Fathi Habashi

METALLURGY
1. Introduction

Metals and metalloids (Fig. 1) are obtained from the Earth’s crust, and metallurgy
is the art and science of obtaining these materials from ores and their fabrication
into useful products. It can be divided into two principal fields: mineral processing
and metal processing.

2. Mineral Processing

This field involves the treatment of ores to get metals (Fig. 2). It involves two
distinct operations: the first is physical called mineral beneficiation or mineral
dressing, and the second is chemical called extractive metallurgy. Both operations
are overlapping since, in some cases, a physical method of separating the compo-
nents of the material processed is inserted in the scheme of metal extraction. In
few cases, the mineral raw material is directly subjected to chemical treatment
without being beneficiated.
2.1. Mineral Beneficiation. Mineral beneficiation is concerned with the
enrichment of ores and separation of unwanted gangue minerals so that the sub-
sequent treatment to get the metals by the extractive metallurgist is more
efficient. The beneficiation engineer uses only mechanical, physical, and physic-
ochemical methods for conducting his operations, which are all done at normal
temperature and pressure. These operations can be divided into two distinct
steps:
Liberation. In this operation, the rock is broken down by mechanical means
so that the individual mineral components become independent of each other, that
is, each is detached or liberated.
Separation. In this operation, the valuable minerals are separated from
the rest by means of physical and physicochemical methods, making use of differ-
ences in specific gravity, magnetic properties, and so on.
There is a group of some 300 minerals that are used as such or as a raw
material for the chemical or other industries, that is, they are not used for the
production of metals. These are known as “industrial minerals.” They may or
may not be beneficiated. For example, clays, sands, and limestone are used in the
construction industry. Sulfur, phosphate rock, and fluorite are used in the chem-
ical industry. Diamonds and other precious and semiprecious stones are used in
jewelry.
2.2. Extractive Metallurgy. While the beneficiation engineer uses only
mechanical, physical, and physicochemical methods, the extractive metallurgist
uses chemical methods. Another important difference is that while all benefi-
ciation operations are conducted at normal temperature and pressure, extrac-
tive metallurgical processes are seldom conducted at ambient conditions—usually

Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Copyright © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
DOI: 10.1002/0471238961.1921182208091910.a01.pub2
2 METALLURGY

Monatomic

Metalloids
Metals Nonmetals
1 2
Typical metals Covalent H He
3 4 Transition metals 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 Less typical 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Horizontal similarity Si P S Cl Ar
metals
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba *La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89
Fr Ra **Ac Vertical similarity Vertical and horizontal
similarity

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
*Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
**Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lw
Inner transition metals
Fig. 1. Metals and metalloids.

Mineral Extractive
Ore beneficiation metallurgy Metal
(physical) (chemical)

Industrial minerals
Fig. 2. Mineral processing: metals from ores.

at high temperature, and sometimes also at high pressure. An extractive metal-

lurgist must have a good knowledge of:

• Chemistry. Physical, electro, organic, and analytical

• Mineralogy. Crystallography and the properties of minerals
• Engineering. Mathematics, physics, economics, and computer applications.

The border area between chemistry and mineralogy is mineral chemistry,

that is, inorganic chemistry (known in French as chimie minérale), and that
between chemistry and engineering is chemical engineering. Extractive metal-
lurgy is thus related to all of these disciplines. It is also closely related to chemical
industry, for example, fertilizers and industrial gases. Extractive metallurgy,
therefore, is concerned with the chemical methods for treating ores to recover
their metal values in a pure form. It is one of the oldest branches of chemistry.
 METALLURGY 3

