Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09769-2

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Effects of water content and salt content on electrical resistivity

of loess
Zhao Duan1,2 · Xusheng Yan1,2   · Qiang Sun1,2 · Xuan Tan1,2 · Chenxi Dong1,2

Received: 17 December 2020 / Accepted: 4 July 2021

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
As a special soil widely existing in world, loess engineering properties are often disturbed by water and salt. Hence, the influ-
ence of water content and salt content on the conductivity properties of loess was analyzed using the electrical resistivity of
loess obtained by LCR digital bridge tester in this study. Loess electrical resistivity with different water content (8–20%) and
NaCl content (0–6%) was obtained at test frequencies of 100 Hz, 1 kHz, and 10 kHz. Results show that loess electrical resis-
tivity exhibited an exponential function with a change in water content. As water content increased, loess electrical resistivity
decreased significantly. When water content exceeded the plastic limit, loess electrical resistivity decreased slowly. When
NaCl content around 2%, the increase of ion content in conductive path of loess enhanced loess conductivity. When NaCl
content reached 6%, the conductive capacity of the loess tended to reach its maximum, and the resistivity slowly decreased
and stabilized. There was a nonlinear functional relation between loess electrical resistivity and test frequency. As the test
frequency increased, the number of ions that could be used to form a conductive path increased, and loess electrical resistiv-
ity decreased. In addition, three paths model of loess electrical resistivity and double-layer structure can well explain above
phenomena. This research can provide theoretical basis for electrical resistivity technology to predict water content and salt
content, and valuable reference for large-scale field application of electrical resistivity observation technology.

Keywords  Electrical resistivity · Loess · Water content · Salt content · Test frequency

List of symbols R Sample resistance measured by testing

W Water content S Cross-sectional area of the sample
C NaCl content L Height of the sample
F Test frequency
ρ Loess electrical resistivity
Introduction
* Xusheng Yan As a special soil widely existing in world, loess engineer-
yxsheng187@stu.xust.edu.cn
ing properties are easily disturbed by water and salt (Nui
* Qiang Sun et al. 2021; Qiu et al. 2020; Wang et al. 2021a, b; Xu et al.
sunqiang04@cumt.edu.cn
2019; Xue et al. 2020; Zhang et al. 2020). This disturbance
Zhao Duan usually has a significant effect on the structure and strength
duanzhao@xust.edu.cn
of loess, such as strength softening or quality deterioration
Xuan Tan (Duan et al. 2019; Haeri et al. 2019; Leng et al. 2020; Li
tx199511@163.com
et al. 2021; Zuo et al. 2020), collapsibility (Handy 1973;
Chenxi Dong Hu et al. 2021; Liu et al. 2015; Yuan and Wang 2009), and
18209212042@stu.xust.edu.cn
salinization (Fu et al. 2019; Jin 2019; Zhang et al. 2013).
1
College of Geology and Environment, Xi’an The factors mentioned above are important inducements of
University of Science and Technology, Xi’an 710054, geological disasters in loess area (Duan et al. 2020, 2021;
Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China Peng et al. 2018; Xu et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2013). There-
2
Geological Research Institute for Coal Green Mining, Xi’an fore, it is valuable to focus on the effects of water content
University of Science and Technology, Xi’an 710054, and NaCl content on the properties of loess. Conventional
Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China

