Ministry of Higher Education and

Scientific Research
Al-Iraqia University
College of Education for Woman
Department of English Language

Correlations in English Language

A research paper submitted to the Department of English of the College of
Education for Woman of the Iraqia University in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the degree of Bachelor in Education English Language

By

Manar Waleed Hassan

Supervised by

Assistant Lecturer. Nagham Oudah Alhamdawee

May, 2021 .A.D Shawwal, 1442.A.H

 ‫‪2‬‬

‫َ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ٱ‬

‫اَّن فَتَ ۡحنَا كَل َ فَ ۡت ٗحا ُّم ِبي ٗنا(‪ِ )١‬ل ّ َي ۡغ ِف َر كَل َ هَّلل ُ َما تَ َق َّد َم من ذنۢب َِك‬
‫ِإ‬
‫َو َما تََأخ ََّر َويُمِت َّ ِن ۡع َم َتهُۥ عَلَ ۡي َك َوهَي ۡ ِدي َ َك رِص َ ٰٗطا ُّم ۡس َت ِقميٗا (‪) ٢‬‬
‫ٱ‬
‫َويَنرُص َ َك هَّلل ُ نَرۡص ً ا َع ِز ًيزا( ‪) ٣‬‬

‫سورة الفتح (‪)3-1‬‬

‫‪Dedication‬‬
 3

To My Parents, sisters, brothers and

Husband
With Love and
Respect
 4

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my supervisor

Assistant Lecturer. Nagham Oudah Alhamdawee who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful research.

My deepest gratitude and appreciation also go to Prof. Abeer Hadi, Head of

the Department of English. Her valuable advice, encouragement, help and
patience have always been indispensable.
 5

Abstract
A Correlations is a term used in the grammatical classification of
words whose primary function is to connect words or other items.
Correlations are useful in setting up semantic relationships within a text
as a ‘cohesive device’, by joining different linguistic units as a unified
text. For that reason, students should learn how to construct a well-
uniformed and understandable text for the reader by learning
Correlations, their meanings and their proper use. Hence, they should be
able to build up a cohesive text with the suitable Correlations.
 6

Table of Contents

Abstract.....................................................................................................5
Introduction...............................................................................................7
1.1 Definition of Correlation...............................................................9
1.2 Types of Correlations...................................................................10
1.3 Coordinating Correlations...........................................................11
1.3.1 The Types of Coordinating Correlations..................................12
1.3.2 Uses of Coordinating Correlations...........................................12
1.3.3 Punctuation of Coordinating Correlations................................17
4. Correlations in Sentences and phrases......................................18
4.1 Correlations in Sentences....................................................18
4.2 Correlations in Compound sentences..................................19
4.3 Correlations in Complex sentences.....................................20
4.4 Correlations in Phrases........................................................21
Conclusion..............................................................................................22
References...............................................................................................23
 7

Introduction
Correlations are universal cohesion systems, they are part of
grammatical cohesion Which is formed by relevance and other
categories (such as references, substitutions, ellipsis. One of the benefits
of cohesion is the creation of a cohesive semantic relationship in the
text. Other benefits include the establishment of a cohesive relationship
between various language units to create texture. (Crystal 1992:79)
Textual cohesion is provided by textures, in a way that a number of
semantic relations are joined to form a text, correlations represents a
form of apparent relationship between signal expression propositions,
especially by connecting phrases, clauses and sentences in order to
establish cohesion of the text. Association represents one of two types of
linking devices.. (The other linkage device is called linkage adverbials
which is formed of items like: for, so, yet, however, therefore, for
instance, meanwhile).(ibid.)Particularly, Linkage includes either ‘logical
or other links between sentences’ or ‘implicit connections of meaning’,
Actually, the two categories of cohesive device are constituted from
Linkage coupled with. Correlations constitute a major category in the
cohesion system of any language although they do not elaborate on the
other functions of correlation as linkage devices apart from the
coordinating function. Its known that the most difficult skill among four
skills is writing, it comes on top for being the most difficult. Some
 8

