Political Science BG 3rd Year Dr.

Mohd Amin Malik

Unit 5 5.1 WC Anantnag

Meaning of Political Party: - A political party may be described as a more or less

organised group of citizens, who share the same political views and have some political,
economic or social basis, and who by winning the support of the maximum number of
people control the machinery of government or try to do so, so that it may run the
government on the line of its own ideology.

According to MacIver: - A political party is an association organised in support of some

principle or policy which by constitutional means endeavours to make the determinant of
government.

According to Burke :- A political party is a body of men united for the purpose of
promoting by their joint endeavours the public interests upon some principle on which they
are all agreed.

Factors Responsible for the Formation of Political parties

1. Organisation. For the efficient working of a party its organisation is most essential.
2. Common aims. A group of individuals having common aims alone can organise
themselves into a political party.
3. Use of constitutional means. The very basis of formation of political parties is that the
government may be changed by constitutional means in accordance with the wish of
the people.
4. Priority to national interest. Political parties are formed not for serving the interest of
any particular class.

Types of party Systems

Mono or Single or One Party System: - The countries having one party and the same
party holding the reins of Government into its hands are called have Mono Party system.
The Communist Countries are the examples. In fact dictatorship of the party is in vogue. No
other party is allowed political freedom there.

Merits of One Party System

1. This system provides a strong and powerful government. In the absence of

opposition parties neither the government is subjected to criticism nor the time is
wasted in debate.
2. In one party system it becomes possible for the country te develop even in the
economic field.
3. This system helps in increasing national unity.
4. In the absence of mutual opposition in the government, efficiency increases in the
conduct of administration.

Demerits of One Party System

1. One-Party system is opposed to democracy because under this system dictatorship of

a party gets established.
 2. Under this system citizens do not get chance to freely choose their representatives.
3. In the absence of opposition parties, the government’s misconduct goes uncriticised
and thus the government becomes absolute and dictatorial.
4. Under this party system, the ruling class encourages militarism in order to keep
retaining the political power.

Bi or Two Party system: - The Countries which have two main parties, one of them forms the
government and the other functions as an opposition party; are said to have Bi-party system.
In these countries there are no restrictions on the formation of political parties. England and
U.S.A are the best example of it.

Merits of the bi-party system

1. Dual-party system is the sine qua non of successful parliamentary democracy.

2. A government formed by a single party under the dual party system, is very stable
and is strong enough to face the criticism and onslaughts of the opposition
confidently.
3. The opposition is responsible under the dual-party system.
4. The two party systems offers clear alternative to the people.
5. Formation of government is easy and simple under two-part system.
6. It is easy to fix responsibility under bi-party system regarding the failure of national
policy.

Demerits of bi-party system

1. The bi-party system splits the nation into irreconcilable camps.

2. The bi-party system undermines the prestige of the legislature and results in cabinet
dictatorship.
3. The bi-party system leads to despotism of the majority.

Multi-Party System: - There are many parties in the country in this system and every one
represents the Parliament. Consequently there are many small groups in the Parliament.
France has been very famous for multiple party systems. Multiple party systems were in
vogue in Italy before Mussolini and in Germany before Hitler. In India also numerous
parties take part in election.

Merits of Multi-Party System

1. Formation of sound public opinion. Existence of various political parties is most

essential for the formation of public opinion.
2. No fear of Dictatorship of the cabinet. On account of the representation of many
small parties in parliament the Council of Ministers is not formed out of a single
party but of several parties.
3. Voters at full liberty. On account of multi-party system the voter is at liberty to make
a choice of any of the candidates at his will.
4. Parliament controls the Council of Ministers from becoming Absolute. The Council
of Ministers depends for its actions on the support of Parliament.