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methods to study the properties of loess mainly include
field investigation, laboratory test and geophysical method.
However, bulky and heavy equipment, time consuming and
complicated operation methods usually limit the application
of these methods (Ranjy Roodposhti et al. 2019; Yoon and
Park 2001).
In recent years, one of the most popular methods in
the field of geotechnical material properties research is
the laboratorial electrical resistivity experiment. As a fast,
convenient and time-saving method for researching rock
and soil properties, electrical resistivity measurement
technology has been widely used in geotechnical engi-
neering, geophysics, soil science, and agricultural science
(Chu et al. 2018; Datsios et al. 2017; Kang and Lee 2015;
Liu et al. 2008; Lyu et al. 2019; Naseem et al. 2020), such
as measurement of volumetric water content (Kalinski
and Kelly 1993; Sebastian Bryson and Bathe 2009; Son
et al. 2010), assessment of hydraulic conductivity (Gor-
man and Kelly 1990; Mastrocicco et al. 2010), analysis
of soil salinity (Campbell et al. 1949; Wu et al. 2014),
grounding system design (Freschi et al. 2014; Rong et al.
2006), investigation on mechanical properties of soil (Rus-
sell and Barker 2010; Seladji et al. 2010) and evaluation
of pore information and permeability of soil (Christensen
et al. 2006; Espinoza et al. 2011; Nakatsuka et al. 2010;
Oh et al. 2014) etc.
Previous research has demonstrated that the factors
that affect the electrical resistivity of soil are water con-
tent, salt content, saturation, pores and soil type (Bai
et al. 2013; Cardoso and Dias 2017; Kalinski and Kelly
1993; Liu and Li 2012; Lyu et al. 2019; Tang et al. 2018).
The electrical resistivity research based on the classi-
cal Archie’s formula (Archie 1942) has been reported
extensively in recent years (Cai et al. 2017; Rhoades and
Van Schilfgaarde 1976; Shan et al. 2015; Waxman and
Smits 1968). Under the influence of water content and
temperature, clay particle double-layer structure and ion
movement characteristics were analyzed and expanded by
Clavier et al. (1984). With the help of the electrical resis-
tivity method, the clay microstructure model was extended
(Fukue et al. 1999). Meanwhile, Lyu et al. (2019) tested
clay electrical resistivity under various salt and water con-
tents and obtained resistivity prediction model of saline
soil during the freeze–thaw process. Bai et  al. (2013)
tested the variation rule of clay conductivity with vari-
ous temperatures, water content, dry density, and inter-
nal structures of different soils, providing a reference for
subsequent research. Zhang et al. (2014) described the
effect of NaCl content on clay cementing process with the
help of resistivity and provided a theoretical reference for
subsequent evaluation of cement stability. An et al. (2020)
13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469
studied resistivity variation characteristics during the
generation, propagation, and aggregation of clay cracks
at multiple scales, providing technical support for apply-
ing the resistivity method for work in the field. Besides,
the irreversible changes of soil structure and pore water
caused by DC electric field in practical application and AC
electrical field can overcome these problems (Abu Has-
sanein Zeyad et al. 1996; Shah and Singh 2004). Thereby,
the influence of AC test frequency on electrical resistiv-
ity measurement results has attracted many researchers’
attention. McNeill (1990) and Abu Hassanein Zeyad et al.
(1996) described the effect of test frequency variation on
electrical resistivity. In addition, the relationship between
electrical resistivity (low frequency and high frequency)
and remolded samples (water content, salt content) in soils
is reviewed by some researchers (Cardoso and Dias 2017;
Datsios et al. 2017; Lyu et al. 2019; Nor et al. 2006; Zhang
et al. 2014). However, few papers have been published to
study the electrical resistivity characteristics of this spe-
cial saline loess in Northwest China by different testing
frequencies. This is also one of the objectives of this study.
This research focuses on the electrical resistivity
characteristics of loess in Northwest China under the
influence of water content (W), salt content ( C  ), and test
frequency (F). Simultaneously, based on the solid–liq-
uid–gas composition and electric double-layer structure
of clay, the conductive model of loess will be analyzed,
and the author expects to obtain the variation character-
istics of loess electrical resistivity under the influence
of water content and NaCl content, which will provide a
reference for later prediction for engineering properties of
loess by the electrical resistivity method, large-scale field
application of electrical resistivity observation technol-
ogy, utilization of land resources, and engineering con-
struction in loess area.
Materials and methods
Preparation of loess samples
Due to the rapid change of water content and salt content
(mainly NaCl), loess landslides and land subsidence are
widespread in Jingyang loess platform, in the southern part
of the Loess Plateau in China (Wang et al. 2020; Xu and Yan
2019; Zhao et al. 2016; Zuo et al. 2020). Hence, the loess
collected from this area was used in this experiment.
Basic physical properties of natural loess in this study
are density, 1.59 g/cm3; water content, 7.4%; liquid limit,
26.4%; and plastic limit, 16.1%. Particle size distribution
curve of natural loess is shown in Fig. 1, indicating the
Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469 Page 3 of 15  469