Students lack the ability to diagnose their mistakes when they write a
paragraph, an essay, or a paper. Since one of these mistakes done by
students is correlation as it is sometimes a dilemma to choose the
appropriate correlation, in the right place.( Dressler,1981:85)
 9

1.1 Definition of Correlation

One of the parts of speech, a type of word that is used to connect

words or groups of words. Traditionally, correlations are used to connect
words within a sentence. (Erichsen, 2008:1). Crystal (1992:81) defines
conjuncts as a type of adverbials whose functions is primarily
connective. Thus, the adverbials which function as connective devices
are sometimes referred to as ‘cohesive devices’ (Halliday and Hasan,
1976:226) or ‘conjunctive adverbial’ or ‘adverbial correlation’ or
‘conjunctive adverb’ (Al-Hamash and Abdullah, 1979:430) or
‘conjuncts’ (Quirk et al., 1985:631) or ‘connectors’ (Chalker, 1984: 209)
or ‘logical connectors’ (Greenbaum, 1996:382). Thus, a correlation is a
part of speech that :

(1) joins words, phrases, and clauses and

(2) indicates a relationship between the joined elements.

Four types of correlative relations are suggested by Halliday and Hassan

(1976:238). The benefit of Correlations is that they are used as cohesive
relation markers to show logical-semantic relations between linguistic
expressions and linking paragraphs, a Correlations differs in nature from
the other cohesive relations, as claimed by Aziz (1998). Which means
that the conjunctive elements are not elementary devices for reaching
out into the preceding text in the same manner that anaphoric devices do,
yet they convey certain meaning that presupposes the existence of other
 10

components in the discourse. According to Aziz (1998:85), using a

Correlations is to refer to a formal linker of parts of a text. Correlations
serves as a tool to relate linguistic.

1.2 Types of Correlations

Farrokhpey (1999: 282) has identified four types of conjunctive

meanings:

A. Additive : It is a text forming component of the semantic system. In

general, the relation is, therefore, a semantic one. Halliday and Hassan
(1976: 8) in turn divide the additive type into :

1 Simple such as, and , nor, or.

2. Complex such as, in addition, alternatively.

3. Complex (de-emphatic) such as, by the way , incidentally.

4. Comparative such as, by contrast, similarly.

5. Examplificatory such as, for instance, and for example .

B. Appositive or Adversative : This relation has the meaning

contrary to the expectation . This expectation is derived from the context
of what is being said or from the relation that can be expressed by
communicative process . For example however, but, …..etc.(ibid.)
 11

C. Causal : Notions such as reason, result, and purpose are

expressed by this relation. The elements used to express this relations
are: So, if, for this reason.(ibid.)

D. Temporal : This is a relation of sequence in successive

sentences. One sentence is in sequence to the other in time . In addition,
the presupposing sentence may be temporally cohesive not because it
stands in particular time relation to the presupposed sentence , but it
indicates the terminal of some process or series of processes. Thus, this
meaning does not involve only sequence relation, but also conclusive
and summary relation. The elements used to indicate this relation are ;
then finally.(ibid.)

1.3 Coordinating Correlations

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2001:301) defines

coordinating Correlations as ''a word such as 'and' or 'but', which joins
two clauses of the same type'', while Thomson and Martinet (1986:288)
define coordinating correlations as ''words join pairs of nouns,
adjectives, adverbs, verbs, phrases and clauses''. Richards et al.(1990:77)
define coordinating correlations as ''co-ordinators such as and, or, but,
that they join linguistic units which are equivalent or of the same rank''.
 12

e.g.:

He plays squash and rugby.

I went to bed but couldn't sleep

Shall we go home or go to a movie?

1.3.1 The Types of Coordinating Correlations

1. 'And': By and large, the functions (Krishnaswamy, 1975:303-305

and Collins, 1990:373-381) of coordinating Correlations (and) are:

- It is used to show a simple addition; joining nouns.

e.g.: They brought bread, butter and oranges.