Demerits of Multi-party System

 1. Government is unstable. The greatest drawback of multiple party system is that no
party commands absolute majority in the Parliament.
2. Less co-operation in coalition Council of Ministers. The people of various groups
agree no limited common political or economic matters.
3. No public hand in the formation of Council of Ministers. The people cannot entrust
the government to any one party, the government is not formed by the people, but is
formed by various groups of the Parliament.
4. Long term planning is not possible. When the Council of Ministers is always
doubtful of its existence, it never handles long term planning, and if any Council of
Ministers ventures to do so, its fulfilment becomes doubtful.

Communist Party of China.

The Preamble to the 1982 constitution like the Preambles to 1954, 75 and 78 Constitutions
gives an account of the past achievements and sets forth the task ahead. It affirms that in
the past “the transition of Chinese society from a new democratic to a socialist society was
affected step by step. The socialist transformation of the private ownership of the means of
production was completed, the system of exploitation of man by man was eliminated and
the socialist system established.”

ORGANISATION OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY

The Communist Party of China is a well-organized party, organized on the basis of the
Principle of democratic centralism.
Membership of Communist Party: The membership of the Communist Party is
open to all citizens of China who have attained the age of 18 years. However, securing the
membership is a difficult and complex affair. A person wishing to become its member has to
submit an application for this purpose the application has to be endorsed by two regular
members who know the candidate, his ideology, character and personal history. In case the
application is found complete and fit, the candidate is put on probation for one year. In case
he is found capable he is admitted as a member. In case he is found insufficient his
probation can be extended by one year and in case he still fails to satisfy the party, he is
rejected and the party membership is denied to him.

Duties of the Member

Following are the duties of member:-

1. To study Marxism-Leninism-Maoism actively.

2. To safeguard party solidarity and consolidate its unity.
3. To respect and observe the party constitution and the laws of the state.
4. To serve the masses by heart and soul.
5. To be truthful and honest with the Party.
6. To participate freely in the discussions of the party.
7. To participate in party elections.
8. To guard the secrets of the party and the state.
Organizational Structure
1. Cell or primary party Organization (PPO):- At the lowest level of party organization
are cells or Primary Party organizations which are located in factories offices,
schools, streets and bazars etc. A cell generally consists of 20 members. A PPO with a
membership of 100 or above, with the consent of the next higher lever committee
can hold general membership meeting for electing a primary party committee which
manages the activities of the concerned PPO.
2. Party Congress at County level: - All the PPOs’ within a county, autonomous county
or municipality work under the supervision of a party congress (PC). The Party
Congress is elected by the general meeting or delicate meeting of all PPOs’ which are
at work in county. The PC is elected for a term of two years.
3. The Party congress at The Province Level: - At the province autonomous region or
municipality (directly under the central control) level there is a Party Congress. It is
elected for a period of three years by the Party Congress working within the
province.
4. National party Congress: - National party Congress is the highest organ of communist
party of china. It is elected by the principal/regional party congress for a term of 5
years. It is expected to meet at least once in a year. In actual practice its meetings
are held after long intervals. It determines the party policies and lines of action. To
receive and examine the reports of its Central committee and other central organs of
the party is it’s another important function. It alone can amend or revise the party
constitution. It carries out its work through its central committee.
5. Central committee: - The Central Committee is elected by the National; party
Congress for a term of 5 years. It is continuously at work because the rule is that a
Central Committee goes out of office only when a new central committee succeeds.
It has the responsibility to carry out the party work during the interval between the
two sessions of the National Party Congress. The Central Committee has the
responsibility to elect the chairman and other officials of the Communist Party of
China and appoints various central organs of the party.
6. Political Bureau and standing Committee: - In the hierarchy of the Communist Party
a really powerful organ is the Political Bureau which is appointed by the Central
Committee in its plenary session. It has 20 members. Along with it, a Standing
Committee, A General Secretary (initially called the chairman), A Central Commission
and the Secretariat also are appointed by the Central committee. When the Central
Committee is not in session, its powers are exercised by the Political Bureau and the
Standing Committee. The Standing Committee is the real center of power because it
always consists of the top ranking seven leaders of the Communist Party. It is always
in session and takes all decisions which however are subject to the approval of the
Political Bureau and the Central Committee. The General Secretary is the top leader
and his ideology/views/ideas always have a big influence on the decisions of the
Standing Committee.
Thus the Communist Party of China is a well-organized political party. We can call it a
rigidly organized party organized on the basis of the principle of Democratic
 Centralism. Its structural organization reflects an arrangement of wheels within a
wheel.
Importance of Communist Party of China: - The party controls the work of the
Government by issuing specific directives to State as to the nature and orientation of
work and by selecting and promoting loyal and competent Party as well as noon-
party cadres to work in the organs of the State. The fact is that the major questions
of policy whether national or international, is first decided by the party and then
announces and implemented by the State organs. The party occupies the position of
paramountcy not only in the legislative and executive branch of the Government is
under its control and nothing can be done either without its consent or against its
well. The persons who control the party also control the various government
agencies. The National People’s Congress, and the Standing Committee, the National
defence Council and other agencies of the Government are all dominated by the
members of the Communist Party. These members do not exercise their voting right
and their powers according to the dictates of their conscience, but in accordance
with the dictates of the party.

