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Power Grid
Power Grid
May 5, 2016
Chiara Foglietta
Historical Notes
State Estimation
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Automatic Generation
4. get confidence with state estimation and automatic
Control generation control modules
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Reading Materials
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
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Introduction
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power 4
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power 5
Grid
Historical Notes
Structure of the Power The electric power grid can be defined as the entire apparatus
System
Generating Units
of wires and machines that connects the sources of electricity
Substations
Transmission and
(i.e., the power plants) with customers.
Distribution Network
When most people talk about the “grid”, they are usually
Energy Management
System referring to the electrical transmission system, which moves
State Estimation the electricity from power plants to substations located close to
Automatic Generation large groups of users. However, the grid also encompasses the
Control
distribution facilities that move the electricity from the
sub-stations to the individual users.
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Historical Notes I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid 1882: The Pearl Street Station in New York City was the first of
Historical Notes 6 these complete systems, connecting a 100-volt generator that
Structure of the Power burned coal to power a few hundred lamps in the
System
Generating Units neighborhood. In a direct current, the electrons flow in a
Substations
Transmission and
complete circuit, from the generator, through wires and
Distribution Network
devices, and back to the generator.
Energy Management
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control 1888: William Stanley, Jr. built the first generator that used
alternating current (AC). Instead of electricity flowing in one
direction, the flow switches its direction, back and forth.
Westinghouse Corporation bought the patent rights to Tesla’s
AC equipment.
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Historical Notes II
Power Grids and EMS
State Estimation
sell electricity too, opening the door to privatization,
Automatic Generation
demonstrated that traditional vertically integrated electric
Control
utilities were not the only source of reliable power.
Chiara Foglietta
1999: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission’s (FERC’s)
Definition of Power
Grid issued Order 2000 calling for the creation of regional
Historical Notes 8
transmission organizations (RTOs), independent entities that
Structure of the Power
System
will control and operate the transmission grid free of any
Generating Units discriminatory practices.
Substations
Transmission and
Distribution Network
Automatic Generation
different today. Some states have their own independent
Control electricity grid operators, like California and Texas. Other
states are part of regional operators, like the Midwest
Independent System Operator or the New England
Independent System Operator. Not all regions use a system
operator, and there are still thousands TK of municipalities that
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provide all aspects of electricity.
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Italian Case I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
1883: in Milan, the first power plant was built to power the
Grid illumination of Scala Theatre.
Historical Notes 9
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control
1962: The electricity sector, private until then, was nationalized
with the creation of the state-controlled entity named ENEL,
with the monopoly on production, transmission and distribution
of electric energy.
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Italian Case II
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid 1992: ENEL was made a joint-stock company, however still
Historical Notes 10
owned by the Ministry of Economy, following European
Structure of the Power
System directives. It was based on the adoption of different regulations
Generating Units
Substations
for production and transmission: production and trading should
Transmission and
Distribution Network
be free and managed by private companies, while transmission
Energy Management and distribution, being natural monopolies, should be regulated
System
by the state.
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control
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Italian Case III
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
1999: The network was transferred to a new company, Terna,
Definition of Power
Grid responsible for the management of the system. Moreover, the
Historical Notes 11
limit on Enel property share of Terna was set at 20%. ENEL
Structure of the Power
System
eventually sold its remaining share of the company in January
Generating Units 2012.
Substations
Transmission and
Distribution Network
Automatic Generation
capacity to competitors before 2003. Following this, three new
Control production companies were created: Endesa Italia, Edipower
and Tirreno Power. A new European directive, 2003/54/CE of
2003, and a subsequent Italian decree, requested a free
electricity trading for all commercial clients from July 2004 and,
eventually, a complete opening of the market for private
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customers from July 2007.
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Electric Power System
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control
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Generation
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid Traditionally power system operation has been based around a
Historical Notes relatively small number of large power plants connected to the
Structure of the Power
System
13
transmission system. Those plants are usually thermal or
Generating Units hydro plants in which electricity is produced by converting the
Substations
Transmission and mechanical energy appearing on the output shaft of an engine,
Distribution Network
Energy Management
or more usually a turbine, into electrical energy. The main
System thermal energy resources used commercially are coal, natural
State Estimation
gas, nuclear fuel and oil.
Automatic Generation
Control The conversion of mechanical to electrical energy in traditional
thermal or hydro plants is almost universally achieved by the
use of a synchronous generator. The synchronous generator
feeds its electrical power into the transmission system via a
step-up transformer.