Fig. 1  Particle size distribution

of natural loess

loess sample is defined as silty clay. ­Na+ and ­Cl− are main
chemical components of loess in this study, and mineral
composition is mainly quartz, carbonate and some clay
minerals, and detailed information are shown in Tables 1
and 2. All properties are measured accordance with the
standard test methods provided by the American Society
for Testing Materials (ASTM 2009). First, loess sample
was dried in an oven at 110 ℃ for 12 h, pulverized by a
rubber hammer, and screened with a 2 mm screen (Bai
et al. 2013; Hen-Jones et al. 2014; Yan et al. 2021). Sec-
ond, added distilled water and NaCl to pretreated loess
according to the test design scheme (Table 3). During this
stage, stirring well with a small spoon for 10 min to achieve
a thorough mixture (Lyu et al. 2020, 2019). Then, loess
samples sealed with plastic bags were placed at 20 ℃ for
12 h (Shan et al. 2015). Water content and NaCl content
selected in this experiment refer to previous studies (Qi
et al. 2018; Yan et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2013). Finally, the
cylindrical sample with dimensions of 39.1 mm × 30.0 mm
(diameter × height) and a dry density of 1.7 g/cm3 was fab-
ricated (Wang et al. 2021a, b). In the process of sample
preparation, the mass of the mixture was fixed so that each
sample has the same volume and density, which can effec-
tively reduce the test error (Geng and Sun 2018; Lyu et al.
2019; Yan et al. 2021). Meanwhile, same compaction thick-
ness from the hydraulic jacks was used to ensure that each
specimen has same degree of compaction, then specimen
preparation mold was carefully removed (Lyu et al. 2020;
Munoz-Castelblanco et al. 2012). Prepared loess samples
were sealed with plastic wrap to prevent moisture dissipa-
tion and external interference and kept at 20℃ for further
testing (Chu et al. 2018; Zhou et al. 2015).

Table 1  Chemical composition Item Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Cl− SO42−

of the experimental loess
Content (g/kg) 42.20 0.58 2.39 12.82 40.26 14.60

Table 2  Mineral composition of Item Quartz Carbonate Illite Kaolinite Chlorite Smectite Others
the experimental loess
Content (%) 28 23 21 3 16 6 3

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 469   Page 4 of 15 Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469

Testing instruments and methods

An LCR digital bridge tester was used to measure loess

28
20
14

14
electrical resistivity (Zhou et al. 2015), and relevant test

6
2
parameters are shown in Table 4. Figure 2 shows that
two copper electrodes with 2 mm thick were attached
to the upper and lower ends of the cylindrical sample

27
20
13

14

4
0 and connected to experimental instrument. An insulated
block was placed on the top of the sample to ensure that
26 the electrodes would not loosen during the test, to reduce
20
12

12

2
6

test errors (Munoz-Castelblanco et al. 2012). According

Water content was defined as the ratio of distilled water mass to dry loess mass; NaCl content was defined as the ratio of NaCl mass to distilled water mass
to the results of previous studies about test frequency
(Liu et al. 2017; Revil 2013; Rinaldi and Cuestas 2002;
25
20
11

12

0 Sun et al. 2021), three test frequencies (100 Hz, 1 kHz,

4

and 10 kHz) of LCR digital bridge tester was selected

to carry out this research. At each frequency, each sam-
24
18
10

12

ple was measured four times and its average value was
6
2

obtained as its final resistance. The loess electrical resis-

tivity can be calculated by
23
18
12

4
0
9

𝜌 = R ⋅ S∕L (1)
where ρ is the loess electrical resistivity (Ω·m), R is the loess
resistance measured by testing (Ω), S is the cross-sectional
22
18
10

2
6
8

area of the sample (­ m2), and L is the height of the sample

(m).
21
18
10

0
4
7

Results and discussion
20
16
10

The results from the laboratorial electrical resistivity of

6
2
6

loess are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The research on electri-

Table 3  Water content and NaCl content of each sample in the test design scheme

cal conductivity mode of soil develops continuously with

researcher’s understanding of soil structure. From the
19
16
10

4
0
5

beginning of the conductance through the solid particle

contact points (path 1) and conductance through continu-
ous free pore water (path 3) (Rhoades et al. 1976), to the
conductance through alternating layers of solid particle,
double-layer structure around solid particle (Darrow MM
et al. 2020), and pore water (path 2) (Hasan et al. 2018;
18
16

Mojid et al. 2007; Tabbagh and Cosenza 2007). Com-

2
6
4

bined with the previous research results (Al Rashid et al.