In its modern form it is broadly divided into three areas: pyro-, hydro-, and
electrometallurgy.
Pyrometallurgy. This is the oldest sector of extractive metallurgy
and involves dry methods usually conducted at high temperature, such as oxi-
dation, reduction, chlorination, melting, and slagging, and often involving
the melting of the minerals and the separation of the valuable components in the
liquid state. Typical ores treated by this technology are those of iron, copper,
and lead.
Hydrometallurgy. This is a relatively new sector of extractive metallurgy
and involves the wet methods, usually conducted at room temperature or near
the boiling point of water. It includes the leaching of ores or the precipitation of a
metal or its compounds from aqueous solutions, as well as methods of isolation
and purification such as ion exchange and solvent extraction. Typical ores treated
by this technology are those of gold, uranium, and aluminum.
Electrometallurgy. This is the newest domain of extractive metallurgy
and involves all processes based on the use of electric current for metal recovery
or refining either in aqueous solution or in a fused salt. Typical metals produced
by this technology are aluminum, copper, and zinc.
These areas, however, cannot be considered isolated one from the other,
because a combination of these processes is generally used in the production
of a single metal. Thus, bauxite, the most important aluminum ore, is always
treated by a hydrometallurgical method, but the final metal production step is
achieved by electrometallurgical technique. On the other hand, uranium ores
are also treated by hydrometallurgical technique, while the metal production
is achieved by pyrometallurgical methods. Also, there are different routes for
extracting the same metal. Thus, nearly 80% of the zinc produced annually is
by the hydrometallurgy–electrometallurgy route, while the remaining 20% is
produced by pyrometallurgical technique. In the case of magnesium, the amounts
are nearly equal.
This classification of pyro-, hydro-, and electrometallurgy is, nevertheless,
convenient because each field has its own types of equipment, techniques, and
theoretical basis. Thus, the hydrometallurgist is concerned, for example, with the
design of leaching tanks, pressure reactors, decantation and filtration systems,
and pumps for transportation of aqueous solutions. He/she would also be con-
cerned with reaction kinetics and the chemistry of ions in aqueous solutions. The
pyrometallurgist, on the other hand, is mainly concerned with fuels, furnaces,
refractories, and molten materials such as matte, slag, or metals. He would also
be interested in thermodynamics, and reactions between solids and gases at high
temperature, handling of hot gases laden with dust, and so on. The electrometal-
lurgist must have a strong knowledge of electrochemistry and electrode reactions.
He/she would be concerned with the design of electrolytic cells, electrodes, purifi-
cation of solutions and recycling, fused salts, and so on.
All extractive metallurgists, whether in the hydro-, pyro-, or electrometal-
lurgy area, are interested in the design of new processes as well as the analysis
and improvement of those already existing to increase yields and to lower pro-
duction costs. Sometimes, the term process metallurgy is introduced to cover the
mathematical modeling of the different areas of metal extraction, for example,
flow of fluids (gases, aqueous solutions, suspensions, molten materials, etc) and
4 METALLURGY

Ore

Liberation

Mineral beneficiation Separation Undesired minerals

(physical) (gangue)

Extractive Valuable minerals

metallurgy

Hydrometallurgy Pyrometallurgy

Electrometallurgy
Metal Metal

Metal
Fig. 3. An approximate scheme for the extraction of metals from ores.

heat transfer. It is basically the application of chemical engineering principles to

metallurgical processes.
Extractive metallurgy is based on three elements:

• Chemical reactions of the processes taking place

• Equipment where reactions take place
• Flow sheet, that is, movement of material from one reactor to the other.

An approximate scheme for the extraction of metals from ores is shown in

Fig. 3.

3. Metal Processing

Once a metal is obtained by the extractive metallurgist, it is taken over by other

metallurgists for processing into finished products for the different industries.
This field involves the fabrication of marketable products from metals. Metallur-
gists working in this field have a strong background in physics and the mechanical
properties of matter. The major divisions in this field are physical metallurgy,
engineering metallurgy, mechanical metallurgy, and powder metallurgy (Fig. 4).
3.1. Physical Metallurgy. This field includes vast areas of studies. For
example:

• Metals. Their physical and mechanical properties

• Heat treatment. Heating metals to a certain temperature followed by rapid
cooling (quenching) to improve the mechanical properties
 METALLURGY 5

Powder
metallurgy

Physical
Metal Mechanical Metallic products
metallurgy
metallurgy to market

Engineering
metallurgy

Fig. 4. Metal processing.

• Alloys. Their production, their physical, and their mechanical properties

• Crystallography. Studying the crystal structure of metals and alloys using
X-rays
• Metallography. Studying the crystal structure of metals and alloys using
the optical microscope
• Corrosion. Studying the influence of the environment on metals and alloys
• Wear. The abrasion resistance of metals
• Fracture. The grain size and defects in metals on breaking.