I saw a cat and a mouse

2. 'Or' : The functions (ibid) of coordinating Correlations (or) are: - It

indicates a choice.( alternative)

e.g.: Will you have tea or coffee?

3. 'But': The functions (ibid) of coordinating Correlations ( but) are:

- It is used to link contrasting adjectives.

e.g.: We are poor but happy.

1.3.2 Uses of Coordinating Correlations

As Ting (2003:129) asserts the following uses:

 13

1. It is used to continue the narrative; joining predicates.

e.g.: They turned and ran away.
Fatema raised her hand and snapped her fingers.
2. It is used to give an emphasis ( or duration).
e.g.: They walked miles and miles.
They laughed and laughed.
3. It is used to intensify meaning and join clauses.
e.g.: We did the work and did it well.
- It is used to join two adjectives.
e.g.: He is strong and bold.
Their flag is green and black.
4. It is used to contrast, two things, people, places, ideas,..etc.
e.g.: They are so rich and so stingy.
- It is used to show implications of discrimination.
e.g.: There are books and books.
5. It is used to give conditional meaning.
e.g.: Work hard and you will pass.
6. It is used to match opposites.
e.g.: Stealing is forbidden to the rich and the poor.
7. It is used to add a result.
e.g.: He found sitting there impossible and rose from his seat.
8. It is used to join two verbs.
e.g.: Please go and get it for me.
 14

9. It is used to join two subordinating correlations.

I'll tell you if and when it is completed.
10. It is used to join a noun phrase and a pronoun.(Linking pronouns)
e.g.: My sister and I suffered totally different kinds of lives.
11. It is used to join two auxiliaries.
e.g.: We can and will do it.
12. It is used to join two prepositions.
e.g.: She saw them on their way to and from school.
13. It is used to join two prepositional phrases.
e.g.: He ran into the house and up the stairs.
14. It is used to join two gerunds.
e.g.: Swimming and cycling are good exercises.
15. It is used to join two gerundive phrases.
e.g.: After swimming and cycling for a long time, he felt tired
16. It is used to join two independent clauses.
e.g.: I'll come there to pick you up and I'll drop you back.
17. It is used to join two dependent clauses.
e.g.: Because he was very popular, and because he was rich, no action
was taken against him.
18. It is used to form a compound subject.
e.g.: Children and women are not allowed.
19. It is used to form a compound object.
e.g.: He lost all his money and reputation.
 15

20. It is used to form (link) a compound modifier.(adjectives)

e.g.: I can't think of a more beautiful and intelligent girl.
21. It is used to form a compound modifier.(adverbs)
e.g.: Maria spoke brilliantly and dispassionately
22. It is used to join adjective clauses.
e.g.: Anyone who knows and who refuses to listen to our warnings will
be sent out.
23. When you put more than two adjectives after a link verb, you
put 'and' between the last two adjectives and a comma after each of
the others.
e.g.: ......the country's social, economic and political crisis.
24. When you want to give an advice, you do this by using an
imperative clause followed by 'and' and a clause containing a verb
in the future tense.
e.g.: Instead of saying: '' If you go by train, you'll get there
quicker''.
You can say: ''Go by train and you'll be alright''.
25. When you are linking two nouns, an adjective in front of the
first noun is normally interpreted as applying to both nouns.
( omitting adjectives)
e.g.: .....the young men and women of England.
26. To indicate equivalence.
 16

e.g.: A captain, or a commanding officer as he is called, must report at

once to the headquarters.
27. It is used to link the determiners 'his' and 'her'.
e.g.: Your child's school will play an important part in shaping the rest
of his or her life
28. To indicate the omitting of the subject, the auxiliaries and
'not'.
e.g.: Instead of saying ' she doesn't drink and she doesn't smoke'.
29. To indicate a negative condition.
e.g.: We didn't know if we should risk driving through the deep water, or
get out and swim.
30. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives.
e.g.: We can take turns talking on the microphone, or we can just sit here
and look at each other.
These shoes are old but comfortable.
In some sentences 'but' and 'and' are interchangeable; 'and' weakens the
contrast.
e.g.: My book is here but yours is on the table.
My book is here and yours is on the table.
31. It is used to link adverbs.
e.g.: Quickly but silently she darted out of the cell.
32. It may come at the beginning of a clause. (Initial in sentence)
e.g.: It was snowing. But I went out.
 17

1.3.3 Punctuation of Coordinating Correlations

As Gehring (2005:Online) there are Three patterns in writing use

coordinating Correlationss. Add commas when required.