2018; Han et al. 2015), the integrated three conductive
paths’ model of loess is shown in Fig. 5. A detailed elec-
17
16

0
4
3

trical conductivity model of loess based the three-phase

structure and double-layer structure is shown in Fig. 6.
To obtain effective empirical formulas, data normaliza-
16
14

6
2

tion method was used in this research. Therefore, the

electrical resistivity characteristics of loess are analyzed
and discussed as follows.
15
14

4
1

content

content
content

content

Sample
Sample

Water
Water

(%)

(%)
(%)

(%)

NaCl
NaCl

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Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469 Page 5 of 15  469

Table 4  Technical parameters Technical parameters of LCR digital bridge

of LCR digital bridge tester
Indices L-Q, C-D, R-Q, |Z|-Q
Basic accuracy 0.2%
Frequency range (Hz) 100–10,000
Equivalent circuit Serial and parallel connection
Output impedance (Ω) 30, 100
Trigger mode Inside
Test signal level (Vrms) 0.3, 1
Measuring range R (0.1 mΩ–99.99 MΩ); C (0.01 pF–99,999 μF);
L (0.01 μH–99,999 μH); Q (0.0001–9999); D
(0.0001–9.999)

Fig. 2  LCR digital electrical LCR digital bridge instrument

bridge tester
Pressure block

Sample

Copper electrode

Effect of water content
Figure 3 shows variation curves of loess electrical resistivity
under various water contents. As water content increased,
loess electrical resistivity gradually decreased. With the
plastic limit (W = 16.1%) as the threshold, as the water
content increased from 8 to 16%, the electrical resistivity
decreased rapidly. When water content increased from 16
to 20%, loess electrical resistivity decreased slowly. When
water content was 20%, the differences between the electri-
cal resistivities of loess under the various conditions were
small. This characteristic also appeared in Munoz-Castel-
blanco et al. (2012)’s research. Obviously, a critical water
content exists near the plastic limit.
To illustrate the relation between ρ and W, normalized
electrical resistivity, which is defined as the ratio of the
electrical resistivity to the electrical resistivity of loess with
8% water content, is shown in Fig. 7 (Lu et al. 2014). As a
function of water content, there is an exponential function
for the relation between loess electrical resistivity and water
content that can be described by
Water has better electrical conductivity than most solids
and air (Fukue et al. 1999; McNeill 1990). As water content
increases, loess electrical resistivity is gradually reduced. As
shown in Fig. 6a, when water content is low, the pore water
in loess is not continuous and divided by air. Simultaneously,
loess conductive path is mainly path 1 with high resistivity.
As water content gradually increases, some of the cementi-
tious substances contained in the loess gradually disperse
and dissolve, which promotes the formation of path 2. When
water content increases to near the plastic limit, cementi-
tious material between the loess particles further dissolves,
pore water quickly penetrates to form path 3. The formation
of path 3 enhances the conductivity of loess. When water
content is greater than 16%, water further disintegrates the
larger loess particles. The pores in loess are filled with pore
water, and loess is nearly saturated, resulting in the forma-
tion of many paths 3. The decreasing rate of loess electrical
resistivity decreases, the electrical resistivity curve stabilizes
(Fig. 7).
Effect of NaCl content

𝜌 = exp a1 + b1 × W + c1 × W 2 , (2)
( )
Variation curves of loess electrical resistivity under vari-
ous NaCl content are shown in Fig. 4. Loess electrical
where a1 , b1 , and c1 are the fitting parameters. These param-
resistivity decreased continually with the increase of NaCl
eters are shown in Table 5.
content, and the change curves could be divided into two

13
 469   Page 6 of 15 Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469

80

Critical water content

Critical water content

100Hz 100Hz
320 1kHz 1kHz
10kHz 10kHz

Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

60
240

40
160

20
80

0 0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Water content (%) Water content (%)
(a) (c)
60

Critical water content

100Hz 100Hz
Critical water content

75 1kHz 1kHz
10kHz 10kHz

Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

45
60

45 30

30
15
15

0 0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Water content (%) Water content (%)

(b) (d)