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Renewable Resources
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Generally there are three main ways the industry can reduce
Structure of the Power 14
System its CO2 emissions:
Generating Units
Substations 1. by moving from the traditional coal/gas/oil-based
Transmission and
Distribution Network generation to renewable generation (wind, solar, marine);
Energy Management
System 2. by moving towards increased nuclear generation which is
State Estimation largely CO2 -free;
Automatic Generation
Control 3. by removing CO2 from exhaust gases of traditional thermal
generation using for example carbon capture and storage
technology.
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Transmission
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Since the energy lost in a transmission line is proportional to
Definition of Power
Grid
the current squared, transmission lines operate at high or very
Historical Notes high voltages. The electrical network connects all the power
Structure of the Power 15 stations into one system, and transmits and distributes power
System
Generating Units to the load centres in an optimal way. Usually the transmission
Substations
Transmission and
network has a mesh structure in order to provide many
Distribution Network
possible routes for electrical power to flow from individual
Energy Management
System generators to individual consumers thereby improving the
State Estimation flexibility and reliability of the system.
Automatic Generation
Control
The transmission network makes the power system a highly
interacting, complicated mechanism, in which an action of any
individual component (a power plant or a load) influences all
the other components in the system. This is the main reason
why transmission remains a monopoly business, even under
the liberalized market structure, and is managed by a single
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Distribution
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Historical Notes
transmission, or subtransmission, network to distribution
Structure of the Power 16 high-voltage and medium-voltage networks in order to bring it
System
Generating Units
directly to the consumer. The distribution network is generally
Substations connected in a radial structure as opposed to the mesh
Transmission and
Distribution Network structure used in the transmission system. Large consumers
Energy Management
System
may be supplied from a weakly coupled, meshed, distribution
State Estimation network or, alternatively, they may be supplied from two radial
Automatic Generation feeders with a possibility of automatic switching between
Control
feeders in case of a power cut. Some industrial consumers
may have their own on-site generation as a reserve or as a
by-product of a technological process (e.g. steam generation).
Ultimately power is transformed to a low voltage and distributed
directly to consumers.
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Bidirectional Distribution
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management
flows may reverse direction when the wind is strong and wind
System generation high, with distribution networks even becoming net
State Estimation
exporters of power. That situation has created many technical
Automatic Generation
Control problems with respect to settings of protection systems,
voltage drops, congestion management and so on.
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Demand
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid The demand for electrical power is never constant and
Historical Notes changes continuously throughout the day and night. The
Structure of the Power
System
18
changes in demand of individual consumers may be fast and
Generating Units
Substations
frequent, but as one moves up the power system structure
Transmission and
Distribution Network
from individual consumers, through the distribution network, to
Energy Management
the transmission level, the changes in demand become smaller
System
and smoother as individual demands are aggregated.
State Estimation
Consequently the total power demand at the transmission level
Automatic Generation
Control changes in a more or less predictable way that depends on the
season, weather conditions, way of life of a particular society
and so on. Fast global power demand changes on the
generation level are usually small and are referred to as load
fluctuations.
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Power Generation Unit
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control
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Generating Units I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Electrical energy is produced by a synchronous generator
Definition of Power
Grid driven by a prime mover, usually a turbine or a diesel engine.
Historical Notes The turbine is equipped with a turbine governor which controls
Structure of the Power either the speed or the output power according to a preset
System
Generating Units 20 power–frequency characteristic.
Substations
Transmission and
Distribution Network The generated power is fed into the transmission network via a
Energy Management step-up transformer. The DC excitation (or field) current,
System
required to produce the magnetic field inside the generator, is
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
provided by the exciter.
Control
The excitation current, and consequently the generator’s
terminal voltage, is controlled by an automatic voltage regulator
(AVR). An additional unit transformer may be connected to the
busbar between the generator and the step-up transformer in
order to supply the power station’s auxiliary services
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comprising motors, pumps, the exciter and so on.
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Generating Units II
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
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Substations
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
A substation can be regarded as a point of electrical
Historical Notes
State Estimation
another and system security is provided by automatic
Automatic Generation
protective devices.
Control
These incoming and outgoing circuits are connected to a
common busbar system and are equipped with apparatus to
switch electrical currents, conduct measurements and protect
against lightning.
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Transmission and Distribution Network
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management
The basic elements of the network are the overhead power
System lines, underground cables, transformers and substations.
State Estimation
Auxiliary elements are the series reactors, shunt reactors and
Automatic Generation
Control compensators, switching elements, metering elements and
protection equipment.
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Lines and Cables
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Overhead lines are universally used to transmit electrical
Definition of Power
Grid
energy in high-voltage transmission systems while
Historical Notes underground cables are normally only used in low- and
Structure of the Power medium-voltage urban distribution networks.