Political Parties of U.S.A:- The fathers of the American constitution were opposed to the
formation of the Political Parties in the Country. Even the constitutional framework was so
designed as to avoid the role of political parties for its working. But the fact remains that
political parties came into appearance right during the Philadelphia Convention when
constitution was in the process of making. The delegates to the Convention were divided
into 2 groups. Viz. the Federalists led by Hamilton and the Anti-Federalists led by Jefferson.
The Federalists stood for the creation of a strong Union and the Anti-Federalists for a weak
union. During the Presidency of Washington (First President), both the groups were
included in his Cabinet and thus there was no clear political division in the country. There
are two major political parties in American politics, viz. The Democratic Party and the
Republican Party now.

The Democratic Party: - During the Presidency of Washington it was known as the Anti-
Federalist Party. In 1800, it came to be known as The Republican Party. In 1824, its name was
changed to Democratic Republican Party. In 1828, it was named Democratic Party and the
same name continues till today. In its early politics, it supported the interests of the State
against the federal government and had its roots in agriculturists and planters. It upheld
slavery. Although, it remained in power in the first half the Civil war. The Party again came
to power under Wilson (1913-21). After 12 years in opposition, it again came to power in the
election. Franklin Roosevelt was elected as President in 1935 and remained in power for 4
terms. The party again came into prominence in 1960 when Kennedy was elected President.

The historic roots of the Democratic Party are in the southern States of America. It is a party
of the New Deal, the fair deal, the New Frontier and the Great Society. Its standard bears
include Presidents like Jefferson, Jacksons, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt, Truman,
Stevenson, Kennedy and Johnson. The symbol of this party is a donkey.

The Republican Party: - The Republican Party is the direct successor of 2 earlier parties,
the Federalists and the Whigs. The success of its presidential candidate, Abraham Lincoln in
1860 boosted its prestige to a great extent. With its victory in Civil war, the Republican Party
was thoroughly entrenched in U.S. Politics. This party as such was established as Northern
antislavery party in 1850 by the Northern States of America, a decade before the Civil war. It
is known as G.O.P. (Grand Old party). Its standard bears have included Lincoln, Grant,
McKinley, Theodore, Roosevelt, Hoona, Eisenhower and Nixon. It dominated the
presidency for long periods in the post-civil war era, but lost the White House in 1932 and
did not win it back until General Eisenhower’s triumph in 1952. It suffered a crushing defeat
in 1964 when President Johnson led there Democratic Party to its greatest national victory
since 1936. But the fortunes of parties are changing. The Republican Party has now been in
the saddle of power since 1980. In 1988 also, its nominee, George Bush was elected President
succeeding President Reagan. The Party thus holds the reigns of power at present. The
Republican Party is traditionally symbolised by an elephant.

