The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

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The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences

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Research Paper

A GIS model for exploring the water pumped storage locations using
remote sensing data
Hany G.I. Ahmed a,⇑, Mostafa H. Mohamed a, Salem S. Saleh b
a
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
b
Civil Engineering Department, Giza High Institute of Engineering & Technology, Cairo, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In recent decades, the energy sector in Egypt faces various challenges due to the continuous increase in
Received 29 February 2020 energy demand. Fossil fuels may be running out, so there is an urgent need to find a sustainable energy
Revised 5 September 2021 source. Renewable energy is one of pure energy, but it needs to be stored using economical and
Accepted 26 September 2021
environment-friendly means. Pumping hydroelectric storage (PHES) plants are currently one of the most
Available online xxxx
economical and unique storage technologies available. In addition, PHES plants are working on creating a
balance between the supply and demand of energy during the day. A GIS model based on remote sensing
Keyword:
data was used to discover suitable sites for PHES plants and establish a (PHES) map for Egypt. The new
Elevation head
GIS
PHES locations were filtered using a model based on GIS multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). The GIS
MCDA model criteria were developed by using the weighted linear combination (WLC) technique. The global
PHES digital elevation model SRTM 1 arcsec was used for depicting elevation head, head ratio, and terrain slope
Suitability analysis criteria. The National Grid, road networks, land use, and airport-restricted areas as constraints data sets
were analysed using Arc GIS spatial analysis math algebra tool. The results discovered many suitable
PHES sites covering a total area of 10428 km2 and, maps of PHES have become available for Egypt.
Ó 2021 National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.
V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction in Egypt and how to increase the utilization of renewable energy.

According to the US Energy Information Administration (www.
eia.gov), Egypt is the largest non-OPEC oil producer in Africa. How-
ever, the production of energy in Egypt has decreased since 2009
(Army Corps, 1985). Electrical energy deficits are one of the largest
crippling problems that, are pushing people back to the dark ages
and causing delays in various fields such as economy, education,
health, and industry. According to annual reports of the Ministry
of Electricity and Energy (NREA, 2013), the peak demand has
become over 27000 MW, and it is expected to turn out
54,200 MW by the year 2027. Egypt relies heavily on fossil fuels,
91% of the power generation from oil and gas, 7.5% from hydroelec-
tricity, and 1.5% from wind and other resources. Although Egypt
has >6000 km2 water body surface area in the Mediterranean
Sea, Red Sea, River Nile, and some other lakes, still the hydro-
generated energy represents <10% of the total energy generated
in Egypt (NREA, 2013). The main problem is the electricity shortage
Peer review under responsibility of National Authority for Remote Sensing and
Space Sciences.
⇑ Corresponding author.
The main objective of this paper is to solve this problem and find
alternative renewable sources of energy. Many countries and com-
panies are developing new pumped-storage facilities or upgrading
their existing plants (Punys et al., 2013; Yang and Jackson, 2011).
Pumped Hydro Electric Storage power plant (PHES) is a reliable,
large-scale worldwide, quick response action, and one of the
cheapest storage technologies (Rogeau et al., 2017). It is considered
as an alternative to conventional hydropower or completeness to
it, which currently is the most established and most practical stor-
age system utilized on a large scale (Krajačić et al., 2013). It stores
energy in the kinetic form, by pumping water from a lower source
to an upper reservoir. In periods of low demand, the excess elec-
tricity that was produced is utilized to pump the water to store
it in a reservoir installed on higher ground. During the peak load
periods, the water is released back through a turbine when it is
required to cover these periods. Many types of research were stud-
ied for exploring or updating the most suitable sites for PHES
worldwide: for example, Kucukali (2014) in Turkey; Fitzgerald
et al. (2012) in Europe; Garcia (2013) in Norway; Lu and Wang
(2017) in Tibet’s- China; and Hall and Lee (2014) in the USA. In this
paper, a new methodology is presented for finding the optimum