System
Generating Units For practical reasons there is a standardization of voltage
Substations
Transmission and 24
levels within different regions of the world. Unfortunately these
Distribution Network
standard voltages tend to vary slightly between regions but are
Energy Management
System not too dissimilar. Typical transmission voltage levels are 110,
State Estimation 220, 400, 750 kV for Continental Europe, 132, 275, 400 kV for
Automatic Generation
Control
the United Kingdom and 115, 230, 345, 500, 765 kV for the
United States.
Distribution networks generally operate at lower voltages than
the transmission network. For example, there are 12 different
standard distribution voltages in the United States, in the range
between 2.4 and 69 kV. In the United Kingdom the distribution
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Transformers
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta Transformers are necessary to link parts of the power systems
Definition of Power that operate at different voltage levels. In addition to changing
Grid
voltage levels, transformers are also used to control voltage
Historical Notes
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid Controlling the voltage transformation ratio without phase shift
Historical Notes control is used for generator step-up transformers as well as for
Structure of the Power
System
transmission and distribution transformers. The easiest way to
Generating Units achieve this task is by using tap changers to change the
Substations
Transmission and 26 transformation ratio.
Distribution Network
Energy Management
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control
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Shunt Elements
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Generally, reactive power cannot be transmitted over long
Structure of the Power
System distances and should be compensated for close to the point of
Generating Units
Substations
consumption. The simplest, and cheapest, way of achieving
Transmission and
Distribution Network
27
this is by providing shunt compensation, that is by installing
Energy Management capacitors and/or inductors connected either directly to a
System
busbar or to the tertiary winding of a transformer.
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Shunt elements may also be located along the transmission
Control route to minimize losses and voltage drops. Traditionally, static
shunt elements are breaker switched either manually or
automatically by a voltage relay.
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Series Elements
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
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Power System Operation
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
The main goal of the system operator is to maintain the system
in the normal secure state as the operating conditions vary
Definition of Power
Grid during the daily operation. Accomplishing this goal requires
Historical Notes continuous monitoring of the system conditions, identification
Structure of the Power
System
of the operating state and determination of the necessary
Generating Units preventive actions in case the system state is found to be
Substations
Transmission and insecure. This sequence of actions is referred to as the
Distribution Network
Energy Management 29
security analysis of the system.
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control
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EMS Configuration
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management 30
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control
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EMS Primary Functions I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Automatic Generation
5. Optimal Power Flow
Control
6. Dispatcher Training Simulator
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EMS Primary Functions II
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid 1. System Load Forecast: Every hour for a period of 1-7 days
Historical Notes
2. Start up and shut down times for most economic operation
Structure of the Power
System of thermal units for each hour
Generating Units
Substations 3. Fuel Scheduling: Economic choice, fuel purchase contract
Transmission and
Distribution Network
4. Transaction Evaluation: Purchase and sale of energy with
Energy Management 32
System neighbouring companies
State Estimation 5. Transmission loss minimization: Controller actions for
Automatic Generation
Control
minimization of loss
6. Security Constrained Dispatch: Ensuring economic
dispatch without violating network security
7. Production cost calculation: Actual and economical for
each generated unit on hourly basis
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EMS Applications
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management 33
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control
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Real-Time Analysis Sequence I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management 34
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation
Control
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Real-Time Analysis Sequence II
Power Grids and EMS
Automatic Generation
I Contingency Analysis: Impact of a set of contingencies to
Control identify harmful ones
I Optimal Power Flow: Optimization of a specified objective
function with constraints
I Preventive Action: to prevent contingency
I Short Circuit Analysis: Determines the fault current and
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locations across the power network
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State Estimation
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid In order to identify the current operating state of the system,
Historical Notes state estimators facilitate accurate and efficient monitoring of
Structure of the Power
System
operational constraints on quantities such as the transmission
Generating Units line loadings or bus voltage magnitudes. They provide a
Substations
Transmission and reliable real-time data base of the system, including the
Distribution Network
Energy Management
existing state based on which, security assessment functions
System can be reliably deployed in order to analyse contingencies, and
State Estimation 36
to determine any required corrective actions.
Automatic Generation
Control Power system state estimator constitutes the core of the
on-line security analysis function. It acts like a filter between
the raw measurements received from the system and all the
application functions that require the most reliable data base
for the current state of the system.
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State Estimation Functions I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
I Topology processor: Gathers status data about the circuit
Historical Notes
breakers and switches, and configures the one-line
Structure of the Power diagram of the system.
System
Generating Units I Observability analysis: Determines if a state estimation
Substations
Transmission and solution for the entire system can be obtained using the
Distribution Network
Energy Management
available set of measurements. Identifies the
System unobservable branches, and the observable islands in the
State Estimation 37
system if any exist.