3.2. Engineering Metallurgy. This branch of metallurgy involves

the processing and handling of metals in the molten state such as casting
and welding.
Casting. Metals refined in the molten state are usually cast into ingots,
that is, poured into suitable molds and allowed to solidify. To achieve this,
the metal must be sufficiently superheated above its melting point so that it
will not solidify before it is poured into the mold. If this operation is not carried
out properly, ingots with undesirable defects will result. The following types
of defects may take place.

• Cavities. When metal is poured into a mold, the outer skin freezes rapidly
as it comes in contact with the cold mold wall, forming a shell of solidi-
fied metal with a molten interior. If the top also freezes, the remaining
molten metal will be confined in a closed rigid box. On cooling and solid-
ification, all metals (except bismuth) contract, that is, the solid will occupy
less volume than the molten metal. This leaves a void in the finished ingot.
This void is usually filled with gases which had been dissolved in the molten
metal and released on cooling. The upper portion of the ingot must be cut
away and scrapped.
• Dendrite crystals. Metal crystals in the form of dendrites tend to grow at
right angles to the walls of the mold and form planes of weakness at their
6 METALLURGY

junction. Such a product is objectionable because it tends to tear apart when

rolled.
• Segregation. On slow cooling, the first crystals of metal that separate usu-
ally contain any remaining impurities in the melt. If these impurities are
lighter than the metals, they tend to float to the surface, and in doing so
they are segregated as individual micro phases.

To avoid the defects outlined above, the metal is usually allowed to freeze
as it is poured so that there would be no more than a small pool of liquid metal
present. Such a procedure would almost completely eliminate cavity formation.
Also, freezing the metal rapidly to form small crystals prevents the growth of
large dendrites. Some metals, for example, steel, pig iron, copper, lead, zinc, nickel,
gold, silver, tin, and antimony, can be freely exposed to air when molten. Others,
for example, magnesium and uranium, will oxidize rapidly with ignition if the
molten metal is exposed to air. These metals must be cast under a protective layer
of molten flux or in an inert atmosphere. High melting point metals, for example,
tungsten, are very difficult to melt and cast; they are usually compacted by powder
metallurgical methods.
One important modern development of casting has been the invention of the
continuous casting machine (Figs. 5 and 6). In this technique, the molten metal

Molten steel

Water-cooled
mold

Water sprays

Starting bar

Supporting rolls

Straightening rolls
Slab sizing
Cutter

Fig. 5. Continuous casting system.

 METALLURGY 7

Fig. 6. A roll of red-hot steel produced by continuous casting.

is continuously fed from a reservoir and is allowed to solidify rapidly in a mold

so that at any time there is only a small pool of molten metal present at the top
of the ingot. As the solidified ingot emerges, it is grasped by a set of rolls that
regulate its downward progress. The contraction of the freezing metal causes it to
pull away from the mold walls. Beneath the pinch rolls is an oxyacetylene flame,
which cuts the emerging ingot into convenient lengths. The process is well adapted
to large-scale production. It produces much less scrap than in batch casting, there
are no cavities because the metal is frozen as soon as it is cast, and is a small grain
size solidified product because of rapid cooling. It is also more economical because
the molten metal is directly shaped, whereas in ingot casting, the solidified ingot
must be reheated before shaping.
Die casting is a casting method in which molten metal is forced by a pump
under considerable pressure into the cavity of a metal mold. This is usually
applied for low-melting metals such as zinc, aluminum, and magnesium. It is
a very fast and much more economical method for casting a large number of
articles in a short time.
Welding. Welding is the connection of two pieces of metal by fusion. The
process of electric welding consists of transmitting electrical energy from one point
to another, which is converted into heat. This heat is used for the fusion together
of metallic materials. A metal electrode is melted in this way, and the two metallic
parts are connected together. To protect the molten metal from oxidation, easily
fusible inert mineral material called flux is usually added to the electrode so that
when the electrode is hot, the flux immediately melts and floats on the surface of
the molten metal. Welding electrodes can be coated on the outside with the fluxes
for batch operation, or filled inside long hollow electrodes for continuous welding.
Sometimes the flux is not enough to protect the molten metal from oxidation, and
a nitrogen atmosphere is necessary for conducting the welding. For some metals
nitrogen is not a suitable protective atmosphere since nitrides may be formed, for
8 METALLURGY