Fig. 3  Electrical resistivities of loess for various water contents: a C = 0%; b C = 2%; c C = 4%; d C = 6%

stages (Lyu et al. 2019). In the first stage (NaCl content
from 0 to 2%), loess electrical resistivity decreased rapidly
with increasing NaCl content. In the second stage (NaCl
content from 2 to 6%), as the NaCl content increased, loess
electrical resistivity decreased slowly and reached a minor
value.
Figure 8 shows the relation between normalized electrical
resistivity and NaCl content.
Normalized electrical resistivity is defined as the ratio of
electrical resistivity to the electrical resistivity of loess with
0% NaCl content. The following equation is used to describe
the relation between ρ and C:
𝜌 = a2 + b2 × cC2 , (3)
where a2 , b2 , and c2 are the fitting parameters. These param-
eters are shown in Table 6.
Soil conductivity depends on the conductive ions (Fukue
et al. 1999). Most ions exist in the double-layer structure of
loess particles (Fig. 6b) and free water in loess pores (Cla-
vier et al. 1984). When N ­ a+ and C ­ l− enter the loess, the num-
ber of free-moving ions increases in the diffusion layer and
the gap between the loess particles. Under the action of test
frequency, these ions could conduct directional movement
to form a current path, which enhanced the conductivity of

13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469 Page 7 of 15  469

320
100Hz

Critical NaCl content

Critical NaCl content
100Hz
300
1kHz
1kHz 10kHz
Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

10kHz

Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

240

200

160

100
80

0
0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
NaCl content (%) NaCl content (%)
(a) (c)

100Hz
Critical NaCl content

Critical NaCl content

300 100Hz
1kHz 240 1kHz
10kHz
Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

10kHz

180
200

120

100
60

0 0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
NaCl content (%) NaCl content (%)
(b) (d)

Fig. 4  Electrical resistivities of loess for various NaCl contents: a W = 8%; b W = 10%; c W = 12%; d W = 14%; e W = 16%; f W = 18%; g
W = 20%

loess. Figure 4 shows that when NaCl content was low, the
ions available to form conductive paths were limited and
the loess electrical resistivity was large. When NaCl con-
tent around 2%, the increase of ion content in the conduc-
tive paths enhanced loess conductivity. As the NaCl content
increased continuously, the electrical resistivity was gradu-
ally reduced.
Effect of test frequency
The variation characteristics of loess electrical resis-
tivity under the influence of test frequency can also be
obtained from Figs. 3 and 4. Loess electrical resistivity
gradually decreased with increasing of test frequency.
Simultaneously, the variation of loess electrical resis-
tivity (included water content and NaCl content) under
the effects of test frequencies is more significant. Some
results were obtained that the electrical resistivity of
loess is more easily affected by NaCl content than the
test frequency. Meanwhile, it can be seen from Fig. 4
that when NaCl content is 2–6%, the influence of test
frequency on loess electrical resistivity was very weak,
and the electrical resistivity curve was approximately
horizontal. This phenomenon reveals that when the

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 469   Page 8 of 15 Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469

Critical NaCl content

Critical NaCl content
100 100Hz 100Hz
1kHz 20 1kHz
10kHz 10kHz
Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

75
15

50 10

25 5

0 0
0 2 4 6
NaCl content (%) 0 2 4 6
NaCl content (%)
(e)
(g)
Critical NaCl content

90 100Hz
1kHz
10kHz
Electrical resistivity (Ω·m)

75

60

45

30

15

0
0 2 4 6
NaCl content (%)
(f)

Fig. 4  (continued)

conductivity of loess near maximum, the electrical resis-
tivity is not affected by the change of test frequency.
Normalized electrical resistivity (ratio of the electrical
resistivity to the electrical resistivity of loess with a test
frequency of 100 Hz, see Fig. 9) and test frequency can be
represented by the nonlinear function relation:
𝜌 = a3 × F b3 ,
where a3 and b3 are the fitting parameters. These parameters
are shown in Table 7.
Electric double-layer structure will reduce loess elec-
trical resistivity (Waxman and Smits 1968). The electric
double-layer structure on the surface of loess particles
is divided into stable layer and diffusion layer (Fig. 6b).
The orientation of molecules and ionization polarization
in the diffusion layer accompanying the test frequency
leads to a decrease in electrical resistivity (Liu et  al.
2017). Under the influence of test frequency, ions in the
electric double-layer structure would have been released,
thereby reducing the electrical resistivity (Zhang et al.
2014). As the test frequency increases, the number of
(4) ions that can form conductive paths in loess increase, and
loess electrical resistivity decreased. Increasing water
content and NaCl content leads to the continuous forma-
tion of conductive paths in loess. Under the influence
of higher test frequencies, the curve of loess electrical
resistivity gradually became more stable.

