Battery Electric Vehicles in Practice

austrian society of automotive engineers
Battery Electric
Vehicles in Practice
Costs, Range, Environment, Convenience
(2nd extended and corrected edition)
Study published by the Austrian Society of Automotive

Engineers (OEVK) and the Austrian Automobile,
Motorcycle and Touring Club (OEAMTC),
conducted by the Institute for Powertrains and Auto-
motive Technology, Vienna University of Technology
Foreword by the editors
Politicians and the media, in particular, consider electrification of individual motor

vehicles as an efficient means to significantly lower greenhouse gas
emissions and heighten energy efficiency.
Studies, such as the one conducted by the Austrian Society of Automotive Engineers
(OeVK) entitled “Future Mobility – Does Electromobility Offer a Solution?” have
demonstrated that purely electric passenger cars can make a contribution to lowering
greenhouse gas emissions only if a highly regenerative mix of electricity is available.
One question remains to be answered: to what extent do electric battery passenger

cars offer advantages with regard to energy efficiency and greenhouse gas
emissions if real world operating conditions are studied over an entire year taking into
account available energy supply options.
The present study is based on an analysis of all these issues and contains valuable
information with regard to energy demand, as well as a comparison of annual
greenhouse gas emissions, energy costs and driving ranges under varying ambient
temperatures and driving conditions, charging times, etc.
Those who are interested in electric vehicles can draw realistic conclusions from this
study.
Dipl. Ing. Oliver Schmerold Univ.-Prof. Dr. H.P. Lenz

Secretary-General of ÖAMTC Chairman of OeVK
Battery Electric Vehicles
in Practice
Costs, Range, Environment, Convenience
(2nd extended and corrected edition)
Authors:
Univ.-Prof. Dr.techn. Bernhard Geringer
Dr. Werner K. Tober
Institute for Powertrains and Automotive Technology
Vienna University of Technology
October 2012
Page III
Contents
Summary .................................................................................................................... II
1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 1
2 Methodology .................................................................................................. 2
3 Measurement programme and measurement technology .............................. 4
4 Vehicles assessed ....................................................................................... 11
4.1 Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion........................................................................ 11

4.2 Mitsubishi i-MiEV .......................................................................................... 12
4.3 Mercedes Benz A-Klasse E-Cell ................................................................... 12
4.4 Smart Fortwo Electric Drive .......................................................................... 13
4.5 Nissan Leaf ................................................................................................... 13
4.6 Citroën Berlingo ............................................................................................ 14
5 Vehicle-specific results ................................................................................ 15
5.1 Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion........................................................................ 15

5.2 Mitsubishi i-MiEV .......................................................................................... 18
5.3 Mercedes Benz A-Klasse E-Cell ................................................................... 24
5.4 Smart Fortwo Electric Drive .......................................................................... 29
5.5 Nissan Leaf ................................................................................................... 34
5.6 Citroën Berlingo ............................................................................................ 40
5.7 Average e-vehicle ......................................................................................... 50
5.8 Excursus: Trend in the energy density of “fossil fuel” and “battery” energy
sources ......................................................................................................... 54
6 Comparison of vehicle concepts and real operating conditions ................... 55
6.1 Outline conditions ......................................................................................... 56

6.2 Comparison of the annual energy requirement ............................................. 59
6.3 Comparison of annual greenhouse gas emissions ....................................... 63
6.4 Comparison of annual energy costs.............................................................. 67
7 Bibliography ................................................................................................. 69
Page II
Summary
Electromobility is widely regarded as the solution for the future of mobility. What is
unclear, however, is its impact on sustainability – reduced use of primary energy –
and ecology (greenhouse gas emissions) in practical, real-life motoring.
This study addresses these issues and examines the pros and cons of battery
electric vehicles compared with a modern conventional diesel engine car. In addition
to real-life operating conditions the study also considers the energy provision of
electricity and diesel fuel. It also calculates the achievable ranges and energy costs.
To this end, the Institute for Powertrains and Automotive Technology at the Vienna
University of Technology put four modern battery electric cars and one modern
diesel-powered car to the test:
 Mitsubishi i-MiEV
 Mercedes Benz A-Class E-CELL
 Smart Fortwo Electric Drive
 Nissan Leaf
 Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion (diesel car)
This second, extended edition of the study now also comprises the test results for the
 Citroën Berlingo
To enable a comparison between the reference vehicle (VW Polo) and an average
electric vehicle, we used the results from the four electric vehicles with lithium-ion
traction battery. As its vehicle concept differs significantly (no air conditioning, petrol-
powered parking heater as passenger compartment heater, sodium nickel chloride
traction battery) the Citroën Berlingo is included in the comparison whenever this is
considered meaningful.
The fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of the diesel car and the
energy flows of the e-cars were determined using a climate-controlled roller test
bench. The realistic energy requirements of each vehicle were ascertained by
calculating the vehicles’ driving resistances, the variation in ambient temperature
September 2012 B12020

Page III
(heating/air conditioning of the vehicle interior) and by replicating various motoring

situations (stop-and-go, urban, extra urban and motorway) on a range of road
gradients (-2%, 0% and +2%).
The vehicle tests were complemented by taking account of the energy requirement
and greenhouse gas emissions of the energy provision (electricity and diesel fuel
production) based on data from the literature.
Given the differences in average temperatures and production paths for electricity
and diesel fuel, the annual energy requirement and the resulting annual greenhouse
gas emissions were calculated separately for both Austria and the European Union.
A distinction was also made between urban motorists and interurban motorists.
Energy benefits
The average energy requirement in normal driving conditions is shown in Table 1.
This takes account of the energy required for driving on an average road gradient, for
the climate control of the vehicle interior (heating or air conditioning, depending on
the average monthly ambient temperature), and for the charging and discharging
losses of the high-voltage battery.
The energy required to operate an e-car in a European city is 53% that of a

diesel car. This consideration highlights the energy benefits of battery electric
vehicles in normal driving conditions.
If, however, we also take account of the energy requirement for the production of
electricity and diesel in Europe, the e-car operated in urban conditions requires
33% more energy than the diesel car. As Table 2 illustrates, taking account of the
energy provision drastically reduces the energy benefits. In interurban driving
conditions the e-car requires 43% more energy than a diesel car in Europe.
Page IV
Urban
Energy requirement in kWh/100km Interurban motorist
motorist
Diesel car 42,9 100 % 42,1 100 %

Austria
e-car 24,5 57 % 25,5 61 %
Diesel car 42,8 100 % 42,0 100 %

European Union
e-car 22,8 53 % 24,2 58 %
Table 1: Average energy requirement for running a vehicle (excl. energy provision) in kWh/100 km
Urban
Energy requirement in kWh/100km Interurban motorist
motorist
Diesel car 51,1 100 % 50,2 100 %

Austria
e-car 37,9 74 % 39,5 79 %
Diesel car 48,4 100 % 47,5 100 %

European Union
e-car 64,2 133% 68,1 143 %
Table 2: Average energy requirements for running a vehicle (incl. energy provision) in kWh/100 km
Manufacturing e-cars is still energy-intensive (because of the high-voltage battery),

and due to the lack of sufficient available data this aspect has not been taken into
account in these calculations; an illustration is provided in Figure 45 (page 63) by
way of example. It is estimated, however, that the manufacture of high-voltage
batteries currently accounts for approx. 13% of the annual energy requirement of an
e-car [1], [2].
Climate benefits
In Austria, the greenhouse gas emissions resulting from vehicle operation and
energy provision (as CO2 equivalent) for an e-car operated in urban conditions
are 38% those of a diesel car, due to the high proportion of renewable energy in
electricity generation. At the European level the benefit shown is much lower, at
83%.
Page V
Table 3 provides an overview. Here, too, it is important to note that the vehicle
manufacture and in particular the high-voltage battery manufacture were not taken
into account.
Greenhouse gas emissions in Urban

Interurban motorist
g CO2e/km motorist
Diesel car 128 100 % 126 100 %

Austria
e-car 48 38 % 50 40 %
Diesel car 132 100 % 129 100 %

European Union
e-car 109 83 % 116 90 %
Table 3: Average greenhouse gas emissions for running a vehicle (incl. energy provision) in
g CO2e/km
Range and comfort

Table 4 illustrates the ranges that can be achieved by adopting a moderate driving
style on low road gradients.
Switching on the air conditioning system at an ambient temperature of +30 °C

reduces the range by an average of 14%. Heating the vehicle interior at an ambient
temperature of 0 °C reduces the range by an average of 27%.
Range minus a reserve Ambient temperature

range of 25 km 20 °C 0 °C -10 °C
Without heating Incl. heating Incl. heating
and air
Vehicle conditioning
Mitsubishi i-MiEV 83 km 48 km 41 km
Mercedes Benz A-Klasse E-Cell 150 km 101 km 85 km
Smart Fortwo Electric Drive 100 km 64 km 52 km
Nissan Leaf 76 km 53 km 41 km
Citroën Berlingo 60 km 54 km 51 km
Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion 1.090 km 1.036 km 989 km
Table 4: Achievable ranges