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2021.09.006
1110-9823/Ó 2021 National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Hany G.I. Ahmed, M.H. Mohamed and S.S. Saleh, , The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ejrs.2021.09.006
Hany G.I. Ahmed, M.H. Mohamed and S.S. Saleh
locations in Egypt that can be used as upper reservoirs for instal-
ling new candidate PHES power plants. The proposed methodology
is intended to develop a GIS-based model for positioning PHES
power plants in Egypt according to the multi-criteria decision anal-
ysis (MCDA) model. This model can support the sustainability of
electricity storage in Egypt.
2. Study area
The Arab Republic of Egypt is situated in the north-east of
Africa. In general, the study area considered the whole land of
Egypt; however, specifically a buffer zone with 5 km distance
around water body surface in Egypt is the analysed area. This area
is bordered by Palestine at the north-east; the Red Sea at the east;
Sudan at the south; Libya in the west; and the Mediterranean Sea
in the north. The study area is located between (25° 000 E to 37° 000
E) and (22° 000 N to 32° 000 N). Fig. 1 shows the SRTM color-coded
DEM map with 30 m spatial resolution that covers the study area
and was utilized for elevation head and slope terrain criteria. The
elevations in Egypt were ranged from 397 m below sea level to
2625 m above sea level. As shown in the topographic map, the
higher elevations are mainly concentrated along the Red Sea, so
it was expected that the suitable locations can be found in these
areas.
3. Problem statement
The amount of the energy used in the world mostly comes from
fossil fuels, so more countries are trying to replace them with
renewable energies which are environmentally friendly (Friday,
2013). Natural gas and oil are the primary fuels used to meet
Egypt’s energy needs. Fig. 2 shows the total energy consumption
where, the oil and gas consumptions account for 94% of the coun-
try’s total energy consumption (NREA, 2013).
Fig. 1. SRTM color coded reliefs DEM over Egypt.
2
Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 2. Energy consumption in Egypt in 2013. (Source: U.S. Energy Information
Administration U.S.EIA)US. EIA. (2015).
According to annual reports of the Egyptian New and Renew-
able Energy Authority (NREA) from 2005NREA (2005) to 2013,
the total power consumptions record a high jump from 92,058
GW/h in 2005 to 140,256 GW/h in 2013. That is; more than a
50% increase in the total power demand in less than one decade.
The peak load curve for the same period also grows up to a 46%
increase, as shown in Fig. 3 (NREA, 2005; NREA, 2013). Osman
(2008) presents a future vision for the Evolution of the Peak
demand until 2027, as shown in Fig. 4. The increase of the peak
demand is worrying until 2027. At this rate, the current energy
demand will double between 2022 and 2026.
In 2008, Economic Consulting Associates (ECA) submitted an
executive summary of Egypt’s time use for the Egyptian Electricity
Holding Company (EEHC) under funding provided by the World
Bank. The present report was a part of the project titled ‘‘Egypt:
Development of a Load Management Program and Design of Time
of Use/Seasonal Pricing” (ECA, 2008). ECA has analysed the time
use along 24 h and its related price cost by two tariffs, on-peak
and off-peak.
The marginal costs of generation capacity and energy were cal-
culated for three types of days: workdays, Fridays, and Saturdays,
as shown in Fig. 5. The marginal cost analysis for 2009–10 shows
that the system will be at the greatest risk of load shedding
between 6 pm and 10 pm on working days between June and the
end of September. The ratio between on/off-peak tariff was prox-
imity 4:1, which, proves that it is more economic to use power
stored during off-peak hours during on-peak hours.
Finally, from all discussed data, the problem statement can be
summarized as follows. Egypt faced severe shortages of electricity,
Fig. 3. Increase of peak load in Egypt, 2006–2013.
Hany G.I. Ahmed, M.H. Mohamed and S.S. Saleh
Fig. 4. Projected increase of peak demand by 2027, (). Source: Osman, 2008
Fig. 5. The marginal costs of generation capacity and energy days of the week (ECA,
2008).
which, led to frequent blackouts in Egypt during the period 2011:
2020. It was necessary to find out new means of generating energy
using renewable sources and storage technologies in an efficient