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Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469 Page 9 of 15  469

Fig. 5  Three channel conduc-

tive path of loess

Fig. 6  Conductive model of loess based on three-phase structure: a a model of three paths in the loess; b double-layer structure around loess par-
ticle. Red, green and blue correspond to the three conductive paths in Fig. 5, respectively

13
 469   Page 10 of 15 Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469

Fig. 7  Relation between nor- 1.2

malized loess electrical resistiv- Fitting curve C=2% ;F=100Hz
ity and water content Fitting curve C=6%;F=10kHz

Normalized electrical resistivity ρ/ρW=8%

C=2%;F=100Hz
C=2%;F=1kHz
C=2%;F=10kHz
0.9 C=4%;F=100Hz
C=4%;F=1kHz
C=4%;F=10kHz
C=6%;F=100Hz
C=6%;F=1kHz
C=6%;F=10kHz
0.6

ρ =exp(2.143-0.307*W+0.004*W2)
R2=0.972
0.3

ρ =exp(3.711-0.563*W+0.012*W2)
R2=0.990

0.0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Water content (%)

Table 5  Summary of fitting parameters a1 , b1 , and c1 Conclusions

a1 b1 c1 R2
Loess from the south bank of the Jing river in Shaanxi
C = 0%, F = 100 Hz − 2.373 0.483 − 0.024 0.945 province in Northwest China was used in this research.
C = 0%, F = 1 kHz − 1.105 0.256 − 0.015 0.965 Loess electrical resistivity with different water content and
C = 0%, F = 10 kHz 0.063 0.057 − 0.008 0.992 NaCl content was obtained at test frequencies of 100 Hz,
C = 2%, F = 100 Hz 2.143 − 0.307 0.004 0.973 1 kHz, and 10 kHz. Meanwhile, the solid–liquid–gas com-
C = 2%, F = 1 kHz 2.245 − 0.322 0.005 0.980 position, electrical double-layer structure of loess particle,
C = 2%, F = 10 kHz 2.498 − 0.363 0.006 0.982 and three conductive paths of loess were used to explore
C = 4%, F = 100 Hz 2.776 − 0.393 0.006 0.998 the characteristics of loess electrical resistivity. The empir-
C = 4%, F = 1 kHz 2.451 − 0.353 0.004 0.998 ical formula of loess electrical resistivity variation charac-
C = 4%, F = 10 kHz 2.790 − 0.395 0.006 0.999 teristic under the influence of water content, NaCl content
C = 6%, F = 100 Hz 3.214 − 0.476 0.009 0.993 and test frequency was provided for future research about
C = 6%, F = 1 kHz 3.317 − 0.496 0.010 0.991 the electrical resistivity of geo-materials. Following con-
C = 6%, F = 10 kHz 3.711 − 0.564 0.012 0.991 clusions were obtained:

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Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469 Page 11 of 15  469

Fig. 8  Relation between nor- Fitting curve W=12%;F=100Hz

malized loess electrical resistiv- Fitting curve W=20%;F=100Hz
1.0

Normalized electrical resistivity ρ/ρC=0%

ity and NaCl content W=8%;F=100Hz
W=10%;F=100Hz
W=12%;F=100Hz
W=14%;F=100Hz
0.8 W=16%;F=100Hz
W=18%;F=100Hz
W=20%;F=100Hz

0.6

0.4
ρ=0.131-0.869*0.371C
R2=0.998

0.2
ρ=0.062+0.938*0.215C
R2=0.999

0.0
0 2 4 6
NaCl content (%)