Page VI
Energy costs
The energy costs of the e-car (to the end customer) are lower than those of the
diesel car due to current taxes and duties on electricity and diesel fuel.
However, if we adjust for taxes and duties, we obtain a cost disadvantage for the
e-car in urban traffic.
Moreover, the acquisition costs for an e-car are higher in the medium term than the
additional costs customers are willing to pay. Additional costs of more than €
6.000 are to be expected in the event of subsequent mass production [3]. At present
the additional costs for the e-cars we know are currently available on the market are
around twice those of comparable conventional cars.
Detailed data records

Owing to their size, the detailed data records are available for download from the
www.oevk.at homepage. For download directly, please use the following link:
http://www.xn--vk-eka.at/aktuelles/2012/bev_data2.pdf.
Page VII
What can members of the ÖVK [Austrian Society of Automotive Engineers] and the
ÖAMTC expect if and when they purchase a battery electric vehicle?
1. The acquisition costs are higher also in the medium term than the additional
costs customers are prepared to pay. At present they must reckon with twice
the price compared with a conventional car.
2. The energy costs of running an e-car are lower than those of a diesel car at
current taxes and duties on electricity and diesel fuel.
3. The range achievable by the tested e-cars that are currently on regular sale in
the motor trade is severely limited compared with conventional vehicles and
dependent on the ambient temperature. These particular circumstances are
not expected to change in the long term either.
4. Charging and convenience

An essential aspect of running and charging an e-car is the availability of a
power socket close to where the vehicle is parked. The battery charging
process also requires additional technical handling (plugging in and
unplugging).
5. Climate impact and energy requirement

If the e-car is operated in a country with a high share of renewables in the area
of energy provision (as Austria does), both the energy requirement and the
greenhouse gas emissions of that country can be reduced with an e-car.
The benefit, if any, is negligible if the European Union as a whole is

considered. In fact, in countries with a low share of renewable energy, low
average temperatures or high mileage at average speeds, the diesel car
achieves a lower energy requirement and lower greenhouse gas emissions.
Page 1
1 Introduction
For policy makers and the media in particular, making individual transport electric is
seen as an effective means of drastically lowering greenhouse gas emissions and
increasing energy efficiency. Studies such as those by the ÖVK [Austrian Society of
Automotive Engineers] (“Future Mobility– Is Electric Mobility the Solution?”) [3]
confirm that – providing a highly regenerative electricity mix is available – passenger
cars that are powered purely electrically can contribute to lowering greenhouse gas
emissions.
What remains open is the question of just how sizeable the benefits of battery-
powered electric vehicles actually are in terms of energy efficiency and greenhouse
gas emissions if we consider this issue under real operating conditions over an entire
year and also take the supply-side management of energy into consideration.
The purpose of this study is to examine this question, based on the findings of the
project “Measurement of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV for energy use and range” [4], which
was commissioned by the ÖAMTC.
Acknowledgements
The authors of the study, Prof. Dr. Bernhard Geringer and Dr. Werner Tober of the
Institute for Powertrains and Automotive Technology at the Vienna University of
Technology wish to thank the ÖVK (Austrian Society of Automotive Engineers) and
the ÖAMTC (Österreichischer Automobil-, Motorrad- und Touring Club) as the
commissioning parties; their financial support made this study possible.
We also gratefully acknowledge the support of the following automobile clubs (in
alphabetical order): ACI (Automobile Club d’Italia), ACL (Automobile Club du Grand-
Duché Luxembourg), ADAC (Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobilclub), AMZS (Avto-
moto zveza Slovenije), ANWB (Algemene Nederlandse Wielrijdersbond), RACC
(Real Automóvil Club de Cataluña) and TCS (Touring Club Schweiz).
Page 2
2 Methodology
To analyse the benefits of battery electric cars in terms of energy efficiency and
greenhouse gas emissions, we examined a further three cars with lithium-ion battery
and one car with sodium nickel chloride battery (ZEBRA) in addition to the vehicle
already scrutinised in [4]. A diesel car with an internal combustion engine served as
the reference vehicle.
The comparison was carried out under realistic operating conditions, in particular with
regard to the climate control (heating/air conditioning) of the vehicle interior as a
function of the ambient temperature. The energy provision of the electricity and diesel
fuel was also taken into account.
To compare the real energy requirement and the real greenhouse gas emissions, we
set out to:
 analyse a motor vehicle equipped with an ultra-modern combustion engine
and four battery electric vehicles.
 consider the temperature curves for Austria and the European Union over a
period of one year so that the heating and air conditioning aggregates were
also taken into account when running the vehicles (measurements made at
+30 °C to -20 °C, in 10 °C increments).
 examine the influences of the driving conditions in urban, extra urban,
motorway and stop-and-go situations.
 examine the influences of the road gradients +2%, -2% and +/-2% (50% of
the distance with an ascending gradient and 50% with a descending gradient).
 take account of the greenhouse gas emissions generated as part of the
energy provision (fuel and electricity) for Austria and for the European Union
as well as the energy required for the provision.
 calculate and compare the real annual energy requirement and the real annual
greenhouse gas emissions.
Page 3
In addition we also
 determined the ranges of the vehicles under real operating conditions as a
function of the ambient temperatures.
 determined the efficiency of the current transformers and traction battery.
 calculated the annual energy costs per vehicle category.
The results obtained from the measurements of the individual battery electric vehicles
with lithium-ion battery were used to compute an average vehicle from the mean
values of the battery electric vehicles tested. This average vehicle was also used as
the basis for calculating the real annual energy requirement and the real annual
greenhouse gas emissions.
The greenhouse gas emissions generated as part of the energy provision (fuel and
electricity) in Austria and in the European Union and the energy required for the
provision were determined through a research of the literature.
Literature research was also conducted on the trend in the energy density of “fossil
fuel” and “battery” energy sources over the past 100 years.
Page 4
3 Measurement programme and measurement technology

The annual energy requirement and the greenhouse gas emissions of battery electric
vehicles and of a motor vehicle equipped with an ultramodern combustion engine
under real operating conditions as described in the previous Section were
determined using the measurement programme set out Table 5.
The “Eco-Test” driving cycle [5] was carried out to determine the energy requirement
and greenhouse gas emissions in urban, extra urban and motorway cycles. The
speed curve for this cycle is shown in Figure 1. As summarised in Table 6, this cycle
consists of the urban and extra urban segment of the New European Driving Cycle
(NEDC), the urban and extra urban segment of the Common Artemis Driving Cycle
(CADC), and the 130 km/h motorway cycle (BAB130). In each case the urban and
extra urban segments of the cycle were considered jointly for the analyses.
The stop-and-go cycle was used to study the energy requirement and greenhouse
gas emissions during the stop-and-go phase. This cycle was developed jointly with
the ÖAMTC as part of the study on the “Impact of traffic flow on emissions and
consumption” [6]. This cycle (reproduced in Figure 2) involves accelerating to 50
km/h over a distance of 9 x 700 m, maintaining the speed, and then decelerating to a
standstill. The total distance covered is 6,3 km, and the test duration is 17:22
minutes.
The influence of a +2% and -2% road gradient on the energy requirement and the
greenhouse gas emissions was calculated for the urban, extra urban and motorway
phases as well as for the stop-and-go, at an ambient temperature of 20 °C. The value
for +/-2% (50% of the distance with a +2% ascending gradient and 50% of the
distance with a -2% descending gradient) was determined through calculation.
The influence of the ambient temperature on energy requirements and greenhouse

gas emissions – particularly as a result of switching on the heating or air conditioning
systems – was calculated for the urban, extra urban and motorway phases at
between -20 °C and +30 °C, in 10 °C increments. The impact on the vehicle’s range
was also determined.
Page 5
During the test the vehicle interior was set at a temperature of 22 °C using the
heating or air conditioning systems (does not apply to the 20 °C test/ambient
temperature).
To determine the cold-start emissions of the combustion engine car the tests were
carried out with a cold engine (at ambient temperature) and an engine at operating
temperature.
The vehicles were operated on the roller test bench with the daytime running lights
(where available) and the radio switched on. As previously mentioned, the heating
system or air conditioning system (depending on the ambient temperature) was
switched on. Where the vehicle was equipped with an automatic mode for the
temperature and fan levels, that mode was used. If not, the temperature was
regulated manually and the fan level set to medium.
In each case the battery electric vehicles were recharged whenever the high-voltage
battery had become completely discharged (i.e. the vehicle had automatically come
to a stop). The battery was recharged on the climate-controlled roller test bench at
the stipulated test temperature (-20 °C to +30 °C) and took as long as was needed
for the high-voltage battery to be fully charged.
There followed a conditioning process lasting 8 hours on the climate-controlled roller

test bench at the specified test temperature. The charger was removed from the
vehicle during this process. Due to the high-temperature concept of the sodium nickel
chloride (ZEBRA) traction battery and the resulting heating requirement the Citroën
Berlingo was not disconnected from the mains during the tests. However the
influence was examined separately.
Page 6
Road Ambient Test