example, welding of titanium. In such cases, argon should be used. The welded
joint is usually the weakest part in a structure, and therefore great care is devoted
to welding technology.
3.3. Mechanical Metallurgy. This branch of metallurgy involves the pro-
cessing of metals in the solid state. Metals are usually cast in the form of ingots.
They cool quickly on the surface and slowly through the center. For this reason,
they must be placed in furnaces called soaking pits where they are heated and
brought to uniform temperature throughout. Hot metal is fairly soft and can be
squeezed into various shapes under strong pressure. The operations commonly
used are forging, rolling, extrusion, piercing, and drawing.
Forging. In this method, the metal is hammered or pressed into required
shapes. The pressure may be applied by means of a hydraulic press (30,000 tons)
or drop hammer having moving parts as heavy as 30 tons (Fig. 7).
Rolling. The hot ingots are passed between powerful steel rolls where they
are rolled on separate mills into slabs, blooms, and billets (Figs. 8 and 9). These
three semifinished shapes then go to finishing mills. There, they are rolled as
follows:

• Slabs. These flat metal shapes are called plates when reduced to about
6 mm. Thinner forms are strips or sheets, and when rolled much thinner
they are called foils. These are used mainly for fabricating equipment for
transportation or for home needs. Sheets and plates are also used to make
welded pipe and tubing.
• Blooms. These are square-shaped bars of varying sizes that can be shaped
into beams and other forms for structural purposes.
• Billets. These are produced from blooms to make bars and rods in round,
square, or other shapes in varying sizes from which tools, bolts, rivets,
cables, wires, and so on are made.

Fig. 7. Processing metals in the solid stage: a 1500-ton forging press.

 METALLURGY 9

Slab Bloom Billet

Fig. 8. Rolling mills (principle).

Fig. 9. Rolling plant.

In the earlier stages, rolling is often done while hot, and in the later stages
when cold. Cold rolling hardens the metal and after some reduction it becomes
too hard to economically roll any thinner. At this stage it is annealed (heated) to
soften it for further rolling, and these alternate operations are continued until the
specified gauge is reached.
Extrusion and Piercing. Extrusion and piercing are the principal methods
of fabricating structural shapes, tubes, and so on from solid billets. In extrusion
(Fig. 10), a heated billet is placed in a powerful hydraulic press, and a steel man-
drel is pushed through it, and the remaining metal is then forced through a die
and around the mandrel. In piercing (Figs. 11 and 12), the heated billet is rotated
and fed forward over a pointed plug. The tube shells are then drawn down to the
required size through a succession of dies.
Drawing. In the process of drawing, the cross section of a metallic rod is
reduced by drawing through a die and depends for its success on the property
of ductility, which permits the metal to undergo considerable elongation. It is
mainly used for wire manufacture, the raw material being rod about 6 mm diam-
eter, which is being rolled down from billets or extruded. It is then drawn succes-
sively through smaller holes in steel plates (dies), each hole through which the
wire is drawn reducing its diameter. The dies are subjected to much wear and,
accordingly, the orifices are usually composed of tough material such as tungsten
carbide. For the production of very fine wire, industrial diamonds are employed.
10 METALLURGY

A B

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 10. Extrusion: (a) Heated billet A placed in hydraulic press; (b) Outer ram B presses
on the billet and holds it firmly in place; (c) The inner ram C pierces the billet and projects
through the die, at the same time ejecting part of the metal displaced; (d) The pressure
of the outer ram on the billet is increased, forcing the metal through the annular opening
between the inner ram and the die.

Fig. 11. Piercing: Heated billets are passed between two convex-tapered work rolls whose
axes are not quite parallel. This imparts a helical rotary motion to the billet as it is pierced
by a pointed mandrel.

In order to reduce friction, a lubricant is used. Drawing tends to make wire hard
and somewhat brittle; this effect is relieved by annealing.
3.4. Powder Metallurgy. The powder metallurgist is specialized in pro-
duction and handling metal powders and making solid industrial products out
of them (Fig. 13). Powdered metals are produced by a number of processes:
electrolysis, hydrogen reduction from solutions, reduction of oxides, atomization,
milling, and grinding. They are available in various forms: spherical, dendritic,
 METALLURGY 11

Fig. 12. Production of a pipe by piercing a red hot billet.