Table 6  Summary of fitting parameters a2 , b2 , and c2 1. The experimental results show that the plastic limit (16%
water content) and the around 2% NaCl content are the
a2 b2 c2 R2 critical values of loess electrical resistivity changes
W = 8%, F = 100 Hz 0.211 0.789 0.179 0.996 under the influence of water content and NaCl content,
W = 8%, F = 1 kHz 0.237 0.762 0.351 0.996 respectively. After exceeding the critical values, loess
W = 8%, F = 10 kHz 0.247 0.752 0.385 0.996 electrical resistivity gradually decreases and tends to a
W = 10%, F = 100 Hz 0.125 0.875 0.124 0.997 minor value.
W = 10%, F = 1 kHz 0.160 0.839 0.266 0.995 2. The increase of water content leads to the increase of
W = 10%, F = 10 kHz 0.167 0.832 0.303 0.994 the number of conductive paths, which decreases loess
W = 12%, F = 100 Hz 0.062 0.938 0.215 0.999 electrical resistivity; more free-moving ions from the
W = 12%, F = 1 kHz 0.090 0.910 0.308 0.999 increased NaCl content will enhance the conductivity of
W = 12%, F = 10 kHz 0.112 0.888 0.372 0.999 paths; the increasing test frequency leads to the change
W = 14%, F = 100 Hz 0.062 0.938 0.198 0.999 of double-layer structure which has a positive effect on
W = 14%, F = 1 kHz 0.087 0.913 0.269 0.999 the loess conductivity.
W = 14%, F = 10 kHz 0.108 0.892 0.320 0.999 3. The fitting parameters obtained by normalized electri-
W = 16%, F = 100 Hz 0.096 0.904 0.227 0.999 cal resistivity data show that three empirical formulas
W = 16%, F = 1 kHz 0.111 0.889 0.292 0.999 obtained in this research can better describe the varia-
W = 16%, F = 10 kHz 0.118 0.882 0.319 0.999 tion characteristics of loess electrical resistivity under
W = 18%, F = 100 Hz 0.061 0.939 0.287 0.999 the influence of water content, NaCl content, and test
W = 18%, F = 1 kHz 0.078 0.922 0.365 0.999 frequency. These results can provide valuable references
W = 18%, F = 10 kHz 0.087 0.913 0.398 0.999 for the electrical resistivity investigations of other soil
W = 20%, F = 100 Hz 0.131 0.869 0.371 0.998 types.
W = 20%, F = 1 kHz 0.119 0.881 0.401 0.998
W = 20%, F = 10 kHz 0.119 0.880 0.405 0.998 This paper indicates that more extensive research con-
tents are waiting for researchers to explore, such as the

13
 469   Page 12 of 15 Environmental Earth Sciences (2021) 80:469

Fig. 9  Relation between nor- 1.2

malized loess electrical resistiv- Fitting curve C=0%;W=18%
ity and test frequency Fitting curve C=2%;W=20%

Normalized electrical resistivity ρ/ρF=100Hz

C=0%;W=8%
C=0%;W=10%
C=0%;W=18%
C=2%;W=14%
C=2%;W=20%
0.9 C=4%;W=8%
C=4%;W=20%
C=6%;W=8%

ρ=1.843*F-0.137
R2=0.963
0.6

0.3 ρ=4.300*F-0.319
R2=0.983

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Test frequency (Hz)
Table 7  Summary of fitting parameters a3 and b3 relationship between the engineering mechanical proper-
a3 b3 R 2 ties and electrical resistivity of loess, and the relationship
between hydraulic characteristics of loess such as water sen-
C = 0%, W = 8% 3.029 − 0.245 0.959
sitivity and electrical resistivity. These are closely related
C = 0%, W = 10% 3.765 − 0.292 0.967
to the engineering construction in loess areas, such as the
C = 0%, W = 12% 5.197 − 0.36 0.988
C = 0%, W = 14% 4.725 − 0.339 0.990
field large-scale application of electrical resistivity observa-
C = 0%, W = 16% 3.264 − 0.26 0.982
tion technology, the movement of “Moving mountains” in
C = 0%, W = 18% 4.300 − 0.319 0.983 Yan’an new district and the utilization of land resources in
C = 0%, W = 20% 1.958 − 0.15 0.962 Guanzhong area in Northwest China.
C = 2%, W = 8% 1.802 − 0.132 0.962
C = 2%, W = 10% 1.848 − 0.137 0.976 Acknowledgements  This study would not have been possible without
C = 2%, W = 12% 1.982 − 0.152 0.974 financial supports from the Natural Science Foundation of China under
C = 2%, W = 14% 2.077 − 0.162 0.982
Grant Nos. 41790442, 41702298 and 41972288, and from China Post-
doctoral Science Foundation No. 2020M683676XB.
C = 2%, W = 16% 2.074 − 0.161 0.985
C = 2%, W = 18% 2.253 − 0.179 0.984
C = 2%, W = 20% 1.843 − 0.137 0.963 Declarations 
C = 4%, W = 8% 2.360 − 0.191 0.952
C = 4%, W = 10% 2.359 − 0.190 0.969 Conflict of interest  We have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work
C = 4%, W = 12% 2.225 − 0.177 0.970
reported in this paper.
C = 4%, W = 14% 2.367 − 0.19 0.979
C = 4%, W = 16% 2.438 − 0.196 0.984
C = 4%, W = 18% 2.395 − 0.192 0.984
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