Automatic Generation
Control I State estimation solution: Determines the optimal estimate
for the system state, which is composed of complex bus
voltages in the entire power system, based on the network
model and the gathered measurements from the system.
Also provides the best estimates for all the line Hows,
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loads, transformer taps, and generator outputs.
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State Estimation Functions II
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
I Bad data processing: Detects the existence of gross
Historical Notes
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Measurement Model I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
The phase angle of the reference bus equals zero. The state
Definition of Power
Grid estimation problem is therefore to estimate the n phase angle
Historical Notes state variables x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )0 based on the m active
Structure of the Power
System
power measurements z = (z1 , z2 , . . . , zm )0 , where
Generating Units
Substations
Transmission and
z = h(x) + e (1)
Distribution Network
Energy Management
System Where h is the vector of functions, usually non-linear, relating
State Estimation 39 error free measurements to the state variables;
Automatic Generation e = (e1 , e2 , . . . , em )0 ∼ N (0, R) is independent measurement
Control
noise, where R is the diagonal covariance matrix. The matrix H
represents the topology of the considered power grid.
In a static context, more measurements are taken into account
than the number of state variables to be determined, i.e.
m > n. In this case, the set of equations 1 represents an
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overdetermined set of non linear equations.
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Measurement Model II
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
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Weighted Least-Squares Problem I
Power Grids and EMS
Automatic Generation
Control where R = diag(Ri ) is the weighting matrix.
At the minimum, the first-order optimality conditions must be
satisfied. This can be expressed as:
∂J(x)
g(x) = = −H T (x)R −1 [z − h(x)] = 0 (3)
∂x
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H is the m × n measurement Jacobian matrix.
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Weighted Least-Squares Problem II
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
The first order necessary condition for a minimum are that
Definition of Power ∂J(x)
Grid
= −H(x)T R −1 [z − h(x)] = 0 (4)
Historical Notes ∂x
Structure of the Power
System Expanding the nonlinear function g(x) into its Taylor series
Generating Units
Substations around the state vector x k yields:
Transmission and
Distribution Network
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
The gain matrix is sparse, positive definite and symmetric
Historical Notes
State Estimation 43
Automatic Generation
G(x k )∆x k +1 = H T (x k )R −1 [z − h(xk )] (7)
Control
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Automatic Generation Control I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management
This process of unit commitment may be conducted once per
System day to give the daily operating schedule, while at shorter
State Estimation
intervals, typically every 30min, economic dispatch determines
Automatic Generation 44
Control the actual power output required from each of the committed
generators.
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Automatic Generation Control II
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes Smaller, but faster, load changes are dealt with by AGC so as
Structure of the Power
System
to:
Generating Units
Substations
I maintain frequency at the scheduled value (frequency
Transmission and
Distribution Network control);
Energy Management
System
I maintain the net power interchanges with neighbouring
State Estimation control areas at their scheduled values (tie-line control);
Automatic Generation 45
Control
I maintain power allocation among the units in accordance
with area dispatching needs (energy market, security or
emergency).
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Primary Control I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
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Primary Control II
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Structure of the Power System loads are also frequency dependent and an expression
System
Generating Units similar to previous one) can be used to obtain a linear
Substations
Transmission and
approximation of the frequency response characteristic of the
Distribution Network
total system load as
Energy Management
System ∆PL ∆f
= KL (9)
State Estimation PL fn
Automatic Generation 47
Control where KL is the frequency sensitivity coefficient of the power
demand.
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Primary Control III
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Automatic Generation 48
firstly, by the turbines increasing the generation by ∆PT ; and
Control secondly, by the system loads reducing the demand by ∆PL .
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Secondary Control I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Historical Notes
then, following a change in the total power demand, the system
Structure of the Power will not be able to return to the initial frequency on its own,
System
Generating Units
without any additional action.
Substations In order to return to the initial frequency the generation
Transmission and
Distribution Network characteristic must be shifted. Such a shift can be enforced by
Energy Management
System
changing the Pref setting in the turbine governing system, the
State Estimation load reference set point. Changing more settings Pref of
Automatic Generation 49 individual governors will move upwards the overall generation
Control
characteristic of the system. Eventually this will lead to the
restoration of the rated frequency but now at the required
increased value of power demand. Such control action on the
governing systems of individual turbines is referred to as
secondary control.
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Secondary Control II
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation 50
Control
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Secondary Control III
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
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AGC I
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation 53
Control
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AGC III
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
The area control error (ACE) is defined as
Historical Notes
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Energy Management
System
State Estimation
Automatic Generation 55
Control
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Conclusion
Power Grids and EMS
Chiara Foglietta
Definition of Power
Grid
Historical Notes
Controllo Distribuito di
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Ingegneria Gestionale e
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A.A. 2015 - 2016 56