Unit 1 / Learning environment 1

Essential reading

History, culture and economy of

Europe from Ancient Europe to
Middle Age

Index

1 European geography

2 Stages of history

3 Cultural and economic bases of Ancient Europe

4 Europe in the Middle Ages

Key words: european culture, european history, integration process, european economics.
1. European geography
Europe is the second smallest continent in the world after Oceania. It is located in the Northern
hemisphere, west of the continental block of Eurasia. It has an area of 10,503,751 Km2, which
represents 2% of the Earth’s surface (Revolvy, 2018).

Europe is bounded as follows:

• North: Arctic Ocean

• South: Caucasus, Black Sea, and Mediterranean Sea

• East: Ural Mountains and Caspian Sea

• West: Atlantic Ocean

Europe
Map

Figure 1. Europe Map.

Source: own elaboration.

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2. Stages of history
There are four stages of the cultural and economic history of Europe. Each stage begins and ends
with major milestones.

Written language -
Ancient 3300 BC -
Fall of the Roman
History 476 AD
Empire

Fall of the Roman

Middle 5th c. - 15th c. Empire - Fall of
Ages
Constantinople

Modern Fall of Constantinople

15th c. - 18th c.
History - French Revolution

Contemporary 19th c. - French Revolution

History the present -Nowadays

Figure 2: Stages of history

Source: own elaboration.

Did you know that...?

Etymologically ‘Europe’, comes from the Assyrian word ‘ereb’, that means “the
west of the world”, where the Sun sets. Historians say that the name ‘Europe’
comes from the Greek mythology; Europa had great beauty and was kidnapped
by Zeus, who transformed into a bull to take her to Crete. Do you know any
other versions? Which one do you think is the real one?

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3. Cultural and economic bases of Ancient Europe
Ancient History is a period that goes from 3300 BC to 476 AD; it begins with the creation of writing
and ends with the fall of the Roman Empire. It was in this period of time that two Mediterranean
civilizations evolved: the Greek and the Roman. The influence of these civilizations on language,
culture, art and religion have left traces on the European continent and, by extension, large part of
today’s world.

3.1. Ancient Greece

Greek civilization had a privileged location next to the Mediterranean Sea. Around the 8th century
BC it was organized by polies or city-states, which represented the political, cultural and civic center
of Greek society. Each polis functioned as an independent political unit, calling foreigners to the
inhabitants of the other polies. Despite this autonomy and the fighting to the death for their freedom
and independence, every polis was considered part of the same civilization. This feeling was based on
common language and religion, a legendary tradition and great creations of art, literature, science and
philosophy. (Admirand, 2013). Two examples of polies are Athens and Sparta.

3.1.1. The importance of written language in the european culture

According to archaeology writing appeared at the same time in Mesopotamia and Egypt,
approximately a century before the year 3000 BC. In Europe, the oldest known writing is the linear
script A, which dates from around 1750 BC. Greek is in turn the origin of all the modern alphabets
of Europe, for example, the alphabet of the primitive western Greek dialects gave rise to the Latin
alphabet (The British Museum, 2017).

3.1.2. Greek economy and trade

The crops were typical of the Mediterranean basin, that is vines, olives, cereals and fruits. Herds of
goats and sheep were kept on the flanks of the mountains. The work of the field was carried out in a
very rustic way with wooden plows, crushing the grain, because the mills were unknown. Therefore,
the yield for the crops made farming not very profitable.

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The mining resources were very scarce, there was copper, iron and some silver. However, clay could
be found in abundance, which helped the development of ceramics, one of the fundamental products
of trade in the Mediterranean.

The Greek civilization reached its maximum splendor thanks to the dominion of the sea and its wealth
based on a prosperous trade. Many trips were made along all the Mediterranean coasts, establishing
commercial colonies and radiating throughout this sea the principles of their civilization and culture.

The development of trade and industry generated an important social change, because it provoked
the emergence of a new class of enriched men thanks to the exploitation of these new economic
activities and not only by the possession of land.