and environmentally friendly manner. One of the methods that
can be used to solve this problem is to increase use of energy cre-
ating by hydropower using a green renewable storage technology
or Pumped Hydroelectric Storage (PHES) stations. This requires
searching for the optimum locations to construct these stations.
4. PHES concept
The PHES scheme consists of two water levels, one at a high
level and the other at a lower tailrace of the water source, with
the powerhouse occupying an intermediate station. The water
flows from the higher-level reservoir to the lower water source
and vice versa through a revisable pump-turbine depending upon
the generating or the pumping phase. This type of power plant is
used for supplying the sudden peak load for a few specific hours.
The capacity of the upper reservoir should be enough to meet
the time of peak demand at the available head.
Pumped storage hydroelectric generation is a technology
designed to take advantage of the differential costs of generating
electricity between on– and off-peak periods (Rehman et al.,
2015). In simple terms, water is pumped into an upper storage
reservoir during off peak (low incremental cost) periods and then
allowed to return to the lower reservoir, thus generating electricity
during on-peak (high cost) periods (Schoenung et al., 1996). Fig. 6
shows the scheme of PHES on/off peak demands. The economic
benefits of pumped storage depend on the differentials between
on-and off-peak energy costs and the efficiency of the pumping/-
generating cycle (USAID, 1993).
The power output of the reversible pump-turbine set is
expressed by the following set of equations, where the symbols
are defined after each equation. The rated power output from the
generator is calculated according to the equation (Connolly,
2010):-
Pg ¼ Q g  g  q  gg  Hg
Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. xxx (xxxx) xxx
Where:
Pg: rated power output in (KW); Qg: Rate of water flow or rated
discharge from turbine in (m3/s); g: acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/
s2); q: density of water (approximately 1000 kg/m3); gg: generator
efficiency (approximately 0.90) and Hg: rated generating head in
(m).
From Eq. (1), the hydraulic head, the pen stock length that con-
trol in reservoir discharge, and the efficiency of hydraulic pumps/-
turbines are the key factors affecting output energy generated in
PHES plants.
5. The methodology of selecting the optimum locations of PHES
The most important step in installing a new Pumped Hydro
Electric Storage Plant (PHESP) is the site selection. Selecting the
optimum site for a new pumped hydroelectric storage power plant
(PHES) needs verification analysis based on DEM and GIS (Dudhani
et al., 2006). This type of analysis means multi criteria decision
analysis (MCDA). MCDA supports decision-makers in analysing
alternatives based on several criteria and using decision methods
to aggregate those criteria to rate or rank the alternatives
(Eastman, 2009). Because of the overlay and dependency of the
complexity of different decision scenarios, PHES power plants
require the consideration of multiple alternative solutions and dif-
ferent criteria. The technical and economic criteria are important
alternatives in the preliminary site screening. The digital elevation
model data SRTM 30 m spatial resolution is used basically as a
topographic data source for adopting the elevation difference
between the two reservoirs and terrain slope criteria. Other addi-
tional spatial data such as transmission line network, road net-
work, bodies of water, and some constraints of land use were
analysed from an economic point of view. The spatial analysis tool
in Arc GIS was issued to find the most favourable upper reservoirs
along the bodies of water in Egypt.
The weighted linear combination (WLC) technique was used as
a main function in the proposed methodology. The WLC technique
is based on the concept of computing a weighted average for each
raster cell to obtain the Site Suitability Factor (SSF) for the suitabil-
ity map (Malczewski, 2000; Dudhani et al. 2006; Drobne and Lisec,
2009). An important component of the proposed methodology
with using WLC includes converting site characteristics into a com-
mon scheme, and these schemes express preferences for one site
over another (Malczewski, 2000). WLC can sum all weighted crite-
ria values in a single step so that, each group of related criteria is
