PHOTOGRAMMETRY ASSIGNMENT REPORT

BASIC CONCEPTS OF ORTHORECTIFICATION

(Compiled to fulfill the task of the Photogrammetry course)

Written By:
Group VI-A
Nama anggota NIM
Nama anggota NIM
Nama anggota NIM
Nama anggota NIM
Nama anggota NIM

Lecturer of Courses :
Dr. Yudo Prasetyo, S.T., M.T.

DEPARTMENT OF GEODESIC ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, DIPONEGORO UNIVERSITY
Jl. Prof. Sudarto SH, Tembalang, Semarang Telp. (024) 7680785, 76480788
E-mail: geodesi@undip.ac.id
2021
 TABLE OF CONTENT
TABLE OF CONTENT..............................................................................................................i

CHAPTER I LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................I-3

I. 1 Introduction of Orthophoto...........................................................................................I-3

I. 2 Introduction of Orthorectification.................................................................................I-4

I.2.1 Definition of Orthorectification..............................................................................I-4

I.2.2 Purpose of Orthorectification..................................................................................I-5

I.2.3 Orthorectification Results......................................................................................I-6

I.2.4 Orthorectification Process.......................................................................................I-6

 TABEL OF FIGURES

FIGURE I.1 Process Orthorectification..................................................................................I-6

FIGURE I.2 Before and After Orthorectification....................................................................I-7
 CHAPTER I
LITERATURE REVIEW
I.1 Introduction of Orthophoto
Orthophoto is a photo reproduction that has corrected some deviations, such as tilt,
topographical shift, and sometimes even lens distortion. In other words, Orthophoto is a
photo that presents an image of the object in the correct position. Therefore, Orthophoto is
geometrically equivalent to conventional line maps and planimetric symbol maps which of
course represent orthographic objects. The main difference between orthophoto and map is
that orthophoto is formed by images of features, whereas maps are formed by using lines and
symbols drawn at scale to reflect features. Orthophotos are made from stereoscopic pairs of
perspective photographs (usually aerial photographs) or aerial photographs by a process
called differential rectification in such a way that the resulting photographic image is in the
correct orthographic position. Orthophoto is also different from a photo that is corrected by
default, namely by correcting an aerial photo of the slope, while in an orthophoto that is
corrected not only the slope but also the topographical shift. Differential rectification can
eliminate image displacement by photographic tilt and relief. A shift in location by the tilt of
the camera's optical axis occurs in each aerial photo, which at the time of recording the photo
plane is tilted to the datum plane. Rectification is performed to remove the effect of axis tilt
and the results are equivalent to upright photos. In the process of eliminating displacement by
relief on any photo, the scale variation must be removed so that the scale becomes the same
for all photos. In the end the degree of truth of the orthophoto is the same as that of the
planim[CITATION Had07 \l 1033 ][CITATION Had07 \l 1033 ]etric map. However, there is
a limitation of orthophoto, namely the displacement by relief for upright surfaces such as tree
trunks, building walls and so on that cannot be eliminated. Differential rectification when
used to make orthophotos requires re-shooting the original photo which of course would be
costly and impractical. Therefore, shooting again of the entire image at once is replaced by
shooting of very small pieces that may number in the thousands for a single 23 cm x 23 cm
aerial photograph or with a series of narrow strips. These strips or paths are all made to the
same scale by keeping the clearance gap in constant contact with a three-dimensional field
model. The orthophoto produced is planimetrically correct, allowing the user to make precise
measurements of distance, area and direction directly on the orthophoto. According to USGS,
the main differences between analog photogrammetry and digital photogrammetry are:

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 a) Aerial photos obtained using a conventional perspective contain image
displacements caused by camera tilt and terrain relief (topography). Aerial
photography does not have a uniform scale. We can't measure distances on aerial
photographs as we can on maps, because it won't be a map.
b) Tilt and relief effects can be removed from aerial photographs through a
rectification process to make
c) Orthophotos have uniform scale. Orthophoto is a photo map.
d) Because the orthophoto has a uniform scale, it is possible to take measurements
directly as on a map.
e) Orthophoto allows it to be used as a base map like other information maps through
overlays.