2 Pattern 1 — Connecting two main clauses

When connecting two main clauses with a coordinating Correlations,
use a comma. This is the pattern:
Main Clause + , + Coordinating Correlations + Main Clause .
example: While I am at work, my dog Floyd sleeps on the bed, and my
cat Buster naps in the bathtub.
3 Pattern 2 — Connecting two items
By using a coordinating Correlations to connect any two items. These
items can be any grammatical unit except main clauses. This is the
pattern:
Item + Ø + Coordinating Correlations + Item
example: My dog Floyd has too many fleas and too much hair. My
cat Buster has beautiful blue eyes but a destructive personality.
3. Pattern 3 — Connecting three or more items in a series
When having three or more items in a series, you generally use a
comma before the coordinating Correlations. Some handbooks and style
guides will tell you that this comma is optional, but you should include it
for the sake of clarity. This is the pattern:
Item + , + Item + , + Coordinating Correlations + Item
 18

Here is an example:
Swatting olives off the kitchen counter, dragging toilet paper streamers
through the house, and terrorizing Jacques Cousteau, the parakeet, have
consumed another of Buster's days.
(Gehring, 2005: Online)

4. Correlations in Sentences and phrases

4.1 Correlations in Sentences
Correlations in Sentences has one independent clauses that have
related ideas. The independent clauses can be joined by a coordinating
Correlations or by a semicolon, as we can see in the sentences examples
below:
 I can pass after the green light is on.
 Although she speaks seldom, she says meaningful words.
 I went to bed at 10 pm as I had a plane to catch at 7 am.
 She talks as if he was rich.
 You can go as long as you are good.
 I hate broccoli as much as I hate cauliflower.
 As soon as I went to home, I started to work.
 It seems as though she is in trouble.
 She usually eats at home, because she likes cooking.
 My work must be finished before afternoon.
 19

 He works every day, even on Sundays.

 You will go to that cinema even if they don’t allow you.
 Even though it rained a lot, We enjoyed the holiday.
 Michael has very much money. However, she’s not all that
happy.
 Let me know if you go to the school.
 If only Maria had been able to come.
 In as much as it rains, I’ll take an umbrella.
(englishstudyhere,2019:Online)
4.2 Correlations in Compound sentences
Many compound sentences are made using coordinating
Correlationss. In this case, the sentence must contain a comma before
the Correlations for correct punctuation. For example:
 She did not cheat on the test, for it was the wrong thing to do.
 I really need to go to work, but I am too sick to drive.
 I am counting my calories, yet I really want dessert.
 He ran out of money, so he had to stop playing poker.
 They got there early, and they got really good seats.
 They had no ice cream left at home, nor did they have money to go
to the store.
 Everyone was busy, so I went to the movie alone.
 20

 I thought the promotion was mine, but my attendance wasn't good

enough.
 Should we start class now, or wait for everyone to get here?
 It was getting dark, and we weren't near the cabin yet.
 Cats are good pets, for they are clean and are not noisy.
 We have never been to Asia, nor have we visited Africa.
 He didn't want to go to the dentist, yet he went anyway.
(your dictionary,2020:Online)
4.3 Correlations in Complex sentences
Different Correlationss are used to show Correlations in Complex
sentences with different relationships between the independent and the
dependent clause as the following table:

Relationship Correlations Example

contrast although The US failed to ratify the Kyoto treaty although/though it supported the
though UN’s objectives on global warming.
even though Clean water is scarce in the poorest countries while Western consumers
while have abundant supplies.
whereas

reason because Dolly the sheep was unique because she was cloned from an adult cell.
since The findings were flawed since the data were inaccurate.
as

time when Sea water evaporates when the sun radiates heat.

as soon as The water vapour cools while it is rising.
while The water vapour condenses as it cools.
as Clouds begin to form once condensation starts to occur.
once The clouds move until they reach high land.
until
after
before

purpose so that Tourists visiting Antarctica are required to clean their footwear so
that contamination can be avoided.

condition if Pollution levels will rise if emissions are not controlled.