first aggregated and ranked before being combined with other
groups (Adler et al., 2002). The Site Suitability Factor (SSF) is calcu-
lated by taking the weighted average of the overall scores from the
equation:
Xn
wi  F i
SSF ¼ P ð2Þ
ð1Þ i¼1
w
Where
3
Hany G.I. Ahmed, M.H. Mohamed and S.S. Saleh
Fig. 6. Schematic of a Pump Hydroelectric Energy Storage Facility.
SSF: The site suitability factor, wi: The weight of criteria I and Fi:
The criterion of factor I and n is the number of criteria.
A simplified form of equation (3) may be obtained if the weights
are scaled so that, the sum of all weights equals one. Finally, the
attained suitability model assigns a suitability index for each cell
representing its suitability percentage regarding the designed set
of criteria. The proposed methodology was simplified in Fig. 7
where the figure show, the flow chart of multi criteria processing
methodology algorithm for suitability model generation integrated
with the (GIS) as an important programming tool for enhanced
spatial visualization and data analysis. All sites would be weighed
against the same criteria and the unsuitable sites that do not match
the methodology criteria would be viewed as no data.
A GIS-based mapping methodology for the optimal location of
the potential pumped storage power plants in Egypt consisted of
several steps as follow:
1. Defining the PHES site selection criteria and suitability factor.
2. Data acquisition, preparation, and verification.
3. Rasteraization and classification.
4. Reclassification and assigning a suitability rank values to each
criterion
5. Assigning criteria weights
6. Preparation a GIS analysis model
7. Producing the PHES site suitability map
By applying the proposed methodology steps, the following cri-
teria will be under study. The PHES site selection criteria are listed
based on the economical, technical and geometrical considerations
as follow:
 Technical and geometrical criteria:
1. The PHSP head – elevation difference
2. PHSP head ratio –penstock length-distance from the base
plant.
3. Site slopes – slope of ground surface.
 Economic criteria:
1. Distance to the national grid
2. Distance to the national road networks
3. Soil suitability (soil investigation analysis recommendation)
4
Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. xxx (xxxx) xxx
 CONSTRAINTS
1. Land use and land cover
2. Restriction areas if existed (ex. airports, military camps
. . .etc.).
5.1. Defining the PHES site selection criteria and suitability factors
The criteria suitability factors were assigned respecting world-
wide studies and considering the characteristics and special envi-
ronment of the area under study.
1. The maximum elevation difference between the PHES two
reservoirs. The elevation head was exported from SRTM DEM
30 m spatial resolution. Searching within 200 m above sea level
from the DEM will be the head factor. The alternatives with
higher head closer to water source will be more economic.
2. Within 5 km buffer distance to water source is control in capac-
ity of the installed PHESP so, with an increase in head, con-
veyance length increases too. It is an advantage when
waterway length is less in a constant head. An alternative will
be more economical where conveyance length – head ratio
decreases.
3. Defining a suitable slope of natural ground topography; for
installing of upper reservoir, the natural ground slope <10% be
economical for construction of upper reservoir.
4. The shortest distance from PHES within 10 km buffer distance
to the nearest road is a very important criterion economically
in determining the suitability sites for PHES installation.
5. The grid connection will focus on how to supply energy to/from
PHES over all Egypt. Therefore, the closer the PHESP is located
within a 20 km buffer zone is to the existing transmission lines,
the lower the costs of integration to the grid will be. So,
6. The soil suitability criterion is considered as a predictive recom-
mendation only after suitability modeling is completed. The soil
criterion isn’t involved in the suitability analysis due to incom-
patibility of weight assignment for each soil class.
7. The constraints criteria represent the restriction areas that
involved in the model and characterized by certain values of
attributes will be eliminated. There are more constraints that
should be eliminated, for example geographic areas which are