Driving cycle Phase Climate control
gradient temperature duration
-20 °C Heating
-10 °C Heating
0 °C Heating
Urban
10 °C Heating
20 °C -
Air
30 °C
conditioning
-20 °C Heating ICE1-car:
2 cycles
-10 °C Heating
0 °C Heating e-car:
Eco-Test Extra urban 0% Unil the
10 °C Heating
vehicle
20 °C - automatically
Air came to a
30 °C stop.
conditioning
-20 °C Heating
-10 °C Heating
0 °C Heating
Motorway
10 °C Heating
20 °C -
Air
30 °C
conditioning
Urban 20 °C
Eco-Test Extra urban -2 % 20 °C 1 cycle
Motorway 20 °C
Urban 20 °C
Eco-Test Extra Urban +2 % 20 °C 1 cycle
-
Motorway 20 °C
50km/h - Stop-and-
0% 20 °C 1 cycle
700m Go
50km/h - Stop-and-
-2 % 20 °C 1 cycle
700m Go
50km/h - Stop-and-
+2 % 20 °C 1 cycle
700m Go
Table 5: Measurement programme for each vehicle
1
ICE… Internal combustion engine
Page 7
150
NEDC ECE NEDC EUDC CADC CADC extra BAB130+*)
urban extra urban urban urban motorway
125
100
Speed [km/h]
75
50
25
*) access
/exit
0
0 Time [s] 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Figure 1: Eco-Test cycle – speed curve (distance 35.5 km, duration 50:33 min.) [5],
[own representation]
35,506 km
Eco-Test
100%
Urban Extra urban Motorway
Evaluated
8,850 km 15,886 km 10,770 km
cycles
24,93 % 44,74 % 30,33 %
Test NEDC CADC NEDC CADC Extra access
BAB130
cycles ECE Urban EUDC urban /exit
„modules“ 3,920 km 4,930 km 6,920 km 8,966 km 9,270 km 1,500 km
Table 6: Eco-Test cycle – composition [5], [own representation]
50
40
Speed [km/h]
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time [s]
Figure 2: Stop-and-go cycle – speed curve (distance 6.3 km, duration 17:22 min.) [6],
[own representation]
Page 8
Figure 3 shows an example of the current measuring points applied in order to

determine the energy flows and efficiencies of battery electric vehicles. Depending on
the technical implementation for each vehicle manufacturer the efficiencies of the
following components were defined in this way:
 On-board charger (charging losses)
 DC/DC converter (high-voltage/low-voltage network)
 AC/DC converter (inverter)
 Traction battery (discharge losses)
The voltages of the low-voltage and high-voltage system and those of the electric
motor were also measured.
During the charging process we thus measured the energy drawn from the mains, the
energy requirement caused by the charging process, and the energy supply to the
high-voltage battery.
During vehicle operation we measured the amount of energy drawn from the high-
voltage battery and the energy requirement of the tested consumer units.
N1 to N6: low-voltage consumer units such as coolant pump

e-technology, coolant pump vehicle interior, vehicle interior fan,
seat heaters, etc.
Figure 3: Current measuring points (symbolic)
Page 9
We also measured the following low-voltage consumer units:

 Vehicle interior fan
o all levels
 Lights
o daytime running lights, parking lights, dipped lights, full-beam lights,
brake lights
 Heating
o rear window, outside mirrors, seats
 Windscreen wipers
o front and rear
 Radio
Measurement technology
The measurements were carried out on a (Schenck / Kristl & Seibt) 4-wheel roller test
bench. The climate-controlled roller test bench allows the ambient temperature to be
regulated between -30 °C and +50 °C.
The fuel consumption of the vehicle with internal combustion engine was calculated
based on the gaseous exhaust components CO, CO2 and HC in accordance with
Council Directive 80/1268/EEC (in its current version).
The exhaust gas analysers used are listed in Table 7.
Exhaust gas analysers CO CO2 HC

Make HORIBA HORIBA HORIBA
Type AIA 310/320 AIA 310/320 FIA 325/326
Measurement range 0-50 ppm 0-2,5 Vol% 0-25 ppm
Calibration gas concentration 44,7 ppm 1,92 Vol% 15,0 ppm
Table 7: Exhaust gas analysers
The CH4 and N2O emissions of the vehicle equipped with internal combustion engine
were determined by FTIR measurement (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy,
MKS MultiGas Analyzer 2030D)
Page 10
The measurement technology applied to carry out the current, voltage and power
measurements is as follows:
 Power measurement instrument: Dewetron DEWE-2602
 Software: Dewetron DEWESOFT-7-PROF
 Current transformer: Dewetron PM-MCTS-700
 Shunt: Dewetron PM-MCTS-BR5
 Current clamp: Dewetron PNA-CLAMP-150-DC
Page 11
4 Vehicles assessed
Thanks to the support provided by the vehicle manufacturers we were able to assess
the following vehicles as part of our study:
 Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion ICE passenger car (diesel)
 Mitsubishi i-MiEV e-car
 Mercedes Benz A-Class E-CELL e-car
 Smart Fortwo Electric Drive e-car
 Nissan Leaf e-car
 Citroën Berlingo e-car (small commercial vehicle)
The technical data of each vehicle is specified below.
4.1 Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion

The technical data can be found in the list below.
Make Volkswagen
Commercial designation Polo BlueMotion TDI (87g)
Year of manufacture 2011
Unladen weight 1.150 kg
Photo: Heinz Henninger
Wheelbase 2.470 mm
Type of drive train Diesel
Capacity 1.199 cm3
Power 55 kW
Exhaust emission legislation Euro 5
Transmission Manual gearbox
Start/stop function yes
Tyres summer tyres, 185/60 R15
Tank capacity 45 litres
Page 12
4.2 Mitsubishi i-MiEV

Make Mitsubishi
Commercial designation i-MiEV
Wheelbase 2.550 mm
Type of drive train battery electric
Power 49 kW
Tyres summer tyres, front: 145/65 R15, rear: 175/65 R15
Battery capacity 16 kWh as stated by manufacturer
Battery type lithium-ion
4.3 Mercedes Benz A-Klasse E-Cell

Make Mercedes Benz

Commercial designation A-Class E-Cell
Wheelbase 2.568 mm Photo: Heinz Henninger

Power 70 kW
Tyres winter tyres, 195/60 R16
Page 13
4.4 Smart Fortwo Electric Drive

Make Smart
Commercial designation Fortwo Electric Drive
Wheelbase 1.867 mm
Power 35 kW
Tyres winter tyres, front: 155/60 R15, rear: 175/55 R15
Max. design speed. 100 km/h
Battery capacity 17,6 kWh as stated by manufacturer
4.5 Nissan Leaf

Make Nissan
Commercial designation Leaf
Wheelbase 2.700 mm

Power 80 kW
Tyres summer tyres, 205/55 R16
Page 14
4.6 Citroën Berlingo

Make Citroën
Commercial designation Berlingo
Wheelbase 2.693 mm Foto: Johann Wolf

Power 42 kW
Tyres winter tyres, 175/65 R14
Max. speed 100 km/h (0% road gradient)
Battery capacity 23,5 kWh as stated by manufacturer
Battery type Sodium nickel chloride (ZEBRA)
Page 15
5 Vehicle-specific results
The results for the individual vehicles are summarised below, with any particularities
highlighted. Owing to their size, the detailed data records can be downloaded from
the www.oevk.at homepage (direct download: http://www.xn--vk-
eka.at/aktuelles/2012/bev_data2.pdf).
5.1 Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion

