to satisfy,

In order to add forces it is necessary to be consistent in describing the direction that a force
acts in. In these notes a force will be positive if it acts in the positive axis direction.

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2.2.3 ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM

Consider the flywheel shown here. Any force that we apply to the flywheel will be resisted
by a reaction at the supports, so the flywheel will not translate - it is fixed in position. It has
translational equilibrium. However the flywheel can still rotate, and rotation, while it is
essential in a flywheel, is not acceptable in a structure. Structures must have rotational
equilibrium - any forces causing rotation must be balanced by equal and opposite forces
resisting rotation.

(Ref: Wikipedia – Flywheel)

Rotation is caused when the applied force and the reaction do not line up. The larger the
force, the larger the rotation effect. The larger the offset, the larger the rotation effect. Thus
the rotation effect, called the applied moment, is a product of the force and its offset
distance from the reaction.

An applied moment is the product of a force and the perpendicular distance from the
reaction to the line of action of that force

Rotational equilibrium occurs when every applied moment acting on a structure

(every force x distance) has an equal and opposite resisting applied moment

Whereas forces act along a direction, applied moments act about an axis. To ensure rotational
equilibrium the sum of applied moments about any axis must be zero. This will be so if the
sum of applied moments about any three mutually perpendicular axes is zero,

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If the structure can be modelled in 2 dimensions (and many structures can) then all forces will
act about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the structure (that is in the z direction, or out of
the plane of the page). So for 2 dimensional structures, if equilibrium is to be satisfied we
require

Activity:
Push on the handle of an open door. This is an unstable structure, your forces causing
moments about the hinge so that ΣM≠0.
Now close the door and push on the handle again. The structure is now stable. Explain the
load path, and the reactions, and show that:
 ΣFx = 0
 ΣFy = 0
 ΣFz = 0
 ΣMx = 0
 ΣMy = 0
 ΣMz = 0 where x, y and z are three perpendicular directions that you define.

Suggested Reading:
Hibbeler, R.C., Statics and mechanics of Materials, Section 4.1 & 4.3

2.2.4 HOW TO ADD APPLIED MOMENTS

In order to add applied moments it is necessary to be consistent in describing the direction that
an applied moment acts in. In these notes an applied moment will be positive if it Follows the
right hand screw rule.

This works as follows,

 Select the axis that you are going to sum applied moments about (i.e. the axis about
which you are checking for rotational equilibrium)
 Wrap your right hand around this axis, with your thumb extended along the positive
axis direction
 The direction defined by your fingers is the positive applied moment direction

In 2 dimensional models of structures applied moments can be represented as a curved arrow

in the direction of the applied moment. For 3 dimensional models this representation does not
work, so in this case we often represent applied moments as double headed arrows. The
direction of the double headed arrow gives the direction of the applied moment in accordance
with the right hand screw rule.

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To confirm forces are positive if they act in the positive axis direction and applied moments
are positive if they follow the right hand screw rule (wrap your right hand around the axis with
your thumb in the positive axis direction). In the 2D x-y axes shown above, anticlockwise,
thus defines the direction of a positive moment.
Note that when a structure is in equilibrium, there is no rotation about any axis, irrespective of
where that axis is. This leaves you with a free choice of the point about which you will "take
moments". Confusion about moments
One of the greatest sources of confusion in this course involves the use of the word "moment".
The word is used in two different ways.

Applied Moments
When the line of action of an external force is offset
some perpendicular distance from a point on a
structure, the force causes a moment about that
point. The magnitude of the moment equals the
force times the perpendicular distance. Because the
moment is applied to the beam by a force external
to the beam, it is described as an external applied
moment.

Throughout these notes this will be referred to as an

applied moment. An applied moment will cause a
structure to twist if the axis about which the applied
moment acts is parallel to the structure. This type of
applied moment is called a torque. An applied
moment will cause a structure to bend or curve if the
axis about which the applied moment acts is
perpendicular to the structure.

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So, an applied moment is due to an external force is at some perpendicular distance from a
point on a structure. An applied moment can cause either twisting (when it is called a torque),
or it can cause bending.

Bending Moments
When an applied moment causes a
structure to bend or curve, the amount of
curving varies at different points in the
structure. For example, a person sitting on
a plank causes high curvature in the
centre, but no curvature or bending at the
ends.

To describe the amount of bending that is occurring within the plank, we determine the internal
bending moment in the plank. The internal bending moment describes a situation inside the
structure. In practice we drop the word "internal", and just call this the bending moment. Much
more about bending moments later.

2.3 CALCULATING REACTIONS

2.3.1 FREE BODY DIAGRAMS
A free body diagram (FBD) is a graphical representation used to visualize all the applied forces,
moments, and resulting reactions acting on a given body. You would have come across FBDs
in you high school physics and maths units when looking at blocks on ramps etc.

With these types of problems;

 only translational equilibrium needed to be considered as all the forces on the system
were concurrent i.e. all the forces act through the same one point, and,
 there was the possibility that systems were moving/accelerating ( ΣF ≠ 0 ).

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Structures such as beams and trusses, of course need to be stable and in equilibrium to function,
and they more often than not have multiple support points, thus;
 we now need to consider moment equilibrium as well as translational equilibrium, and
 as we know that our structural systems must all be stable, and in equilibrium, the sum
of all forces and moments will always equate to zero (Newton’s First Law)

90 kN
B
1m
C R3
A
R1 R2
roller pin

1m 2m

Writing equilibrium equations for free bodies is one of the most powerful techniques in
structural analysis.

Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dvThypPA804

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Video Link: moment equilibrium. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EhIMJ92rLfw

2.4 SUMMARY

1. Supports for a structure can be fixed, pinned, roller (or free). A fixed support in 2D
provides three reactions (2 forces and one moment). a pinned support in 2D provides two
reactions (forces). A roller in 2D provides one reaction (force).

2. Connections between members can be fixed or pinned. A fixed connection between

members prevents relative translation and rotation. A pinned connection between members
prevents relative translation, but allows relative rotation.

3. A structure will have stable or unstable support.

4. A stable structure will be determinate or indeterminate.

5. The equations of equilibrium involve summing forces and applied moments on a structure.
The summation must total zero for the structure to be in equilibrium. This is used to solve
mathematically for the reactions that act on a structure. All structures must satisfy
equilibrium if they are to fulfil their function of carrying loads. This means,

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6. An applied moment is the product of a force and the perpendicular distance from the
reaction to the line of action of that force

7. The sign convention for equilibrium is such that,

 a force is positive if it acts in the positive axis direction.
 an applied moment is positive if it follows the right hand screw rule when your thumb
is in the positive axis direction

8. We use our equilibrium equations along with free body diagrams to solve for
reaction forces.

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