Political Parties in U.K:- England is the traditional home of political parties. The political
parties came into existence because of the parliamentary system of government. They play a
leading role in the working of British Democracy. A political party in England is a group of
persons who organise themselves on some agreed political programme and work together to
capture power in order to put their programme into action. In England two parties, namely
the Conservative party and labour Party dominate the political scene. The Liberal Party
which dominated the political scene in the 19th century has lost its way.

Organisation of Political Parties: - The parliamentary type of government recommends

strong party organisation. Each party maintains as strong organisation both at the national
and local level. Power rests with central organs of the party. The central party organisation
does not share their authority too much with the local units. Each party has a local
committee in each parliamentary Constituency. This local committee works under the
control and direction of the Central Office and in co-operation with the members of
Parliament from that constituency.

Each party has a parliamentary party consisting of all the members of Parliament belonging
to that party. This parliamentary party formulates the policy of the party to be followed in
parliament. In Parliament, the party works with the help of whips whose duty is to keep the
members together and exercise discipline among them and secure their votes in the House.

Each party maintains a national organisation of its own. The Liberal party has the National
federation. The conservative party is known as national union of Conservatives and
Unionist Associations and the Labour party is known as Annual Conference of the Labour
party. These organisations meet annually and elect some party Officials from among
themselves. The Party programmes are decided and ways and means are devised for
making the party stronger. These Organisation’s control the local committees. In these
annual conferences, candidates for contesting the elections are not nominated nor do they
elect the party leader. Both these tasks are performed by the parliamentary group of the
party.

The Conservative Party: - The Conservative Party believes in the existing established
order and works for its preservation. It believes that the established social order is a sound
one and its defects should be remedied without endangering the safety of the society. It thus
wants to preserve and conserve all institutions, practices and traditions. In the sphere of
religion, it gives support to the established Church and in the matter of trade it is
protectionist. The party, therefore, finds support in the Church, Aristocrats and the
capitalists. Recently, the Conservative Party has changed its policy and programme in order
to compete successfully with the Labour Party. Industrial Charter issued by the Party in
1947, emphasised the need of central planning in industries. In 1949 it stressed the need of
full employment and endorsed the importance and utility of social services. It emphasised
the need of housing.

The Labour Party: - The Labour party believes in Socialism and defend the common
ownership of land and capital. It advocates nationalization of public utility services and of
all the key industries. In the sphere of trade it does not favour free trade and follows an anti-
protectionist policy. It believes in high taxation of the rich and in the spending of that money
in the service of the poor. It has no faith in revolution and believes in evolving Socialism
through democratic means. In the international sphere it is the ardent supporter of U.N.O.
and follows a pacific policy. The Labour Party favours the policy of extending self-
government to colonies of the British Empire. It draws its strength from the working classes
and middle class intellectuals.

The Liberal Party: - The Liberal party was an ardent supporter of free trade. In the sphere
of agriculture, the party favoured small holding and allotments. In the matter of industry the
Party wants State regulation rather than nationalization of the key of industries. The Liberal
Party, thus in a way, favoured a middle course between capitalism of the Conservatives and
Socialism of the Labourites.

In the nineteenth century political life in England was dominated by the Conservative Party
and the Liberal party. With the rise of new phenomenon, the Liberal party is losing its
support and its importance is progressively decreasing. Its place has now been taken by the
labour Party which represents the general interests of the working classes. Thus England
continues to be the traditional home of bi-party system.

5.2 Unit 5 3rd year

Interest /Pressure Groups

Meaning of Interest or Pressure Groups

Pressure Groups are those formal organized associations which have common interest or
interests, and who try to turn the political, social or economic affairs of the country in their
own favour so as to achieve their interests. They try to determine and implement the
government policy in such a manner that interests of the group are preserved and they are
encouraged. They do not take interest in direct participation in the government.