Fig. 13. Powder metallurgy: fabrication of metallic articles from metal powder.

spongy, irregular, and as flakes. There are also a number of alloy powders that
have gained technical importance.
In powder metallurgy, powders are compacted into special shapes, which
are then heated and sintered. An increasing number of small parts, for instance,
gears, bearings, bushings, nuts, padlocks, and ordnance parts, are made this
way. In most cases, this way is more economical than by machining the parts
from wrought or cast metal. Porous, oil impregnated bearings and porous
filters, the pore size being controlled by the size of spherical powder particles,
are made by powder metallurgical technique. In recent years, processes have
successfully been perfected to roll metal powder into sheet and strip and to
extrude tubing direct from powder. Metal powders, for example, copper and gold
bronze powders, are being used as pigments in the surface coating industry and
in graphic arts.
12 METALLURGY

4. Metallurgy and the Chemical Industry

Extractive metallurgy is closely related to the chemical industry:

• During exploration for petroleum, it is common that mineral deposits

are discovered. As a result, an extensive portion of extractive metallur-
gical research is conducted within the research activities of petroleum
industry, and many petroleum companies now operate metallurgical
plants.
• Products of the chemical industry may be raw materials for the metallur-
gical industry, and vice versa.

Quite often, inventions made in the chemical plants were adopted later
in the metallurgical industry. For example, when the Austrian chemist Karl
Josef Bayer (1847–1904) invented the process known by his name to produce
aluminum hydroxide from bauxite about a 100 years ago, the work was done in
a Russian chemical plant engaged in supplying chemicals for the textile indus-
try. Now, the process is a major step in the production of metallic aluminum.
Further, the nickel carbonyl process used today on a large scale for refining
nickel was discovered in an alkali manufacture plant in England. Thanks to
the keen observation of Ludwig Mond (1839–1909), who noticed that a valve
made of nickel in a carbon monoxide pipe was corroding. When the matter was
investigated in detail, it was found that a gaseous nickel compound, Ni(CO)4 ,
was formed at low temperature and decomposed at high temperature, hence
the process of refining nickel—a process that is used today on an industrial
scale.
4.1. Sulfuric Acid Industry. For many years, sulfuric acid was produced
by the thermal oxidation of pyrite. The iron oxide residue known as pyrite
cinder formed after oxidation was usually shipped to metallurgical plants for
isolating traces of metal values such as copper, cobalt, and zinc before using
the iron oxide to make iron. Recently, however, the process became economically
unfavorable as compared to the process using elemental sulfur for making
H2 SO4 .
4.2. Iron and Steel Industry. Coke is an essential material for the
manufacture of iron in the blast furnace where it is used both as a fuel and a
reducing agent. It is manufactured by heating coal in a special furnace in the
absence of air. Coke-manufacturing plants are usually located in iron works;
gases and volatile liquids produced from this operation are collected because
they are a valuable raw material for the chemical industry. The gases contain
appreciable amounts of hydrogen, which can also be used for making ammo-
nia, while the volatile liquids are a source of benzene, toluene, naphthalene,
anthracene, and numerous other organic compounds. In Linz, Austria, for
example, the steel works VÖEST is on the opposite side of the Danube where
the chemical complex Linz Chemie is situated, which uses coke oven gas for NH3
synthesis.
4.3. Petrochemical Industry. A plastics manufacturer may also be a
producer of metallic magnesium: the plastics industry uses chlorine for trans-
forming hydrocarbons into chlorinated hydrocarbons producing at the same time
 METALLURGY 13