 21

unless Management recommendations are ineffective unless they are

implemented.

manner as We wrote up the results of the experiment as we had been directed.

place where People prefer to shop where they feel relaxed.

adding information who The person who spoke to me yesterday gave me the wrong information.
about a person whose Alvar Aalto was a Finnish architect whose ideas are fundamental to
modern design.

adding information which Canna is an island which lies off the west coast of Scotland.
about a thing that There are geological changes in coastlines that may be impossible to
influence.

introducing reported that It was unclear whether the management would fund the proposed training
information whether scheme.
how This article researches how climate change might affect wildlife in
Britain.

(writing-skills.group, 2005: Online)

4.4 Correlations in Phrases

Correlations in Phrases it’s a bridging of various phrases, to create a
more cohesive idea:
 Try the chocolate cake and the vanilla pudding.
 Sit on the big red chair or the squishy blue cushion.
(easybib,2021:online)
 22

Conclusion
Correlations are a type of word that is used to connect words or
groups of words Thus, a correlation is a part of speech that usually joins
words, phrases, and clauses and indicates a relationship between the
joined elements. There are many types of Correlations such as Additive,
Simple, Complex, Complex (de-emphatic) and-comparative
Examplificatory.

Coordinating Correlations have three patterns of Punctuation , the

first one is Connecting two main clauses, the second one is Connecting
two items Pattern and finally Connecting three or more items in a series.
Finally, can be lies in Sentences, Compound sentences, Complex
sentences and Phrases.

Choosing the wrong conjunction, unrecognizing the right

conjunction or its meaning, providing no meaning to the sentence and
finally misusing the punctuation with coordinating conjunctions.
 23

References

 Al-Hamash, K. I. and J.J.Abdulla.1979. A Course in Modern

English Grammar. Baghdad. Selman Press.
 Aziz, Y. (1998). Topics in Translation with special reference to
English and Arabic.
 Chalker, S. 1984. Current English Grammar. London: Macmillan
Publishers.
 Collins, W. (1990). Cobuild English Grammar. Birmingham.
Harper Collins Publisher.
 Crystal, 0.1992. Introducing Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
 Dressler 1981; Dressler: De Beaugrande, and Wolfgang Dressler.
1981. Introduction to text linguistics.
 Farrokhpey , M.1999. Fundamental Concepts in Linguistics
.Tehran :Sokhan
 Greenbaum , S. and R. Quirk. 1990. Student's Grammar of the
English Language. London: Longman.
 Halliday, M. A. K., & Hassan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English.
London: Longman.
 Krishnaswamy, N. (1975). Modern English. Madras: Macmillan.
 Longman Group UK. LTD. (1987). Longman Dictionary of
Contemporaryn English. 2nd Edition. English Longman.
 24

 Richards, J. C., Platt, J., and Platt, H. (1990). Longman Dictionary

of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. England:
Longman.
 Thomson, A. J. & Martinet A. V. (1986). A Practical English
Grammar. 4th Edition. UK. Oxford University Press.
 Ting, F. (2003). An Investigation of Cohesive Errors in the Writing
of PRC Tertiary EFL Students (Unpublished Master’s Thesis,
National University of Singapore, Singapore).

Online Sources
https://chompchomp.com/terms/coordinatingCorrelations.pdf
https://www.easybib.com/guides/grammar-guides/parts-of-
speech/Correlations/
https://examples.yourdictionary.com/compound-sentence-examples.html
https://englishstudyhere.com/grammar/50-Correlations-sentences-in-
english/