In every free country two types of associations grow. 1 . Political Party 2. Pressure
group. The political party takes part in election and control the government. Political Party
has certain ideology, policy and programme . Pressure Group does not have any particular
programme.
Therefore, it does not contest election. Pressure Groups support a candidate who can serve
their interests. These groups want that more and more such legislators are sent in the
legislature so that their interests are preserved. Employees associations safeguard the
interest of the employees whereas farmers association struggle for their rights.

Robert A. Dahl writes, “any association that tries to secure from the state policies favorable
to its members or followers is an interest group.’ Prof. M.G.Gupta writes,’ In this way all
social groups which influence the behavior of political officers both administrative and
legislative without attempting to gain formal control of government are Pressure Groups.”

Classification of Pressure Groups

There are different kinds of pressure groups. Like Permanent or temporary, large or small,
rich or poor, Powerful weak. The General areas attracting pressure groups are: a, Industry b,
Agriculture c, Labour d, professions e, consumers and so on. Classification of Peter Merk
enumerates it as:-

1. Associations of economic interest such as the American National Associations of

Manufacturers.
2. Public Service Organizations of different tasks including specially European
Chambers of Commerce and in some countries semi-official chambers of handi
craft etc.
3. Interest groups devoted to common professional interest such as the American
Medical Association.
4. Associations formed for the primary purpose of allowing their individual
members to bargain collectively. Labour unions of the industrial type belong to
this category.
5. Interest groups of an institutional character. Civil Service associations belong to
this group.

Interests groups of a miscellaneous type. Like Veterans organizations, street mobs etc.
belong to this group.

Thus, the chief kinds of pressure groups are economic, professional, academic,
ideological and others. Some pressure groups are economic while others are non-
economic some pressure groups are religious in nature such as in America National
Council of churches. Jean Blonde has divided pressure groups into two main classes
communal and Associational. Communal groups are of two types Customary and
Institutional. Associational groups are also divided into two categories protective and
promotional.

Following are the main pressure groups in U.K. :

1. Labour Groups.

2. Business Groups.

3. Professional Groups.
 4. Welfare Groups.

5. Political Groups.

6. Educational Groups.

7. Environmental GROUPS.

The major pressure groups in India are:

1. Communal and religious interest groups.

2. Special interest groups.

3. Professional Interest Groups.

4. Caste and Language Interest Groups.

5. Interest Groups based on Gandhi an Ideology.

Following are the major interest groups in U.S.:

1. Business Groups.

2. Labour Groups.

3. Farm Groups.

4. Other groups. Every sector in U.S. has groups.

FUNCTIONS or TECHNIQUES of PRESSURE GROUPS

General opinion of public is that these pressure groups adopt wrong means to influence the
government. But it has been observed that with the expansion of a democratic
government, these groups are adopting suitable means. Generally, these pressure groups
have the following functions:

1. Support during Elections: Pressure Groups use elections for desired aims. The
process of elections begins with nominations. Pressure Groups use all means to get tickets
for their own candidates. They finance political parties and thereby secure labels for their
favoured candidates. Pressure Groups indirectly or directly participate in elections to get
their men elected. In U.S.A. the candidates of both the Republicans and Democrats are
supported by different Interest Groups according to their expectations .When the
candidates are elected on the basis of the groups, these legislators try to safe guard the
interests of these groups by appropriate legislation.

2. Educate the Legislative Committees: Committees have important roles in

the passing of Bills .Therefore; these pressure groups influence the committees through
various means and try to draw the members of the committees in their favour. They try to
influence public opinion in their favour and, if necessary, try to get the Bill amended.

3. Create Public Opinion: These groups not only influence government but also bring
around public opinion in their own favour for this purpose they publish newspapers
pamphlets and posters, send letters to editors and give publicity through media.

4. Pay Subscriptions. Pressure Groups pay subscriptions to different associations

linked with legislations and administrators. By this they try to influence the government.

5. Offer High Posts. Big business men and industrialists offer high posts in their
institutions to the close relatives or friends of these legislators and administrators and thus
try to keep close contacts with them. This method is followed in all democratic countries.