Hany G.I. Ahmed, M.H. Mohamed and S.S. Saleh
Fig. 7. Multi criteria processing flow chart algorithm phase 1 and phase 2 for PHES
suitability model generation.
more costly should be excluded from the suitability analysis by
designating it as a no data. In the present study two other types
of constraints not applicable for suitability analysis are land in
use and airports.
5.2. Data acquisition, preparation and verification
For the PHES suitability criteria screening, the worldwide
installed PHESP characteristics are used to assign each criterion a
suitability factor. Table 1 summarizes the proposed suitability fac-
tors that were assigned for each criteria data type respecting
worldwide studies and considering the special environment and
characteristics of Egypt as follow:
5.3. Classification and creation of raster maps
The criteria map layers should overlap each other to make the
suitability model using the proposed methodology. The layers of
5
Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. xxx (xxxx) xxx
Table 1
PHES suitability model criteria data used.
Criterion suitability Data Used
factor
Elevation Head/(m) 200 SRTM DEM 1 arc sec.
Terrain slopes/(degree) 10
Head ratio (distance to water 5 SRTM water body map
source)/(km)
Distance to national Grid/(km) 20 Electricity Network
Map
Distance to Roads (Roads 10 Roads Network Map
proximity)/(km)
Soil Suitability NA Soil classification map
Constraints Data
Land use – built up areas NA Shape files for Urban
Airports NA features
each criterion had to be converted to a raster data layer with clus-
ter size same as the SRTM DEM cluster 30 m 30 m.
The arc GIS spatial analysis tool was used to convert all vector
layers to raster by assigning the criterion factor value as a buffer
zone distance around the criterion feature. The buffer distance
was classified with color-coded tone raster layer function on the
proximity distance to the line feature. Fig. 8 shows the criteria
proximity classification with color-coded raster maps for the ele-
vation head, water distance, and proximity to electricity networks
as example for each model criteria.
5.4. Reclassification and assigning suitability rank
Once all the data sets were converted to raster data layers, the
reclassify tool was used to reclassify the data sets. The suitability
values ranged from high suitability to low suitability, and a sum-
mation of the values for every raster cell was calculated. The
reclassification values used ranged from 1 to 10, with 10 being
the most suitable for sites for PHES plants and 1 being the lowest
suitable. For example, the higher heads represent preferable site
conditions and have higher scores (Kucukali, 2014). The areas that
did not fall within the 10 reclassified groups were reclassified as
No Data as shown in Fig. 9.
5.5. Assigning criteria weights and processing
The purpose of criterion weighting is to express the importance
of each criterion relative to other criteria. The more important cri-
terion had the greater weight in the overall evaluation. The
weights can be obtained simply by asking the decision-maker to
directly assign numbers between 0 and 1 or 0 and 100 for each the-
matic data layer. Table 2 summarizes the criteria weights assigned
to the Arc GIS math algebra tool for processing and suitability
analysis.
5.6. Creation of PHES optimum locations map
The weighted linear combination (WLC) is a common method of
suitability MCDM which was used to design the suitability model
(Yildirim et al., 2017). This method is based on the weighted aver-
age assignment. An evaluation score was computed by multiplying
the importance of the assigned weight for each criterion by the
scaled value given to that alternative on that criterion, followed
by a summing of the data sets for all criteria. This technique was
chosen due to its easy implementation within a GIS using map
algebra operations and its transparency in aiding decision-
making. The raster calculator function in Arc GIS software analyses
the scores and executes the equation steps, then produces the final
standardized new score raster according to equation (3).
Hany G.I. Ahmed, M.H. Mohamed and S.S. Saleh Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 8. Elevation head, water body, and grid network proximity criteria rasteriza- Fig. 9. reclassification of the criteria from 1 of low suitability in black color and 10
tion and classification. for high suitability in green.