In the case of the reference vehicle powered by diesel fuel we measured not only the
energy requirement but also the greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide CO2,
methane CH4 and nitrous oxide N2O) in vehicle operation as CO2 equivalent (CO2e).
Table 8 relates the greenhouse gas impact of methane and nitrous oxide to carbon
dioxide. The values relate to a time horizon of 100 years and were taken from [7].
Molecular
Greenhouse gas CO2 equivalent
formula
Carbon dioxide CO2 1
Methane CH4 25
Nitrous oxide N2O 298
Table 8: Greenhouse gas potential as CO2 equivalent [7]
The energy requirement as a function of the driving situation on a level road surface
at an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and without air conditioning) is
shown in Figure 4. The results already take account of the cold-start element.
It is noted that an optimum fuel consumption is achieved at a constant speed of 70

km/h. This optimum rate is confirmed by the energy requirement in the extra urban
driving situation. In this cycle segment the average speed is around 65 km/h. The
average speeds of the other cycles are as follows: stop-and-go 23 km/h; urban 18
km/h; motorway 102 km/h; Eco-Test 42 km/h.
Page 16
The conversion of the energy requirement from kWh/100km to l/100km is obtained by

dividing the stated values by 10 (=11,8 kWh/kg x 0,845 kg/l, i.e. diesel fuel value x
diesel density).
The picture for CO2e emissions is similar to the one shown in Figure 4. The results
are not discussed in detail here; we refer to the data record available online. For the
Eco-Test these results are stated as 102 g/km on a road gradient of 0% and at an
ambient temperature of 20 °C.
60
Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion
Energy requirement in kWh/100 km
50
40
30
20
10
Steady speeds
Figure 4: Energy requirement of the Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion as a function of the driving situation
on a level road surface and at an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and without air
conditioning, incl. cold-start element) in kWh/100km
The analysis of the influence of the road gradient on the energy requirement, shown
in Figure 5, reveals that the energy saving on a 2% descending gradient is always
less than the higher energy demand on a 2% ascending gradient.
Page 17
The following comparative calculations are based on the energy requirement for a +/-
2% road gradient. This corresponds to a run with a 50% share of ascending gradient
and a 50% share of descending gradient.
80
Energy requirement in kWh/100 km

70
60
50
40
30
20
0% road gradient +/-2% road gradient
10
+2% road gradient -2% road gradient
0
Steady speeds
Figure 5: Energy requirement of the Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion as a function of the driving situation
and the road gradient at an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and without air
conditioning, incl. cold-start element) in kWh/100km
The energy requirement shown in Figure 6 as a function of the ambient temperature

takes account of the additional energy requirement for running the vehicle at
temperatures lower and higher than 20 °C. Here the climate control (heating and air
conditioning) and the increased friction resistance and any deviating engine
behaviour are all influencing factors.
As expected, switching on the air conditioning at +30 °C results in a higher energy

requirement than using the waste heat from the engine at lower temperatures.
Page 18
50
45
Energy requirement in kWh/100km
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 6: Energy requirement of the Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion as a function of the ambient
temperature in the Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2% (incl. heating and air conditioning and cold-
start element) in kWh/100km
5.2 Mitsubishi i-MiEV

As mentioned at the outset, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV was measured and tested as part
of the project “Measurement of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV for energy use and range” [4]
commissioned by the ÖAMTC. The data obtained at the time was used for the test
aspects under consideration here and evaluated accordingly.
Figure 7 shows the energy requirement as a function of the driving situation on a

level road surface and at an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and
without air conditioning). Here the energy required for driving was taken into
consideration. It comprises the energy requirement of the electric motor incl. inverter
(AC/DC-DC/AC converter), the low-voltage system incl. DC/DC converter and the
climate control at temperatures above and below +20 °C (heating and air conditioning
systems). The charging and discharging loss of the high-voltage battery was also
taken into account.
Page 19
The values stated therefore describe the energy consumption realised from the
mains.
Unlike the comparison for the diesel-powered car with combustion engine the
optimum in energy terms is not achieved at an average speed of 70 km/h; instead, it
is directly proportional to the speed.
It is important to note at this point that no stop-and-go or road gradient data is

available for this vehicle.
Compared with the values in Figure 4 it is noted that the consumption values of the i-
MiEV without climate control are approx. 50% below those of the Polo.
35
Mitsubishi i-MiEV
30
25
20
15
10
Steady speeds
Figure 7: Energy requirement of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV as a function of the driving situation on a level
road surface and at an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and without air conditioning) in
kWh/100km
Figure 8 indicates the energy requirement as a function of the ambient temperature

in the Eco-Test on a 0% road gradient (incl. heating and air conditioning).
Page 20
Despite the sharp increase, the higher energy consumption due primarily to operating
the heating or air conditioning system is below that of the car powered by a
combustion engine, also at -20 °C.
35
Mitsubishi i-MiEV
30
25
20
15
10
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 8: Energy requirement of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV as a function of the ambient temperature in the
Eco-Test on a 0% road gradient (incl. heating and air conditioning) in kWh/100km
Efficiencies
The efficiencies of the electric voltage converters were determined as follows.
The efficiency of the on-board charger is 94%, regardless of the ambient

temperature.
As shown in Figure 9, the efficiency of the high-voltage battery at 88-95% depends

on the ambient temperature, with an optimum at +10 °C to 0 °C. The efficiency of the
high-voltage battery describes the ratio between the effective energy content of the
traction battery (excl. recuperation) and the energy fed in during the charging
process.
Page 21
The efficiency of the DC/DC converter and inverter was determined solely for +20 °C
and +30 °C in [4] and is indicated as 83% and 91% respectively.
100%
Mitsubishi i-MiEV
90%
80%
70%
Efficiency in %
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 9: Efficiency of the high-voltage battery of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV as a function of the ambient
temperature in %
Figure 10 indicates the energy balance of the high-voltage battery. It should be

noted that the charging losses incl. charge regulation amount to around 9%
regardless of the ambient temperature. By contrast the discharging losses showed
that the optimum, at 0 °C, is related to the ambient temperature.
In absolute terms the high-voltage battery provided an average of 14,8 kWh prior to
the start of the run. The maximum, at 15,3 kWh, was at 0 °C; the minimum, at 14,1
kWh, was at -20 °C.
The average charging time was 6 hours and 48 minutes.

Page 22
100%
90%
80%
Mitsubishi i-MiEV
Energy balance in %
70%
60%
50%
40%
30% Discharging losses
20% Charging losses incl. charge regulation (12V network)
10% Capacity prior to start of run
0%
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 10: Energy balance of the high-voltage battery of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV as a function of the
ambient temperature in %
The subordinate role of low-voltage consumer units with regard to output is also
illustrated by the average power consumption values indicated in Figure 11.
Besides the electric motor (power demand in the Eco-Test at -20 °C and 0% road
gradient: 5,7 kW), the dominant consumer unit with the i-MiEV is first and foremost
the heating system, with 3,8 kW at -20 °C.
Page 23
Power consumption value in W 300 282

Mitsubishi i-MiEV
250
200
200
127 134
150
76 90108
100
62 70 65
39 48 54 38 28 28 34 51
50
13 17 20
0
Rear window
rear
Radio
Driver's seat
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
Level 5
Level 6
Level 7
Level 8
Daytime running l.
Outside mirrors
Parking lights
Dipped lights
Brake lights
Full-beam lights
Level 9 (MAX)
front - level 1 (wet)

front - level 2 (wet)
Interior fan Lights Heating Windscreen
Figure 11: Energy consumption of various 12V consumer units on the Mitsubishi i-MiEV
Range
Figure 12 shows the maximum ranges2 achievable in the Eco-Test with one battery
charge on a level road surface as a function of the ambient temperature. An energy
reserve of 25 km was taken into account and is indicated on the graph.
2
Any slight deviations from [4] result from the calculation method adapted for the purposes of this
project. In [4] the vehicle was driven until it switched itself off automatically, at which point the mileage
was logged. In this study the positively completed segments of the cycle (urban, extra urban and
motorway) were used and related to the available battery capacity.
Page 24
200
Mitsubishi i-MiEV +/-2% road gradient
180
Interior temperature: 22°C
160 Air
Heating ↓... Energy reserve 25 km
conditioning
140
Test cycle: Eco-Test
120
Range in km
108
101
100
88
73
80
66
57
60
40
20
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature in °C
Figure 12: Range of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV as a function of the ambient temperature in the Eco-Test on
a road gradient of 0 %
5.3 Mercedes Benz A-Klasse E-Cell

Figure 13 indicates the energy requirement (incl. electric motor, inverter, low-voltage
system, DC/DC converter, and charging and discharging losses of the high-voltage
battery) of the E-CELL as a function of the driving situation, on a road gradient of +/-
2% and an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and without air
conditioning). The values stated describe the energy consumption realised from the
mains.
As previously shown in Figure 7, the energy requirement of the electric motor is

directly proportional to the speed, unlike the energy requirement of the combustion
engine (see Figure 4).
As expected, the combustion engine car, which is one vehicle size larger (compared
with the i-MiEV – see Section 4), has a commensurately higher energy requirement.
Page 25
Energy requirement in kWh/100km 40

Mercedes Benz A-Klasse E-Cell
35
30
25
20
15
10
Steady speeds
Figure 13: Energy requirement of the Mercedes Benz A-Class E-CELL as a function of the driving
situation on a road gradient of +/-2% and at an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and
without air conditioning) in kWh/100km

in the Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2% (incl. heating and air conditioning). It is
noted that at -10 °C and -20 °C the energy requirement of the E-CELL is higher than
that of the Polo (see also Figure 6). The higher heating requirement at lower
temperatures and the increasing charging and discharging losses mean that at these
low temperatures the improved efficiency of the electrical drive train is offset.
Page 26
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 14: Energy requirement of the Mercedes Benz A-Class E-CELL as a function of the ambient
temperature in the Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2% (incl. heating and air conditioning) in
kWh/100km
Efficiencies
The efficiencies of the electric voltage converters were determined as follows:
The efficiency of the on-board charger is 89%, regardless of the ambient

temperature.
The efficiency of the high-voltage battery is between 85% and 93% and, compared
with the i-MiEV, does not achieve its maximum at +10 °C to 0 °C but at ambient
temperatures of +20 °C to +30 °C. See also Figure 15. It is assumed that this is due
to a diverging thermal management of the battery.
The efficiency of the DC/DC converter and the inverter could not be determined for
design reasons (both inside a joint liquid-cooled housing).
Page 27
100%
90%
80%
70%
Efficiency in %
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 0 0 0 0 0
Ambient temperature
Figure 15: Efficiency of the high-voltage battery of the Mercedes Benz A-Class E-CELL as a function
of the ambient temperature in %
Unlike the i-MiEV the charging losses (incl. charge regulation) are not independent of
the ambient temperature; they range between 16% and 26%. The discharging losses
also showed that the optimum, at +20 °C and +30 °C, was also related to the ambient
temperature. As Figure 16 indicates, overall the high-voltage battery achieved its
optimum energy balance at +20 °C.
the start of the run. The maximum, at 34,7 kWh, was at +20 °C; the minimum, at 32,4
kWh, was at +10 °C.