3.1.3. Currency in ancient Greece

In the late 7th century BC coins were small pieces of electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver drawn
from rivers. These coins worked with a system of weights that variated from city to city. Their value
didn’t necessarily coincide, since each city had the power to make its own currency. Over time the
coins began showing scenes of the polis that made them. So, when they started exchanging them
in economic transactions, the coins became an emblem of the city. The symbols could use a lot of
subjects: religion, flora, fauna, weapons, musical instruments, among others (Vico, 2003).

Did you know that...?

The reverse of the Greek euro currency shows the image of the Athenian
Tetradrachm (5th c. BC). In fact, many authors refer to it as “the dollar standard
of the antiquity”.

POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO 5
Figure 3. Greek currency.

The popularization of the use of coins for the payment of commercial transactions made way for a
new type of trade: currency itself, thus giving rise to the appearance of banking. At first, coins were
traded with other products, including gold and silver. Some people “rented” these metals with the
promise of giving a fee to the “landlord”, but coins gave a new approach to this business, focusing
on the currency itself, which led to the appearance of public banks. These entities were managed by
functionaries of the polies, who performed transactions, like the loans with interest, and new ones
brought by the use of the currency, as the coining of the pieces and change for raw metals or foreign
currencies.

3.2. Ancient Rome

The Roman civilization is divided into three parts: The Monarchy, the Republic and the Empire.

The Monarchy went from 8th BC to 6th BC, a period with huge Etruscan influence, for it was from
this civilization that rose the new Roman state and a political system that gave way to the republic.
During this period the Roman and Etruscan kings wielded power.

Then came the Republic, from 6th BC to the 1st AD. this was a time of great struggles and
conquests. After defeating Carthage in the last battle of the Punic Wars, Rome became the power of
the Mediterranean under Julius Caesar.

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Finally, Octavio, nephew of Julius Caesar, began the Empire, which goes from 1st AD to the 5th
AD. This was the stage of greatest splendor for Rome and the conversion into a powerful and refined
metropolis (Enciclopedia de Características, 2017).

3.2.1. Roman economy

In Rome, the fields provided the basis for economic livelihood. Well-organized rural production
allowed to create livestock and agricultural surplus (cereals, grapes, olives, fruits and vegetables),
which sponsored the existence of cities. The Romans practiced the cattle ranch of cows, ewes
and pigs. In addition, they exploited salt, used for the conservation of food, and its subsequent
commercialization.

Furthermore, the economy was based on slave exploitation and the wealth of its provinces. The
provinces provided raw materials that were transformed in Rome, where an important craft, especially
textiles, ceramics and metallurgy, was developed. This fact caused the ruin of small farmers, who
could not compete with the products of these provinces (History, 2018).

Trade was another of the economic bases of the Roman civilization. Since the Romans had control of
the maritime fleet, they could sell their products and crafts in distant places and obtain profits. They
even had a tax called portorium, paid by the freight transportation through the Roman territory. The
exchange method was the Roman coins, that circulated throughout the empire.

3.2.2. Monetary and economic crisis

From the second half of 2nd century the Roman Empire began to suffer an economic revolt that got
worse at the end of the 3rd. This had deep political and social consequences of the first order. The
most obvious signs of this regression were the alterations of the coins and changing prices.

A severe policy of production control began. Individuals were tied to their traditional occupations
and it was forbidden to leave them. This led to the professional classes and restricted freedom of
non-landowning classes. The consequence, as usual, was a polarization of the economic classes. The
landowners were getting richer, while the poverty of the working class was growing. This phenomenon
marked the physiognomy of the low Empire and was transmitted to the western states of the Early
Middle Ages.

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4. Europe in the Middle Ages
This period goes from the 5th century AD, with the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), to
the 15th century (1492), that marks the beginning of the Renaissance. During these centuries, the
changes were very important: some states were consolidated, most of the languages spoken today
emerged, and the modern cities rose, which would became the basis for further development.