waste hydrochloric acid. This in turn is used in the production of magnesium

by the fused salt electrolysis of MgCl2 . The circuit is closed because during
this electrolytic step, chlorine is generated and is returned to the plastics
plant.
4.4. Nonferrous Plants. Producers of copper, lead, and zinc usually oper-
ate sulfuric acid plants because sulfur dioxide is produced during the processing
of ores of these metals. They usually ship it to a nearby phosphatic fertilizer man-
ufacturer. Some nickel and cobalt producers have their own ammonia synthesis
plants since ammonia is used to extract these metals from their ores. At the same
time they produce ammonium sulfate fertilizer as a by-product, for example, at
Sherritt-Gordon plant in Fort Saskatchewan. Aluminum producers usually oper-
ate their own sodium hydroxide plants to produce the sodium hydroxide neces-
sary for treating the bauxite and their own hydrofluoric acid plants to produce
HF necessary for the production of aluminum fluoride needed for the electrolytic
cells.
4.5. Other Industries. Steelmakers and some nonferrous industries have
their own air liquefaction plants to make oxygen for use in their processes, and
some produce nitrogen for the ammonia synthesis industry. Some metallurgical
plants electrolyze water to use the oxygen produced for the oxidation of sulfide
concentrates and the hydrogen for the ammonia synthesis. Some hydrometallurgi-
cal plants treating sulfide concentrates produce elemental sulfur for the chemical
industry, for example, the pressure leaching of zinc sulfide concentrates by Com-
inco in Trail, British Columbia.
Many pigments are produced by the metal industry. Lead oxide (red lead)
and zinc oxide are produced in lead–zinc refineries. Iron oxide pigment, Fe2 O3 ,
is produced in steel industry in the pickle solution regeneration plant. Ilmenite
reduction in electric furnaces, for example, at Sorel in Quebec, produces a titanium
slag, the raw material for producing TiO2 white pigment.
The metal industry usually produces metallic salts needed by other indus-
tries. For example:

• Aluminum sulfate. Produced by aluminum companies by dissolving

Al(OH)3 , an intermediate product of aluminum production, in H2 SO4
followed by crystallization. It is used in water-treatment plants.
• Copper sulfate. A by-product of electrolytic copper refining; used in agricul-
ture as herbicide.
• Nickel sulfate. A by-product of electrolytic copper refining; used by the elec-
troplating industry.

The metal industry may also be the supplier of catalysts needed by the chem-
ical industry, for example, Al2 O3 , V2 O5 , and platinum. The copper industry is the
main supplier of arsenic oxide, which is used in making wood preservatives. The
oxide is volatilized during smelting of copper concentrates, which usually contain
0.5–2% As. Arsenic oxide collected in the gas filtration system is then mixed with
CuSO4 and sodium dichromate to form chromated copper arsenate preservative.
Table 1 gives a summary of the different fields of metallurgy.
14 METALLURGY

Table 1. Summary: Fields of Metallurgy

Field Description Example of topics
mineral mineral bene- theory and practice of crushing and grinding,
processing ficiation liberation of minerals magnetic and electrical
from ores and their methods, flotation, etc
separation by physical
methods at ambient
conditions
extractive Chemical methods leaching, precipitation,
metallurgy sometimes at high electrolysis, oxidation,
temperature and reduction, etc
pressure for treating
ores to recover their
metal values in a pure
form
metal physical study of physical crystal structure, effect of
processing metallurgy properties of metals impurities,
and alloys, preparation metallography, heat
of alloys treatment, etc
engineering processing of metals in casting, welding, etc
metallurgy the molten state
mechanical processing of metals in forging, rolling, extrusion,
metallurgy the solid state and piercing
powder processing of metal preparation of metals in
metallurgy powders into finished powder form, hot
products pressing, etc

BIBLIOGRAPHY
“Metallurgy, Survey” in ECT 4th ed., Vol. 16, pp. 313–320, by Brent Hiskey, University
of Arizona; Published Online: 4 December 2000; “Metallurgy” in ECT 5th ed., Vol. 16,
pp. 125–132, by Brent Hiskey, University of Arizona.

CITED PUBLICATIONS
F. Habashi, Metals from Ores. An Introduction to Extractive Metallurgy, Métallurgie
Extractive Québec, Québec City, Canada, 2003. Distributed by Laval University
Bookstore “Zone”. www.zone.ul.ca.

GENERAL REFERENCES
F. Habashi, ed., Handbook of Extractive Metallurgy, 4 Volumes, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim,
Germany, 1997.
F. Habashi, Extractive Metallurgy Today. Progress and Problems, Métallurgie Extractive
Québec, Québec City, Canada, 2000. Distributed by Laval University Bookstore “Zone”.
www.zone.ul.ca

FATHI HABASHI
Laval University, Quebec City, Canada