6. Propaganda and Means of Communications: pressure groups use different

means of communication to get the good will of public opinion and to mould the public
opinion in their own favour. For this purpose they use printing press, radio, internet and T.V.
channels etc.

7. Strikes and Demonstrations: These pressure groups organize strikes and

demonstrations to pressurize the government so that interests of these groups are
safeguarded.

8. Political Parties: Powerful Pressure groups give donations during elections to

political parties so that after achieving power these political parties will favour them in
making policies.

5.5

Federalism with special reference to its working in U.S.A.

Oxford English Dictionary defines federation as a country consisting of a group of individual
states that have control over their own affairs but are controlled by a central government
for national decisions.

Federal features of American Constitution are as follows

1. Written Character: Like other federal constitutions in the world, the American
Constitutions is written in form. It is brief document consisting of only 7 articles and
26 Amendments.
2. Federal Character. The American Constitution is federal in character. It was
originally a federation of 13 States but due to admission of new states, it is now a
federation of 13 States but due to admission of new States, it was originally a
federation of 50 states. A constitutional division of powers has been made between
the Centre and the federating units. The constitution enumerates the powers of the
 Centre and leaves the residue of Powers to be exercised by the federating States. All
powers not delegated to the center or not reserved for the people are exercised by
the States. The Constitution thus creates a weak Centre because residuary powers
have been given to the units. However, in practice, Federal Centre in America has
become very powerful due to the application of the doctrine of “Implied Powers” as
propounded by the Supreme Court of the U.S.A.
3. Judicial Review. The Federal Judiciary can declare any legislation or executive
action null and void if the same is found to be inconsistent with the provisions of the
Constitution. The Judiciary thus acts as the guardian and custodian of the
constitution and the fundamental rights of citizens.
4. Division of Powers. As the federal government requires a double set of
government that of center and those of states there must be a division of powers
between the two parts. The Constitution specifies power of the federal government
and leaves the rest for the States.
5. Dual Citizenship. The U.S. Constitution provides for dual citizenship for the
people of the United States. An American is the citizen of the U.S.A. As also of the
State where in he or she is domiciled.
6. Double set of courts. There are two types of Courts of Law in America. These
are State Courts that hear cases pertaining to State Laws, and they are organized and
maintained by the State themselves. Federal courts are separate.
7. Separate Constitutions of the States. In America every state has its own
constitution.

The United States Constitution is federal originally, the thirteen independent Sovereign
states surrendered some of their powers and created the union (United States of America)
they surrendered as limited powers as could be possible .After establishment of union
gradually other states joined with it, now it contains 50 States, the federal government has
therefore, delegated and specified powers the residuary powers are vested with the states.
Thus the constitution leaves vast authority with the states the U.S. constitution is a brief
document consisting of seven Articles and 26 amendments the constitution consists three
subjects’ lists of subjects namely a list of what the Congress can do and a list of what the
states cannot do.

Division of powers in U.S.A’s federal system.

Article 1 Section 8 of powers for the U.S. constitution enumerates 18 powers for the U.S.
congress they include , among others to impose and collect taxes and duties etc. foreign
trade interstate commerce naturalization common defence and general welfare of the
United States , coinage and weights and measures , promotion of Science and other useful
arts establishment of tribunals inferior to the Supreme court, declaration of war raising
armies and making all Laws necessary for the execution of these powers.

The other two lists detail powers which are forbidden to the Centre and the states
respectively section 9 of Article 1 forbids the Federal Government from suspending a writ of
habeas corpus or from passing laws affecting religious beliefs of the in any way and
abridging freedom of speech and of press. The States are forbidden from making any
alliance or treaty with any foreign power, coinage and among other things, maintaining
armies. The 10th Amendment provides that powers granted to the Centre and forbidden to
the States, vest in the people themselves. These relate mostly to certain rights of the people
which no government can violate. The Constitution thus preserves the essential authority of
the people in consistence with democratic principles.