Page 28
100%
90%
80%
70%
Energy balance in %
60%
50%
40%
30%

Charging losses incl. Charge regulation (12V network)
10%
Capacity prior start of run
0%
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperaturer
Figure 16: Energy balance of the high-voltage battery of the Mercedes Benz A-Class E-CELL as a
function of the ambient temperature in %
The power consumption of individual low-voltage consumer units is summarised in

Figure 17.
400 380
Mercedes Benz
Power consumption value in W
350
A-Klasse E-Cell 290
300
250
218
200
139
150
75 119 119 116
100 55
33 58 29 58
50 22 15
15
0

Figure 17: Energy consumption of various 12V consumer units on the Mercedes Benz A-Class
E-CELL
Page 29
Range
Figure 18 shows the ranges achievable in the Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2%
with one battery charge as a function of the ambient temperature.
200
Air 175 Heating Mercedes Benz A-Klasse E-Cell
180 conditioning +/-2% road gradient
160
147 147 ↓... Energy reserve 25 km
140
126
110
Range in km
120
90
100
80
60
40
20
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Figure 18: : Range of the Mercedes Benz A-Class E-CELL as a function of the ambient temperature in
the Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2 %
5.4 Smart Fortwo Electric Drive

Figure 19 indicates the energy requirement of the Fortwo (incl. electric motor,
inverter, low-voltage system, DC/DC converter, and charging and discharging losses
of the high-voltage battery) on a road gradient of +/-2% and an ambient temperature
of 20 °C (without heating and without air conditioning) as a function of the driving
situation. The values stated describe the energy consumption realised from the
mains.
The consumption values achieved are well below the consumption values of the E-
CELL, which is one vehicle category larger, but only slightly above those of the i-
MiEV. This is due to the fact that, compared with the Fortwo, the i-MiEV has better
Page 30
road resistance values. As stated in Section 4, both the E-CELL and the Fortwo were
tested with winter tyres, hence the higher rolling resistance values.
This project is about creating an average electric vehicle from the data collated from
all the electric vehicles tested. So while this procedure is disadvantageous for the
comparison of the individual vehicles themselves, it is beneficial for determining
average real-life driving situations.
25
Smart Fortwo Electric Drive
20
15
10
Steady speeds
Figure 19: Energy requirement of the Smart Fortwo Electric Drive as a function of the driving situation
on a road gradient of +/-2% and an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and without air
conditioning) in kWh/100km

(incl. heating and air conditioning) in the Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2%. It is
noted that at -20 °C just under twice as much energy is required to cover a distance
of 100 km than at +20 °C.
Page 31
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 20: Energy requirement of the Smart Fortwo Electric Drive as a function of the ambient
temperature in the Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2% (incl. heating and air conditioning) in
kWh/100km
Efficiencies
The efficiency of the on-board charger is 90%, regardless of ambient temperature. As

was the case with the E-CELL, the high-voltage battery achieves its maximum
efficiency of 86% to 94% at ambient temperatures of +20 °C to +30 °C. See also
Figure 21. The efficiency of the DC/DC converter and the inverter could not be
determined for design reasons.
Page 32
100%
90%
80%
70%
Efficiency in %
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 21: Efficiency of the high-voltage battery of the Smart Fortwo Electric Drive as a function of the
ambient temperature in %
The charging losses (incl. charge regulation) depend on the ambient temperature
and amount to 15% to 25%. The discharging losses showed that the optimum, at 0
°C and +10 °C, was also related to the ambient temperature. Overall the high-voltage
battery achieves its best energy balance at +10 °C and +20 °C. As Figure 22 shows,
however, the ratio of usable capacity prior to the start of the run is more or less at the
same level between +30 °C and 0 °C.
the start of the run. The maximum, at 17,8 kWh, was at +20 °C and +30 °C; the
minimum, at 16,5 kWh, was at -20 °C.

Page 33
100%
90%
80%
70%
Energy balance in %
60%
50% Smart Fortwo Electric Drive
40%
30%

10%
Capacity prior to start of run
0%
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 22: Energy balance of the high-voltage battery on the Smart Fortwo Electric Drive as a function
of the ambient temperature in %
The power consumption values for the low-voltage consumer units measured are
summarised in Figure 23.
300
273

250
203 198
200
137 155
150
90
100
74 74
50 35 54 36
50
16
0

Figure 23: Energy consumption of various 12V consumer units on the Smart Fortwo Electric Drive
Page 34
Range
Figure 24 shows the ranges achievable in the Eco-Test with one battery charge on a
road gradient of +/-2% as a function of the ambient temperature.
200
180
+/-2% road gradient
160 Air
conditioning
Heating
140
125 ↓... Energy reserve 25 km
Range in km
120
106 Test cycle: Eco-Test
97 89
100
77
80
70
60
40
20
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Figure 24: Range of the Smart Fortwo Electric Drive as a function of the ambient temperature in the
Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2 %
5.5 Nissan Leaf

The Leaf, a car in a vehicle category comparable to that of the E-CELL, requires less
energy, particularly at low speeds. Figure 25 indicates the energy requirement (incl.
electric motor, inverter, low-voltage system, DC/DC converter, and charging and
discharging losses of the high-voltage battery) on a road gradient of +/-2% and an
ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and without air conditioning) as a
function of the driving situation. The values stated describe the energy consumption
realised from the mains.
This is due on the one hand to the Leaf’s lower road resistance values at low speeds
compared with the E-CELL. This in turn is due to the fact that the E-CELL was tested
with winter tyres while the Leaf was tested with summer tyres. The same arguments
Page 35
apply here as for the comparison between the Fortwo and i-MiEV. On the other hand,
the charging losses of the high-voltage battery in particular are lower.
35
Nissan Leaf
30
25
20
15
10
Steady Speed
Figure 25: Energy requirement of the Nissan Leaf as a function of the driving situation on a road
gradient of +/-2% and at an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and without air

(incl. heating and air conditioning) in the Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2%. It is
noted that even at -20 °C the energy requirement remains below that of the Polo (see
also Figure 6).
Page 36
45
Nissan Leaf
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 26: Energy requirement of the Nissan Leaf as a function of the ambient temperature in the Eco-
Test on a road gradient of +/-2 % (incl. heating and air conditioning) in kWh/100km
Efficiencies
The efficiency of the on-board charger is 89%, regardless of ambient temperature.
The high-voltage battery achieves its maximum efficiency at an ambient temperature

of +30 °C. The range is between 90% and 96%. See also Figure 27.
The efficiency of the DC/DC converter could not be determined for design reasons.
The inverter has an efficiency of 96%, regardless of the ambient temperature.
Page 37
100%
Nissan Leaf
90%
80%
70%
Efficiency in %
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 27: Efficiency of the high-voltage battery of the Nissan Leaf as a function of the ambient
temperature in %
The charging losses (incl. charge regulation) are independent of the ambient
temperature and amount to 15%. By contrast the discharging losses depend on the
ambient temperature and range between 3% and 9%. Overall the high-voltage
battery achieves its best energy balance at +30 °C. As Figure 28 shows, the
proportion of usable capacity prior to the start of the run is more or less at the same
level between +30 °C and +10 °C.