But there are opposing positions about what the Middle Ages represented for the development
of Europe as a power, because some consider this period to have been a dark age, in which the
achievements of the ancient cultures were lost and the European population was held back in a period
dominated by poverty, disease and ignorance.

Nevertheless, authors point out the Middle Ages as a fundamental period to the cultural and
economic development of Europe, since it was along these centuries that a new political and cultural
order was created and underlaid the changes that would lead to the Modern Age. Such is the case of
Le Goff (2003), who “rebelled against those who argue that the Middle Ages is barbaric and criticizes
the collective image of dark times we have of that period”. He defends the European Renaissance of
the 12th century as a key element to the development of a new mentality and new cultures.

4.1. Medieval economy in Europe

At the end of the 2nd century, the Roman Empire was in crisis due to high taxes, devaluation of
the currency and the reduction of trade, given the insecurity in the routes and the shortages in the
cities. This set of reasons led to the great owners to leave the cities and flee to the countryside. In
consequence the poor sought protection of the rich, which gave way to feudalism.

Feudalism was an economic, social and political system based on the constitution of the manor and
lordship. This system dominated Europe during the Middle Ages, mainly between the 9th and the
11th centuries. It appeared initially in France and later in other European countries. In this economy
system the land belonged to a small group of people who exercised real control over their possessions.
This led to the fall of commercial activity and the use of money during the first period of the Middle
Ages. The most important activity was agriculture as a means of subsistence, which means that the
goal was to produce only what was needed for consumption.

Although medieval society was essentially rural, economy and society were founded on the rural-
urban complementarity. The city had a considerable economic importance as a center of trade and
production. In the 12th century the cities were cleaned, paved and adorned with monuments.

POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO 8
On the other hand, the Church had great economic and political power. This institution had a
fundamental role in the economy of the time; fortune was considered a divine favor, so there was the
idea that the rich should compensate for said blessing by giving to the monasteries and the Church,
the administrator of goods of the poor. High religious positions acted as knights who had large estates
and vassals. They had a monopoly of culture and represented a great influence on society, which was
strongly impregnated with religion.

4.2. The Crusades and their cultural and economic impact

Within the period of the Middle Ages, between the 11th and 13th centuries, there were wars between
Christianity and Islam called Crusades. They were a reaction of medieval Europe to the Turkish
invasion of the Holy Land and the intolerance and mistreatment of Christians. Religion was crucial in
people’s lives at the time, so the presence of sin and atonement were very strong, and pilgrimage to
the holy places was a goal in the life of Christians.

But the crusades weren’t only for religious beliefs, there were also economic reasons for them.
Europe wanted control of trade with Asia and Africa, and the Turks were hindering European routes
with these regions, thus the Crusades reinitiated the cultural and commercial contact between East
and West. This placed Italy’s port and commercial cities, such as Genoa and Venice, in a position of
great power and influence. The power of the feudal nobility strongly decimated in the wars against the
Turks and were weakened by the rise of trade. In contrast, the new situation strengthened the power
of merchants and kings.

4.3. Stratified society in the medieval Europe

In the old regime, the society was divided into two groups. The first one was the privileged and
consisted of the nobility and the clergy. They did not pay taxes, could carry weapons and were judged
by courts and different laws. The other group was formed by peasants and city dwellers, as artisans
and bourgeois living of their work. They had to pay taxes and could not access important positions or
carry weapons. There were also many people with a low standard of living: servants, waiters, criers, and
water carriers, as well as rogues and beggars.

POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO 9
Another component of the old regime was the absolute monarchy, the predominant form of government
in Europe in which the monarch’s power stood out above all other classes. Absolutism was the result of the
strengthening of royal power over the nobility. It started in the late Middle Ages. The most important feudal
monarchies of the time were England, France and Castile.

The medieval king was the image of God and embodied religious functions, as well as judicial and military.
The absolute monarch was above all the people of his kingdom and all these were his subjects. The central
axis of the old regime political system was the absolute monarchy of divine right, according to which the
monarch’s authority came from God, in the name of whom he exercised power (Le Goff, 2003).

