Introduction To Thermodynamcis

System, Surrounding and boundary

A system is defined as a quantity of
matter or a region in space chosen
for investigation.

The mass or region outside the

system is called the surroundings.

The real or imaginary surface that

separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary.
Closed System
A closed system (also known as a
control mass) consists of a fixed
amount of mass.
No mass can cross its boundary, i.e,
no mass can enter or leave a closed
system.
But energy, in the form of heat or
work, can cross the boundary.
The volume of a closed system does
not have to be fixed.
Closed system
• Rigid tank

Specifying the
directions of
heat and work.
 Open System

A open system (also known as a control volume) consists of a fixed

space.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
Types of Boundary
 Properties of a System

Any characteristic of a system

is called a property. Some
familiar properties are
pressure, temperature, volume,
mass, viscosity, thermal
conductivity, modulus of
elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistivity,
velocity and elevation.
 State and Equilibrium

The word state refers to the

condition of a system as
described by its properties.
At a given state, all the
properties of a system have
fixed values.
If the value of even one
property changes, the state
will change to a different one. A system at two different states.
 Forms of Energy
Energy

Static Form Dynamic Form

(Total Energy)
Heat
Macroscopic
Work
Microscopic
Kinetic Energy
Mass
Potential Energy Internal Energy

Latent Sensible Nuclear Chemical

Molecular Molecular Electron Molecular Electron Nuclear

Translation Rotation Translation Vibration Spin Spin
 Energy Transfer by Heat
Heat: The form of energy that is transferred between two
systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.

Temperature difference is the driving force

for heat transfer. The larger the
temperature difference, the higher is the
rate of heat transfer.

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 Adiabatic System
• The word adiabatic comes from the Greek word
adiabatos, which means not to be passed.
There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:
 Either the system is well insulated so that only a negligible
amount of heat can pass through the boundary
 both the system and the surroundings are at the same
temperature and therefore there is no driving force
(temperature difference) for heat transfer
 Energy transfer by work
• Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
– A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system boundaries are all
associated with work interactions
• Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive;
heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative.
• Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate direction. This is
the primary approach in this text.

Work done
per unit mass

Power is the work

done per unit time
(kW) Specifying the
directions of heat
and work.
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 The First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy principle)
provides a sound basis for studying the relationships among the various
forms of energy and energy interactions.
• The first law states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed
during a process; it can only change forms.
• The First Law: For all
Energy cannot
be created or
destroyed; it can
only change
forms.

The increase in the energy of a potato

in an oven is equal to the amount of
heat transferred to it.
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 Energy Balance
• The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process.

The energy change of

a system during a
process is equal to
the net work and
heat transfer
between the system
and its surroundings.

The work (boundary) done on an adiabatic

system is equal to the increase in the 14
energy of the system.
 Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
• Heat transfer
• Work transfer
• Mass flow

A closed mass
involves only
heat transfer and
work.

For a cycle ∆E = 0,
The energy thus Q = W.
content of a
control volume can
be changed by
mass flow as well
as heat and work
interactions.

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 Conservation of Mass Principle

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Total Energy of a Non-Flowing Fluid &
Flowing Fluid

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 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
Reversible process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings.
Irreversible process: A process that is not reversible.
All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible.
Why are we interested in reversible processes?
(1) they are easy to analyze and (2) they serve as
idealized models (theoretical limits) to which actual
processes can be compared.

Two familiar reversible Reversible processes deliver the most and consume the 20least
processes. work.
Irreversibilities
The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are
called irreversibilities.
Friction They include friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of
renders a two fluids, heat transfer across a finite temperature
process difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of
irreversible. solids, and chemical reactions.
The presence of any of these effects renders a process
irreversible.

(a) Heat transfer

through a Irreversible
temperature compression
difference is and
irreversible, and expansion
(b) the reverse processes.
process is
impossible. 21
 Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
Internally reversible process: If no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of the system
during the process.
Externally reversible: If no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries.
Totally reversible process: It involves no irreversibilities within the system or its
surroundings.
A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature difference,
quasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative effects.

A reversible process involves no

internal and external
irreversibilities.

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 What is entropy?
Boltzmann relation

The level of molecular Disorganized energy does not create much

disorder (entropy) of a useful effect, no matter how large it is.
substance increases as
it melts or evaporates. 23
 The Increase of Entropy Principle

The equality holds for an internally

reversible process and the inequality
for an irreversible process.
A cycle composed of a Can the entropy of a
reversible and an system during a
irreversible process. process decrease?

Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process, and this generation
is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities.
The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero. 24
The entropy change of an isolated
system is the sum of the entropy
changes of its components, and is
never less than zero.
A system and its surroundings
form an isolated system.

The increase of entropy principle 25

 Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids
Since for liquids and solids
Liquids and solids can be
approximated as incompressible
substances since their specific
volumes remain nearly constant
during a process.

For an isentropic process of an incompressible substance

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THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
From the first T ds relation From the second T ds relation

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Entropy Balance

Entropy Change of a System,

∆Ssystem

When the properties of the system are not

uniform

Energy and entropy

balances for a system.
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Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
1 Entropy Transfer by Heat :

Heat transfer is always

accompanied by entropy
transfer in the amount of
Q/T, where T is the
boundary temperature.

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2 Entropy transfer by work :

No entropy accompanies work as it

crosses the system boundary. But
entropy may be generated within
the system as work is dissipated into
a less useful form of energy.

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3 Entropy Transfer by Mass Flow

When the properties of the mass change during the process

Mass contains entropy as well as

energy, and thus mass flow into or
out of system is always
accompanied by energy and
entropy transfer.

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Entropy Generation, Sgen
Entropy generation outside
system boundaries can be
accounted for by writing an
entropy balance on an
extended system that includes
the system and its immediate
surroundings.

Mechanisms of entropy transfer for a general system.

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 Closed Systems

The entropy change of a closed system during a process is equal to the sum
of the net entropy transferred through the system boundary by heat
transfer and the entropy generated within the system boundaries.

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 Entropy change for a Closed Systems

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Control Volumes

The entropy of a control volume

changes as a result of mass flow as
well as heat transfer.

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