The scheme of division of powers in the U.S. Constitution shows that the States enjoy all
those powers which have not been given forbidden to the states. Such a system of division
of powers is bound to make the Central Government weak since it enjoys jurisdiction over
specified items only.

Growth of Federal Authority

At the time of passing of the U.S. constitution, States wished to retain the local
independence as much as possible and thus they gave limited powers to federal
Government they only agreed to have a Union rather than unity. But powers of federal
Government have increased due to impact of time and circumstances. Many factors are
responsible for this namely judicial interpretation, constitutional amendments, Physical
economic and social changes, role of presidents and impact of world situation etc.

1. Doctrine of Implied powers: the Supreme Court of U.S. has so interpreted the
constitution that the powers of the federal government have increased even
at the cost of States. It developed the doctrine of ‘Implied Powers’. In
interpreting the constitution the Supreme Court has in several cases helped
the center Government through the application of this doctrine. For example
the Constitution empowers the national Government to regulate commerce
with foreign nations and among the several states. Congress got the power to
control all means of transport and communication. Congress also got power to
impose and collect taxes and duties, the congress too got the authority to
establish and control exclusively the Central Bank of United States. In this way
Federal Government has acquired much authority which was originally not
granted to it by the Constitution.
2. Constitutional Amendments: Many constitutional amendments have
increased the powers of the federal Government. For example the fifteenth
amendment gave the powers of judicial review to the Supreme Court over
State Legislation. The Sixteenth amendment of the constitution authorized the
congress to levy and collect taxes on incomes of all kinds whereas the original
constitution had prohibited the central Government to impose direct taxes.
3. Physical, Economic and Social changes: the most important factor responsible
for the growth of federal authority is the change in Physical, Economic and
Social setting of United States. At the time of promulgation of the
constitution, U.S.A. was just a federation of 13 small states. But now it is a
union of 50 States with a huge extent of territory and enormous population.
 This growth in size, population together with complexity of social organization
has led to the great shift of power in favour of National Government.
4. Role of Powerful Presidents: Presidents like Washington, Lincoln, Roosevelt,
Wilson have exercised dictatorial power. They have taken actions without any
constitutional Justification. President Lincoln declared war against Southern
States on the question of Slavery.
5. The Impact of Civil War (1861-1865): The issue of center state relationship was
effectively decided by the Civil War 1861-1865 which gave a negative verdict
against separatism state autonomy and state loyalty.
6. Confidence in the National Government : In times of emergencies like
economic depression war , cold war(1945-1991) economic recession of 2009
the people of U.S. look to the National Government for Solving all National
and international problems in which the country is directly or indirectly
involved.
7. Federal Grants-in-Aid: Grants-in-Aid are the payments made by the national
Government to State governments for the support of welfare activities
administered by the States example housing, agriculture, education and
various others like matters. In return for assistance the federal Government
uses its right to impose federal standards and regulations federal inspections
and federal audit of accounts. Besides, the Federal Government can withhold
the grants if the state concerned does not meet the national standards. This
reflects that the acceptance of a general grant means acceptance of a certain
type of federal control over state autonomy.
8. Defence of the Country: Federal Government is constitutionally responsible
for the protection of the country from external aggression and if necessary
waging war. This power definitely makes federal government powerful.
9. Impact of World situation: World War 2 was responsible for enormous
increase in the powers of the federal government. Past World War 2 and past
cold war era strengthened powers of government in America.
All these factors have, thus enormously increased the powers of the federal
Government of United States of America.
Amendment Process in the U.S.A. constitution.
The United States constitution is very rigid. It can be amended by two difficult
methods but in both of them it requires ratification by at least three fourths of
the number of states. The amendment may be proposed by two-third majority
in both the House of the Congress and then it must be ratified by three-
fourths of the States. The states themselves may propose an amendment if
two-thirds of them apply to the Congress for this purpose the method of
constitutional amendment in the United States is very difficult that during the
last 200 years, only 26 amendments could be carried.
Note: For details read more
The System of checks and Balances
The principal of ‘Separation of Powers’ is one of the most important
characteristic of the United States constitution. The U.S. constitution
obviously writes that all legislative executive and judicial powers are vested in
the congress, the president and the Supreme Court respectively. All
appointments, treaties and agreements made by president are ratified by the
Senate. Supreme Court interprets Constitution and has power of judicial
review. In case of Legislation of the congress president has some veto power.
Thus one organ checks the power of other organ.
Note: For details read more.