4.4. Economic development and international trade in the 11th and 12th centuries

A system of international trade was developed in the northern seas. The closed economy of the villages
only had local markets, where the servants of the villa could sell the low weekly surplus of their agricultural
production and products of its domestic industry. With the growth of international trade, feudal lords
established fairs, which were held once a year and where merchants from all over Europe gathered.
Particularly popular were the fairs of the Champagne, in France, in which the lord gave his army for protection
in exchange of a tribute.

4.5. European trade in the 13th and 14th centuries

The 13th century was one of commercial success and European traders. The commercial revolution was made
between two poles: the north and the Mediterranean, with a predominance of Italy and the Hanseatic League.
The contact area was in the Northeast (Champagne fairs). With the progress of the routes appeared the
itinerant European trade.

The coining of money increased with a special currency for each country or city, the importance of the Italian
currency (guilders, ducats, etc.) stands out, but not having a single currency limited the prosperity of the
continent. As traders settled, they resorted to the mediation of accounting, commissioners, representatives
and employees. These workers were established to oversee and accomplish the orders of sedentary bosses.
The merchant class diversified with lenders and money changers, which led to banking in Europe.

Traders dominated the labor market by fixing wages, housing market control and retained power through
inequalities brought by taxes (Le Goff, 2003).

POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO 10
 4.6. European trade in the late 15th century

Regional trade was organized in large fairs like Champagne, where merchants met to negotiate purchases
and sales. It was also important due to the distance with the East, which costs were profitable only for very
expensive products, such as metals, spices, silk and other luxury items.

In the early 15th century commercial activities expanded and intensified, as the Turkish rule in Asia Minor
gave Lisbon opportunities to test Atlantic routes.

4.7. Culture in medieval Europe

From the 10th century, the Middle Ages was a flowering period of new manifestations, both cultural
and artistic. Soon the evolution of thought in the creation and transmission of culture, which had
taken refuge in monasteries during the early Middle Ages, were preserved and transmitted by books.
With the urban revival and the emergence of cathedrals, monastic schools were supplanted largely
by the cathedral schools, and universities emerged from these in the 13th century. Education in the
Middle Ages rested on the clergy. Monastic schools were centers of learning since the 9th century,
however, they were exceeded during the 11th century by the cathedral schools that spread quickly,
when universities came. The word ‘university’ is derived from the Latin word ‘universitas’, which means
‘corporation’ or ‘guild’ and referred to a guild of teachers or students.

In addition, most of society was illiterate and the cultured language that was used in most of western
Europe to transmit knowledge was Latin. From the 12th century they began to use the Romances
languages, that were those derived from Latin and that initially had a popular use.

4.7.1. Medieval custom and behaviors

At this time, many rules of behavior were introduced that are now rooted in western culture. High
society had to learn manners, for example, “Not to point the knife on the table, there could be
misunderstandings” (García,2007).

Initially, the medieval table was very simple; not many dishes were needed: guests only received a
spoon and a table to cut the meat with a knife they had to carry themselves and they had to use their
hands for the rest. Over time, it became common to use a punch to hold the food, and at the end of
the Middle Ages a two-pronged fork was used.

POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO 11
Figure 5. Medieval castle.

Did you know that...?

Vestiges of some 10,000 wooden castles from medieval times have been found
in France. Archaeologists estimate that in the 9th century, a traveler in those
lands could find a castle every 10 km.

POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO 12
According to the dress code of the Middle Ages, only those who belonged to the nobility could dress
luxuriously. By law the farmer should wear black, gray or brown clothes, they were only allowed to wear
blue to go to church. Proper clothing for peasants was a simple linen smock, wooden shoes and one pair
of leather boots. In contrast, the clothing of the nobility could be of different colors and fine materials, this
was associated with alchemy and magic.