I.2 Introduction of Orthorectification

I.2.1 Definition of Orthorectification
Orthorectification is the process of removing the effects of image perspective (tilt)
and relief (terrain) effects for the purpose of creating a planimetrically correct image. The
resultant orthorectified image has a constant scale wherein features are represented in their
'true' positions. This allows for the accurate direct measurement of distances, angles, and
areas (i.e. mensuration). Orthorectified images are commonly used as in visualization tools
such as Google Earth, OSSIM Planet, ArcMap, WMS, etc.[ CITATION Rup \l 1033 ]
The requisite inputs for orthorectification:
a) An image with accurate sensor geometry
b) A elevation model of the ground surface in DEM, DTED, or SRTM format
The resulting accuracy of the orthoimage is based on the accuracy of the triangulation,
the resolution of the source image, and the accuracy of the elevation model.
Orthorectification—a subtopic of georeferencing—is the process of converting
images into a form suitable for maps by removing sensor, satellite/aircraft motion and terrain-
related geometric distortions from raw imagery. This is one of the main processing steps for
evaluating remote sensing data. Orthorectified data sets are required for most applications
involving thematic image analysis, especially when using the image data in Geographic
Information Systems (GIS), for data fusion and analysis of data from different sources or
seasons, when overlaying images with existing data sets and maps, or using them for
evaluations like change detection and map updating. With the increasing geometric resolution
of modern satellite cameras, requirements for the geometric accuracy of orthorectification
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also increase. IMF develops techniques and procedures for orthorectification of optical data
acquired from a wide variety of sensor systems; these can also be used in operational
processing chains.
Today various methods and models of different complexity exist for
orthorectification. At IMF the technique of “Direct Georeferencing and Rational Polynomial
Functions” is mainly in use. Direct Georeferencing (DG) is based on a Line-of-Sight (LoS)
model which makes extensive use of on-board measurements from Star Tracker and inertial
measurement systems, often combined using Kalman filtering. High precision attitude and
orbit determination systems (position and velocity) are also employed, like GPS (Global
Positioning System), DORIS (Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by
Satellite), and in the future GALILEO, representing next-generation technology. The interior
orientation—the sensor model and the sensor mounting (boresight angles)—are taken into
account by using look direction vectors derived from laboratory and/or in-flight geometric
calibration. The Universal Sensor Model (USM)—realized by Rational Polynomial Functions
(RPF)—transforms object space coordinates to image space coordinates, where the exterior
and interior orientations are implicitly encoded in the form of rational polynomial coefficients
(RPC) using third order polynomials for nominator and denominator (80 coefficients). For
both methods terrain displacements are taken into account using digital elevation models. The
reconstructed 3D object coordinates are transformed to any map projection system (support
for about 30 different map projection systems including geodetic datum transformations is
available), where image resampling is performed. By using the information provided by
Ground Control Points (GCP)—manually measured or automatically extracted from
reference images—model parameters can be refined in order to improve the geometric
accuracy of the orthoimages.
I.2.2 Purpose of Orthorectification
Orthorectification is a correction process that aims to correct geometric distortions
caused by sensor characteristics, sensing direction, and relief shift so that the sensing
direction has a perspective projection[CITATION LAP10 \l 1033 ] .This condition can occur
in satellite images which in fact have high topographic variations, such as valleys to
mountains and hills. Basically, orthorectification correction is aimed at changing images that
have a perspective-projection sensing direction into orthogonal projections [CITATION
LAP10 \l 1033 ].

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 I.2.3 Orthorectification Results

FIGURE I.1 Process Orthorectification

The result of orthorectification is an upright (imageplanar)that has a uniform scale

throughout the image. Orthorectification is very important if the image will be used to map
and extract dimensional information, such as location, distance, length, area, and volume.
An upright image is an image that has corrected all its geometric errors, as a result of
the image recording mechanism. Image geometric errors can come from internal sources of
satellites and sensors (oblique sensors /off nadir) or external sources, which in this case is the
topography of the earth's surface.recording Off nadir and differences in the height of various
objects on the earth's surface cause an image error called relief displacement. Relief
displacement itself can be defined as a shift in the position of an object from where it should
be, caused by the height of the object and the tilt of the image sensor.

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 I.2.4 Orthorectification Process

I.2.5

FIGURE I.2 Before and After Orthorectification

The orthorectification process is one of the solutions used to solve the distortion
problem in the satellite image data. The orthorectification process is actually not much
different from the rectification process, both of which are processes to correct distortion
problems in satellite image data, but the orthorectification process is carried out if the
distorted area occurs in areas with varied topography (not flat), and therefore we need other
supporting data, especially Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data.

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 CHAPTER II
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hadi, B. S. (2007). DASAR-DASAR FOTOGRAMETRI. DIKTAT Universitas Negeri
Yogyakarta.
LAPAN. (2010). LAPAN profile. Retrieved Oktober 30, 2021, from
www.inderaja.lapan.go.id
Muller, R. (n.d.). Earth Observation Center. Retrieved from DRL:
https://www.dlr.de/eoc/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-6144/10056_read-20918/
OSSIM. (n.d.). Orthorectification. Retrieved Oktober 29, 2021, from
https://trac.osgeo.org/ossim/wiki/orthorectification

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