Page 38
100%
90%
80%
70%
Energy balance in %
60%
Nissan Leaf
50%
40%
30%
Discharging losses
20%
0%
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 28: Energy balance of the high-voltage battery of the Nissan Leaf as a function of the ambient
temperature in %
summarised in Figure 29. Activating the parking lights darkens the dashboard
illumination. This results in a decrease in the low-voltage power demand, which
means that, with the parking lights on, 19 W less power is required than otherwise.
Page 39
250
Nissan Leaf
Powe consumption value in W
193
200
175 178
150 143
132
112
88
100
82
70
62
42 48 35
50
15 20 20
2
0

Figure 29: Energy consumption of various 12V consumer units on the Nissan Leaf
Range
The Leaf’s small range is due to the fact that the vehicle, as a compact category car,
is only equipped with a battery that corresponds in size to a sub-compact category (i-
MiEV, Smart). The E-CELL, also a compact category vehicle, has around ¾ more
usable energy on board.
Page 40
200
Nissan Leaf
180
+/-2% road gradient
160
Air
Heating Interior temperature: 22°C
140 conditioning
↓... Energy reserve 25 km
Range in km
120
95 101 90 Test cycle: Eco-Test
100
78
80
66
60 56
40
20
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Figure 30: Range of the Nissan Leaf as a function of the ambient temperature in the Eco-Test on a
road gradient of +/-2 %
5.6 Citroën Berlingo

The Citroën Berlingo was measured and tested as a supplement to the first edition of
this study [8]. Unlike the e-vehicles assessed previously (which use a lithium-ion
battery as the traction battery) the Berlingo is fitted with sodium nickel chloride
battery. Moreover, the vehicle is used as a light commercial vehicle (two-seater with
loading space) and not as a motor vehicle whose primary purpose is to transport
passengers.
Figure 31 illustrates the energy requirement (incl. electric motor, inverter, low-voltage
system, DC/DC converter, and charging and discharging losses of the high-voltage
battery) on a road gradient of +/-2% and an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without
heater and without air conditioning) as a function of the driving situation. The values
stated describe the energy consumption realised from the mains.
Page 41
The higher energy requirement compared with the E-CELL and the Leaf is
attributable only in part to the Berlingo’s higher driving resistance. The far more
important difference with the E-CELL and the Leaf is the lower usable capacity of the
traction battery in relation to the draw-off from the mains. More on this aspect below.
However it should be noted at this point that the maximum speed of 100 km/h
reached on a road gradient of 0% is not due to an electronic or mechanical limitation
of the design speed, but to the maximum continuous output capability of the traction
battery.
This means that in the course of carrying out the motorway motoring profile with a
gradient of -2% the vehicle fell just short of the target requirement of 130 km/h, at 125
km/h. In the course of the motorway run with a +2% gradient the maximum
achievable speed dropped to 93 km/h.
The maximum power output achievable on a sustained basis with the traction battery
is indicated at around 20 kW. A sustained power requirement over and above that
level results in the traction battery overheating and subsequently in a reduced output.
Page 42
40
Citroën Berlingo
35
30
25
20
15
10
Steady speeds
Figure 31: Energy requirement of the Citroën Berlingo as a function of the driving situation on a road
gradient of +/-2% and at an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heater and without air
conditioning), in kWh/100km
As the Berlingo is equipped with neither air conditioning nor electrical heating, the
energy requirement as a function of the ambient temperature, as shown in Figure 32,
shows a pattern that differs from the other battery electric vehicles.
As ambient temperatures increase (+30 °C), the energy requirement drops slightly
due to better oil and grease lubrication properties. Compared with the other battery
electric vehicles tested, this advantage is not compensated by the electrical air
conditioning system.
The increase in the energy requirement at lower ambient temperatures (below +20
°C) is not as pronounced as on the other e-vehicles tested due to the non-existent
electrical heating system; it is explained by the higher friction resistance at low
temperatures and the (electric) passenger compartment fan used to operate the
(non-electrical) parking heater, which is used as a passenger compartment heater
when the vehicle is running.
Page 43
40
Citroën Berlingo
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 32: Energy requirement of the Citroën Berlingo as a function of the ambient temperature in the
Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2 % (incl. heating), in kWh/100km
Efficiencies
The efficiency of the on-board charger is 85% to 91% and decreases at low ambient
temperatures. The additional AC/DC converter fitted to the vehicle is used during the
charging process to supply the low-voltage network directly from the mains at
ambient temperatures above 0 °C; it has an efficiency of between 71% and 79%.
The efficiency of the high-voltage battery at 75% to 78% is relatively independent of

the ambient temperature. See also Figure 33.
The efficiency of the DC/DC converter was ascertained as 90% at an ambient

temperature of +20 °C. At low temperatures the efficiency drops to around 70%. The
efficiency of the inverter is 93% to 95% and increases as the ambient temperature
drops.
Page 44
100%
Citroën Berlingo
90%
80% C
70%
Efficiency in %
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 33: Efficiency of the high-voltage battery of the Citroën Berlingo as a function of the ambient
temperature, in %
The chart shown in Figure 34 is based on a situation where the vehicle was
connected to the 230V mains until shortly before the test. In other words, the fact that
the traction battery was heated was the result of drawing additional current off the
230V mains and not down to the traction battery itself. Any capacity losses in the
conditioning phase were therefore precluded. The energy requirement for
maintaining the operating temperature of the traction battery during the conditioning
phase (after the fully charged state and prior to the start of the run) was not taken into
account in the chart and is to be discussed separately below.
13% (at +30 °C) to 18% (at -20 °C) of the energy drawn off the 230V mains was
expended on charging the traction battery (charging losses incl. charge regulation).
This is consistent with the findings from [9], which ascertained charging losses of
14% and 25% (Fiat 500 and Th!nk City).
In relation to the energy drawn off the 230V mains the discharging losses of the
Berlingo (approx. 20%) are around 9 percentage points higher than those of the
Page 45
Th!nk City tested in [9]. This means that only 61% (at -20 °C) to 68% (at +30 °C) of
the energy drawn off the 230V mains is available during the drive.
100%
90%
80%
70%
Energy balance in %
60%
Citroën Berlingo
50%
40%
30%
Discharging losses
20%
Charging losses incl. charge regulation (12V network)
0%
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 34: Energy balance of the high-voltage battery of the Citroën Berlingo as a function of the
ambient temperature, in %
summarised in Figure 35.
Page 46
250
229
Citroën Berlingo
200
176
164
150
110
100
61 57
52 44 44
50 34 37 32
6
0

Figure 35: Energy consumption of various 12V consumer units on the Citroën Berlingo
Range
As previously mentioned, the fact that no air conditioning system is fitted and that the
passenger compartment heater is not electrically powered means that the energy
requirement is influenced merely by the driving resistance related to the ambient
temperature and the efficiencies of the electrical components.
The Berlingo’s modest ranges are due primarily to the low usable capacity of the
traction battery for this vehicle category.
Page 47
200
Citroën Berlingo +/-2% road gradient
180
160
Air
Heating ↓... Energy reserve 25 km
140 conditioning
Range in km
120
100
86 85 81 79 76
80 68
60
40
20
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Figure 36: Range of the Citroën Berlingo as a function of the ambient temperature in the Eco-Test on
a road gradient of +/-2%
Passenger compartment heater

As mentioned earlier, the Berlingo does not have an electrically powered passenger
compartment heater but a petrol-powered parking heater, which is also used in
vehicle operation to control the climate of the vehicle interior. This means that the
energy of the traction battery does not have to be taken into account for the heating
of the passenger compartment.
However, using petrol to run the parking heater results in emissions during use. The
fuel consumption, CO2 emissions and emissions of the limited pollutants CO, HC and
NOx were ascertained for ambient temperatures below +20 °C. As was the case also
with the electrically powered heater, a temperature of +22°C was set the vehicle’s
passenger compartment during the test.
The results are summarised in

Table 9. The temperature-controlled parking heater operated at two levels (partial
and full load) is activated increasingly often at lower temperatures and more
frequently at full load level.
Page 48
The fuel consumption and the parking heater emissions are to be taken into account
as part of any life cycle assessment of this electric vehicle.
Insofar as it is compared with the limits for cars of the Euro 6 legislation category, the
emissions level is well below the stipulations of 1 g/km CO, 0,1 g/km HC and 0,06
g/km NOx. Moreover no hydrocarbon emissions were detected.
Ambient CO2 CO NOx Consumption

temperature [g/km] [g/km] [g/km] [l/100km]
+10°C 9,6 0,004 0,004 0,4

0°C 16,7 0,007 0,007 0,7
-10°C 26,1 0,013 0,011 1,1
-20°C 31,9 0,018 0,014 1,3
Table 9: Emissions and fuel consumption of the passenger compartment heater (parking heater) of the
Citroën Berlingo at different ambient temperatures and an passenger compartment temperature of
+22 °C
Traction battery climate control