Rich people lived in stone castles and their wealth was measured by the thickness of its walls and the
strength of the outer fortifications. The peasants made mud huts, which often burned and had to be rebuilt.
Additionally, having no sewage system or any system of water pipe, the streets of the fortress or village
seemed like sloughs all year around, making malodor a part of everyday life. This built a culture of endemic
diseases that struck the dwindling population of the Middle Ages (Current Archeology Magazine, 2013).

4.8. Europe and its consolidation as a global power: was Europe born in the middle ages?

Jacques Le Goff, historian of the Middle Ages, in his book Was Europe Born in the Middle Ages? (¿Nació
Europa en la Edad Media?) provides an overview of the time that several critics pose as new.

For example, the 13th century for Jacques Le Goff is the century of the height of the west medieval world.
During this time the new strength of Christianity stated that the European model was imposed: an urban
Europe was built, and this is embodied in cities, the new institutions with new intellectual foci, the resurgent
trade. All this shows a success of knowledge.

According to Jacques Le Goff “the prizes of the Modern Age appeared with the development of printing,
the world economy (grand opening of the European economy, brought the globalization of trade, but
the worsening of social inequalities), portrait art and oil painting (invention of the 15th century), and the
importance of cities with patrons such as Florence and the Medici” (Le Goff, 2003, p. 101).

At the international level there were also some changes: the fading empire, the simplifying of the European
map, new threats such as Turkey made Italy an important role in Europe as a beacon of the Renaissance.
This period also saw the birth of the ultramarine Europe and its expansion to the Atlantic and Africa, as well
as companies thanks to the progress of ships and navigation. On this regard Henry the Navigator was an
important figure.

In conclusion, the Middle Ages was a rich period for the development of cultures which made possible the
trend of opening of the sciences and the arts in a superior rigor of brilliance in the decadence of the 16th
century. The Middle Ages also stablished the daily life that it’s now associated with cosmopolitan cities.

POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO 13
References
Admirand, P. (2013). A Culture of Freedom Ancient Greece & The Origins of Europe. Retrieved from
https://login.loginbiblio.poligran.edu.co/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tru
e&db=aph&AN=87572666&site=ehost-live

Current Archaeology Magazine. (2013). Peasant houses in Midland England. Retrieved from https://
www.archaeology.co.uk/articles/peasant-houses-in-midland-england.htm

Enciclopedia de Características. (2017). Civilización romana. Retrieved from https://www.

caracteristicas.co/civilizacion-romana/

García, A. N. (2007). El proceso de la civilización en la sociología de Norbert Elias. Retrieved from

https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/1271/127112570016.pdf

Weiner K. (May 2014). Why did Both Silver and Gold Become Money?. Retrieved from https://
www.forbes.com/sites/keithweiner/2014/05/10/why-did-both-silver-and-gold-become-
money/#5913a5db6b2b

History. (2018). Ancient Rome. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/

ancient-rome

Le Goff, J. (2003). ¿Nació Europa en la Edad Media?. Editorial Crítica.

Revolvy. (2018). Europe. Retrieved from https://www.revolvy.com/page/Europe

The British Museum. (2017). Historic writing. Retrieved from https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/

themes/writing/historic_writing.aspx

Vico, A.V. (2003). Las monedas griegas. Retrieved from http://www.numismundo.com.ar/

Art%C3%ADculos%20en%20doc/La%20moneda%20griega.pdf

Weiner K. (May 2014). Why did Both Silver and Gold Become Money?. Retrieved from https://
www.forbes.com/sites/keithweiner/2014/05/10/why-did-both-silver-and-gold-become-
money/#5913a5db6b2b

POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO 14
 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Module: Cultura y Economía Regional de Europa

Unit 1: History and culture of Europe and its economic
development
Learning environment 1: History, culture and economy of
Europe from Ancient Europe to Middle Age

Author: Andrea Carolina Ramírez Ruiz

Pedagogical Advisor: Alexandra Bolaños

Graphic Designer: Andrés Felipe Figueroa
Assistant: Laura Delgado

This material belongs to Politécnico Grancolombiano

Its partial or total reproduction is prohibited

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