6
Hany G.I. Ahmed, M.H. Mohamed and S.S. Saleh Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2
Utilized criteria and weights.

CRITERIA’s CATEGORY CRITERION CRITERION SUITABILITY RANK SUITABILITY SUITABILITY

FACTOR INDEX DEGREE WEIGHT
Technical and geometrical PHES Head Elevation Difference (m) 160–200 (m) >8 High 40.00%
criteria 100–160 (m) 5–8 Medium
20–100 (m) 1–5 Low
<20 (m) <1 NA
PHES Head Ratio i.e. water source <3 (km) 5–10 High 35.00%
proximity 3–5 (km) 1–5 Low
>5 (km) <1 NA
Site Slopes slope of ground surface <4 (degree) >9 High 5.00%
(degree) 4–7 (degree) 7–9 Medium
7–9 (degree) 4–7 Low
>10 (degree) <4 NA
Economic criteria Distance to the national Power grid (km) 0–5 (km) >8 High 15.00%
5–10 (km) 5–8 Medium
10–20 (km) 2–5 Low
>20 (km) <2 NA
Distance to the national road networks 0–3 (km) >8 High 5.00%
(km) 3–7 (km) 5–8 Medium
7–10 (km) 2–5 Low
>10 (km) <2 NA
Constraints Land use NA NA
Airports (km2) 30 km2 NA

5.7. Results and discussion
The GIS model aims to produce a raster format map of PEHS.
The new output suitability values involved the same scale from 1
for poor suitability to 10 for optimal suitability for constructing
the PHES plants. Fig. 10 shows the final PHES suitability sites
map over the whole of Egypt. Three levels of suitability were clas-
sified: high, medium, and low.
Sixty-two potential candidates for optimum PHES locations
considered as huge national resources were found. Twelve high

Fig. 10. Egypt PHES suitability Map.

7
Hany G.I. Ahmed, M.H. Mohamed and S.S. Saleh Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. xxx (xxxx) xxx

suitability score sites were distributed over Egypt as follows: at Table 3

Aswan governorate around Naser Lake, northern part of Assuit gov- Egypt PHES suitability areas and sites number.

ernorate near to Nazlet El-Moqat’ah City on the east side of Rriver PHES Site Suitability Suitability Rank Area/km2 No. of Sites
Nile, El-Salloum City in Marsa Matrouh governorate close to the High Suitability 7:10 652.79 12
Mediterranean Sea water source, and Hurghada City at El-Bahr Medium Suitability 4:7 7315.94 34
El-Ahmer governorate. Another thirty-four medium suitability Low Suitability 1:4 2459.70 16
score sites and sixteen low suitability score sites were obtained
distributed over the whole of Egypt as shown in Fig. 10. These loca-
tions obtained can help stockholders and urban developers and 6. Conclusion
decision-makers to overcome on shortage of power in Egypt. On
the other hand, the results determined one of the highly suitable The new PHES site suitability methodology procedure is based
sites at Assuit governorate was recommended as a good case study on the use of the multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) tech-
for construction the PHES plant, as shown in Fig. 11. The site nique. It used the satellite DEM SRTM 1 arcsec. with some impor-
obtained has an elevation difference than water level ranges from tant worldwide criteria used in PHES site selection. The Weighted
50 m to 150 m and the water proximity ranges from 110 m to Linear Combination (WLC) is one of the compensatory MCDA
1 km. methods based on GIS suitability analysis were utilized in the
The total area that has high suitability rank which considers determination of the criteria weight factors. The proposed method-
being the optimal site for constructing new PHES plants were ology assisted in identifying several suitable sites covering a total
652.79 km2; however, the medium suitability areas covered area of 10428 km2 distributed over Egypt. The results were classi-
7315.94 km2. The total area for each level of suitability and the fied into three suitability levels: high, medium, and low. The high
number of the site covered in Egypt were tabulated in Table 3. suitability sites covered a total area of 652.79 km2 with 12 sites
From the tabulated information, Egypt has a massive bulk of mainly concentrated on Aswan governorate along the River Nile.
renewable hydropower energy that can save its needs from the Assuit governorate has a highly suitable site which is recom-
energy demand and has the ability to compete with other countries mended to be chosen as a practical a case study for constructing
in this field of technology. a new PHES. The medium suitability sites were finding the biggest
slide where the total areas cover 7315.94 km2 with 34 sites dis-
tributed over Egyptian governorates that are close to bodies of

Fig. 11. The PHES suitability sites at Assuit governorate.

8
Hany G.I. Ahmed, M.H. Mohamed and S.S. Saleh
water. A map is plotted for the locations of the PHES for the entire
area of Egypt.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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