The sodium nickel chloride battery installed on the Berlingo is a high-temperature
battery. Batteries of this type require an operating temperature of around 300 °C [10].
In the Berlingo’s case the lower temperature level is around 250 °C.
Whenever the traction battery is connected with the 230V mains, the current required
for temperature control is taken from the mains.
Table 10 indicates the energy requirement per hour (from the 230V mains) as a
function of the ambient temperature.
As soon as the vehicle is disconnected from the 230V mains, it is the energy stored
in the traction battery that has to be used to maintain the temperature level. The
impact on the traction battery’s capacity was studied at an ambient temperature of
+10 °C. It dropped by 84 Wh per hour.
Page 49
[11] indicates the thermal loss of a sodium nickel chloride battery at around 5 W per
kWh of storage capacity and therefore provides a comparable value. The two
vehicles tested in [12] (Th!nk City and Fiat 500) show comparable energy
consumption values (from the 230V mains) in standby operation (vehicle charged
and at a standstill) of 104 and 167 Wh/h respectively. The negative impact on the
standby consumption, at lower ambient temperatures, is also confirmed.
Ambient
[Wh/h]
temperature
+30°C 117
+20°C 100
+10°C 146
0°C 171
-10°C 177
-20°C 229
Table 10: Energy required per hour from the 230V mains to maintain the operating temperature of the
traction battery of the Citroën Berlingo at different ambient temperatures
The energy required to heat the traction battery when the vehicle is not hooked up (to
the 230V mains) means that the battery is depleted after 8 days or has reached the
charge state shown by the battery when the vehicle switches itself off automatically
during use, preventing any further operation. However a battery defect is not
expected at this point.
Page 50
5.7 Average e-vehicle

To enable a comparison between the reference vehicle (VW Polo) and an average
electric vehicle, we combined the results from the four electric vehicles with lithium-
ion traction battery using arithmetic averaging. As its vehicle concept differs
significantly (no air conditioning system, petrol-powered parking heater as a
passenger compartment heater, sodium nickel chloride traction battery) the Citroën
Berlingo was not included in the comparison.
This average e-vehicle therefore corresponds to an average electric vehicle with

lithium-ion battery of the type currently available on the market. We took account not
only of the ambient temperature-related climate control of the vehicle interior but also
the sets of tyres used throughout the year (summer and winter tyres).
Only the radio and – where available – the daytime running lights were taken into
account as active low-voltage consumer units. However, as the above data clearly
shows, these are not essential consumer units. Moreover, it should be noted that the
combustion engine vehicle also has a higher energy requirement when its low-
voltage consumer units are active. So any potential error in such a direct comparison
may be regarded as negligible.
Based on the available data any scenarios involving low-voltage consumer units can
be calculated.
The high-voltage battery of the average electric vehicle can therefore be described
as follows:
kWh %
Energy drawn from the mains 27,9 kWh 100,0 %
Charging losses incl. Charge regulation (12V network) 4,9 kWh 17,5 %
Discharging losses 2,0 kWh 7,2 %
Usable capacity of the high-voltage battery 21,0 kWh 75,3 %
As Figure 37 shows, the energy requirement of the average electric vehicle at an
ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating or air conditioning) and on a road
gradient of +/-2% can be described for the different driving situations considered. In
Page 51
the Eco-Test the vehicle requires approx. 22 kWh/100 km at an ambient temperature

of 20 °C.
35
Average e-vehicle (20 °C)
30
25
20
15
10
Steady speeds
Figure 37: Energy requirement of the average e-vehicle as a function of the driving situation on a road
gradient of +/-2% and at an ambient temperature of 20 °C (without heating and without air
The influence of the ambient temperature (due to heating or air conditioning) on the
energy requirement of the average electric vehicle is shown in Figure 38.
Page 52
45
Average e-vehicle
(Eco-Test)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Ambient temperature
Figure 38: Energy requirement of the average e-vehicle as a function of the ambient temperature in
the Eco-Test on a road gradient of +/-2% (incl. heating and air conditioning) in kWh/100km
The ranges achievable with the average electric vehicle are summarised in Figure
39, depending on the ambient temperature. The average electric vehicle obtained
here through calculation achieves a range of 130 km at +20 °C (without heating and
with out air conditioning). At -20 °C it would still be able to cover 70 km.
Page 53
200
Average e-vehicle
180
Air
160 conditioning
Heating Interior temperature: 22°C
↓... Energy reserve 25 km
140 130
112
Range in km
120 110
94
100
82
80 70
60
40
20
0
+30°C +20°C +10°C 0°C -10°C -20°C
Figure 39: Range of the average e-vehicle as a function of the ambient temperature in the Eco-Test on
a road gradient of +/-2 %
Page 54
5.8 Excursus: Trend in the energy density of “fossil fuel” and

“battery” energy sources
As Figure 40 shows, the energy density of diesel fossil fuel some 150 years ago was
around 470 times that of the lead batteries (PbA) of the day.
The energy densities of today’s batteries such as nickel metal hydride (NiMH) or
lithium ion (Li-Ion) batteries are approx. 8 times higher than those of the original lead
batteries. But even the next anticipated development stage in lithium-ion batteries (Li-
Ion Gen2), with an energy density 12 times that of lead batteries, will still be 39 times
lower than the energy density of diesel fossil fuel. [13] The battery concepts involving
lithium-sulphur and lithium-air are long-term technologies for the period beyond 2025
[9].
This clearly shows that only an exponential leap in developments can solve the
problems relating to the range provided by battery electric vehicles.
11.800
1.200
12.000
1.000
Energy density in Wh/kg
775
800
600
375
400
240-300
90-190
200
60-120
25
0
1859 1980 1991 20xx 20xx 20xx 1865
PbA NiMH Li-Ion Li-Ion Li-S Li-Luft Diesel
Gen2
Figure 40: Trend in the energy density of various energy sources [13], [14] [own representation]
Page 55
6 Comparison of vehicle concepts and real operating

conditions
The following compares the annual energy requirement, greenhouse gas emissions
and energy costs of the average battery electric vehicle with those of the car with
ultramodern combustion engine.
The comparison is made for both Austria and the European Union under real
operating conditions. By that we mean that
 the operation of the heating system or air conditioning system is taken into
account based on the monthly average temperature;
 the influence of the different driving situations
o stop-and-go,
o urban,
o extra urban,
o and motorway are taken into consideration;
 the energy requirement is based on average road gradients of +/-2% (50% of
the distance with an ascending gradient and 50% with a descending gradient);
 the cold-start behaviour of the car with combustion engine is also included in
the calculations;
 the greenhouse gas emissions generated as part of the energy provision
(diesel and electricity) and the energy required for the provision are taken into
account.
The energy required to manufacture the battery electric vehicles (construction of the
plant facilities, vehicle manufacture, recycling, etc.) and the greenhouse gas
emissions generated as a result are not taken into account due to the difficulty
involved in estimating the long-term trends in high-voltage battery manufacture.
According to [1], the energy input required to manufacture the high-voltage battery of
a midsize vehicle is around 11 kWh/100km. [2] states that the (purely fossil fuel)
energy input required to manufacture the high-voltage battery is around 8,5
kWh/100km. Section 6.2, Figure 45, provides an illustration of how the energy input
required to manufacture a high-voltage battery might be taken into account.
Page 56
6.1 Outline conditions

Two types of motorist were defined to illustrate different user behaviours.
Urban motorist:
The monthly mileage was defined as 625 km, equivalent to an annual mileage of
7.500 km. Based on the above assumptions this urban motoring profile comprises the
following driving situations:
 Stop-and-go 25%
 Urban 40%
 Extra urban 30%
 Motorway 5%
Interurban motorist:
For this user model the annual mileage was defined as 15.000 km, spread equally
over the individual months of the year. The breakdown of the motoring profile is as
follows:
 Stop-and-go 5%
 Urban 30 %
 Extra urban 40 %
 Motorway 25 %
Average ambient temperatures were specified for Austria and the European Union to
determine the heating and air conditioning requirements for the vehicle interior. The
climate data taken from [15] is based on monthly averages over the reference period
1971-2000.
For Austria the monthly average values of the following towns and cities were used:
 Innsbruck,
 Klagenfurt and
 Vienna
Page 57
The average monthly temperatures in Europe were based on three northern and
three southern cities, specifically:
 Hamburg
 London
 Stockholm
 Athens
 Madrid
 Rome
Table 11 lists the resulting monthly averages for the ambient temperature for Austria
and the European Union.
Monthly average Austria Europe