5.6
Election of the U.S. President.
The U.S. President is elected by indirect election the president is elected by
Elector College. The Electoral College consists of 538 members i.e. (100+438)
100 members of Senate and 438 members of House of Representatives. This
Electoral College is consisted in each state and consists of as many members
as each state has in the Congress i.e. both in the House of Representatives and
the senate. Since each state has 2 members in the Senate, it means that
number of Presidential Electors in each state is equal to the numbers of its
members in the House of Representatives plus 2. This means that a big state
like the state of New York has 43 electoral votes (equal to its members in the
house of Representatives plus 2 in the Senate) and a small state like the states
of Della ware has only 3 (equal to its 1 member in the House and 2 in the
Senate). District of Columbia (State capital) has 3 members in PEC i.e. 1+2

Every citizen of 18 years above of age unless disqualified on certain grounds

possesses the right to vote. Presidential electors are chosen in each state as a
group and not as individuals. In theory, the voters cast their votes for
presidential electors, but in practice, such voters are cast keeping in view a
particular candidate for the presidency for whom such electors are required to
vote. The P.E.C. is a special body which is constituted especially after every
four years for electing the President and Vice President of the U.S.A. the PEC is
directly elected by the people. The PEC is elected on Tuesday after the first
Monday in November of every leap year they.

They meet in the capital of each state on the first Monday after the second
Wednesday in December and record their votes for the presidential
candidates. A certificate of election is then sent to the chairman of the Senate
by each state. On 6th January, the congress meets in a Joint session, where
votes are counted. The person securing an absolute majority of votes the
 majority of total votes is considered and not simple majority. The new
President is sworn into office on January 20. In case no candidate secures the
required majority of votes i.e. 270 the House of Representatives elects one
person from amongst the first three candidates, securing the highest number
of votes. In such a case, each state has one vote. Irrespective of the number of
representatives in the House. If this attempt also fails, then after 4 th March,
the vice President automatically succeeds to the Presidential office.

Qualification.
The constitution provides that a candidate for presidency must fulfill the following
conditions:

1. He must be a natural born citizen of United States.

2. He must not be less than 35 years of age.
3. He must have lived in the U.S.A. for not less than 14 years.

Emoluments: The Salary of the president originally was $25,000 a year. Now it is $4,00000
a year apart from various allowances and privileges.

Tenure and Re-eligibility. The President of the United States holds office for 4 years by
22nd Amendment which was ratified by the required number of states in 1951; no person
shall be elected to the office of the President for more than two terms.

The Succession. If the President dies, ”the vice President becomes President. If the
President becomes disabled, the vice President becomes Acting president during the
disability period. When the vise-Presidency is vacant a vice President may be nominated by
the President, with confirmation by the Congress. Next to the Vice President succession is
the speaker of the U.S. House of representatives followed by President pro-tempore of the
U.S. Senate, then the Secretary of States followed by other members of cabinet.

Impeachment. The President may be removed from office before the expiry of his
normal term through impeachment. The House of Representatives adopts by resolution
articles of impeachment charging the president with certain high crimes and chooses
leaders to direct the prosecution before the Senate which acts as a judicial tribunal for
impeachment. Its meetings are then presided over by the chief Justice of the Supreme
Court. The Senate may convict the President by two-thirds majority of its members present
and voting. Impeachment motions took place against President Johnson and President Bill
Clinton be but failed because of not having required majority in the Senate.