January -1 °C 5 °C
February 1 °C 5 °C
March 6 °C 7 °C
April 9 °C 10 °C
May 15 °C 15 °C
June 17 °C 19 °C
July 19 °C 21 °C
August 19 °C 21 °C
September 15 °C 18 °C
Okctober 10 °C 13 °C
November 4 °C 9 °C
December 0 °C 6 °C
Table 11: Average ambient temperatures for Austria and the European Union
The energy input required for the provision of diesel fuel and electricity was taken
from [16]. The bio-diesel admixed to the diesel fossil fuel was taken from [17] for
Austria and taken into account in the calculations. The bio-diesel fuel share in the
European Union was assumed at an average of 7 % by volume. This results in the
following energy inputs per kWh of energy. As the upstream chains differ in Austria
Page 58
and the European Union (e.g. for electricity generation) the energy requirement (x
kWh of input per 1kWh of output) in Austria differs from that of the European Union.
 Austria
o 1,6 kWh/kWh electricity
o 1,2 kWh/kWh diesel
 European Union
o 2,8 kWh/kWh electricity
o 1,1 kWh/kWh diesel
The greenhouse gas emissions generated for the provision of electricity was likewise
determined using [16]. The greenhouse gas emissions generated in providing the
Austrian diesel fuel (incl. consideration of the share of bio-diesel) are based on [18];
those of the European Union, on [19].
The emission factors are as follows:
 Austria
o 195,6 gCO2e/kWh electricity
o 56 gCO2e/kWh diesel
 European Union
o 479,7 gCO2e/kWh electricity
o 60,5 gCO2e/kWh diesel
For the calculation of the annual energy costs the energy prices incl. taxes and duties
were taken from [20] for electricity and from [21] for diesel fuel. The proportion of
taxes and duties for diesel was taken from [22]; in Austria it amounts to 47% of the
end price (incl. taxes and duties). An average value of 46% was chosen for the
European Union. The energy prices excl. taxes and duties were taken from [20] for
electricity.
 Energy prices in Austria incl. / excl. taxes and duties
o 0,195 / 0,141 €/kWh for electricity
o 0,145 / 0,076 €/kWh for diesel
 Energy prices in the European Union incl. / excl. taxes and duties
o 0,170 / 0,123 €/kWh for electricity
o 0,149 / 0,081 €/kWh for diesel
Page 59
6.2 Comparison of the annual energy requirement

The comparison of the annual energy requirement takes into account the outline
conditions set out in the previous Section. The energy requirement was adapted
accordingly by interpolating the available data (10 °C increments) with the monthly
average ambient temperatures for Austria and the European Union.
Figure 41 shows the annual energy requirement of an urban motorist in Austria. It

is noted that the energy requirement for both the energy provision and for running the
vehicle is lower in the case of the e-vehicle.
Overall the diesel vehicle requires 35% more energy per year in urban traffic than the
e-vehicle. The substantial additional energy required results primarily from the 75%
higher energy requirement for running the vehicle. As mentioned in Section 5, the
energy requirement of battery electric vehicles is directly proportional to the travelling
speed. In the case of the car powered by a combustion engine the optimum efficiency
lies at far higher speeds than those achieved in this scenario (urban traffic).
At the average ambient temperatures prevailing in Austria the negative impact of the
energy-intensive heating system in battery electric vehicles is not such that it offsets
the efficiency benefits of the drive train.
The annual energy requirement for an urban motorist in the European Union is
shown in Figure 42. As the average ambient temperature tends to be higher, the
energy required to run the vehicle is slightly lower.
What is key, however, is the significantly higher amount of energy required,

compared with the levels for Austria, for the energy provision of electricity due to the
difference in energy mix (see Section 6.1). As a result the annual energy requirement
of the e-vehicle is only 33% below that of the diesel vehicle.
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It is important to note that this calculation does not take account of the production of
e-vehicles, which at this point in time is still more energy intensive (due to the high-
voltage battery).
4.500
Running of the vehicle (incl. Charging/discharging losses)
Energy provision
4.000
Energy requirement in kWh/year
3.500
3.000
2.500
3.214
2.000 1.836
1.500
1.000
500 1.010
617
0
e-car Diesel car
Figure 41: Annual energy requirement of an urban motorist in Austria (7,500 km/year)
6.000
Energy provision
5.000
4.000 1.709
3.000
2.000 3.207
3.104
1.000
420
0
e-car Diesel car
Figure 42: Annual energy requirement of an urban motorist in the EU (7,500 km/year)
Page 61
The annual energy requirement of an interurban motorist is roughly twice as high

as that of an urban motorist. This is due primarily to the mileage, which is twice as
high.
The energy required to run an e-car in Austria increases merely from 24,5
kWh/100km (urban motorist) to 25,5 kWh/100km (interurban motorist). Due to the
lower average ambient temperatures the values for Europe are 22,8 kWh/100km and
24,2 kWh/100km.
In the case of a diesel car operated in Austria the increase in the average speed due
to the higher extra-urban share results in an improved vehicle efficiency and
therefore in a reduction in the energy requirement from 42,9 kWh/100km (urban
motorist) to 42,1 kWh/100km (interurban motorist). The same applies for Europe.
Here the reduction is from 42,8 kWh/100km to 42,0 kWh/100km.
As Figure 43 shows, this results in a 27% higher energy requirement for an

interurban motorist running a diesel car in Austria compared with an e-car.
8.000
Energy provision
7.000
6.000
5.000
6.322
4.000 3.820
3.000
2.000
1.000 2.101
1.214
0
e-car Diesel car
Figure 43: Annual energy requirement of an interurban motorist in Austria (15,000 km/year)
Page 62
As Figure 44 shows, the picture is quite different for an interurban motorist in

Europe. While the energy required to run a vehicle is below the values for Austria
already in the case of the urban motorist, due to the temperatures, the energy
required for energy provision means that the e-car has a 43% higher annual energy
requirement than the diesel car.
As was the case with the urban motorist, the manufacture of e-vehicles is still more
energy intensive at this point (due to the high-voltage battery) and is not taken into
account in this calculation.
12.000
Energy provision
10.000
3.627
8.000
6.000
4.000 6.302
6.586
2.000
826
0
e-car Diesel car
Figure 44: Annual energy requirement of an interurban motorist in the EU (15,000 km/year)
To illustrate the relevance of the high-voltage battery manufacture for the total energy
requirement, Figure 45 takes account of the additional energy input compared with
Figure 44.
The manufacture of the high-voltage battery accounts for 13% of the annual energy
requirement.3
3
The energy required to manufacture the vehicle (bodywork, chassis, interior equipment, etc.) was not
taken into account as it is comparable to that of the conventional diesel car.
Page 63
12.000
1.605
10.000
Energy requirement in kWh/Jahr
13%
31%
3.627
8.000
6.000 56%
4.000
6.586 Running of the vehicle (incl.
charging/discharging losses)
2.000
Energy provision
0 High-voltage battery manufacture

e-car
Figure 45: Annual energy requirement of an interurban motorist in the EU (15,000 km/year) incl.
manufacture of the high-voltage battery [1], [2] and [own calculations]
6.3 Comparison of annual greenhouse gas emissions

Overall the comparison of the calculated greenhouse gas emissions (as CO2
equivalent – CO2e) results in comparable statements.
Running an e-car does not produce any greenhouse gas emissions as the vehicle
uses electricity as its energy source. However, as a higher-value energy, electricity
does result in significantly higher greenhouse gas emissions than diesel fuel in the
course of its generation (see also Section 6.1).
As Figure 46 shows, the greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the provision of
energy in Austria for an e-car run by an urban motorist are twice as high as those of a
diesel car. Overall, the annual greenhouse gas emissions of the diesel car are 167%
higher.
Page 64
1.200
Energy provision
1.000
Greenhouse gas emissions in kg
800
CO2e/year
600
777
400
200 359
180
0
e-car Diesel car
Figure 46: Greenhouse gas emissions caused by an urban motorist in Austria per year
(7,500 km/year)
The greenhouse gas emissions caused by a motorist in Europe per year are shown
in Figure 47. The significantly higher greenhouse gas emissions, caused by the
provision of electricity in Europe, mean that the greenhouse gas emissions of the e-
car are only 17% lower.
As mentioned already in Section 6.2, the manufacture of e-vehicles is still more

energy intensive and therefore also more greenhouse gas intensive at this point (due
to the high-voltage battery) and is not taken into account in this calculation.
Page 65
1.200
Energy provision
1.000
800
CO2e/year
600 794
400 820
200
194
0
e-car Diesel car
Figure 47: Greenhouse gas emissions caused by an urban motorist in the EU per year
(7,500 km/year)
The picture for interurban motorists in Austria – Figure 48– and in Europe – Figure
49 – is similar to the one for urban motorists.
The fact that emission levels are twice as high as those for urban motorists is due
primarily to the fact that interurban motorists cover twice the mileage.
Contrary to the energy considerations, in the case of greenhouse gas emissions the
benefits of the e-car over the diesel car are maintained for interurban motorists in
Europe, at 12% (not taking into account the more greenhouse gas intensive
production of the e-car).
Page 66
2.500
Energy provision
2.000
1.500
CO2e/year
1.528
1.000
500
747
354
0
e-car Diesel car
Figure 48: Greenhouse gas emissions caused by an interurban motorist in Austria per year
(15,000 km/year)
2.500
Energy provision
2.000
1.500
CO2e/year
1.561
1.000
1.739
500
381
0
e-car Diesel car
Figure 49: Greenhouse gas emissions caused by an interurban motorist in the EU per year
(15,000 km/year)
Page 67
6.4 Comparison of annual energy costs

The energy costs for running the vehicle over the year are summarised in Figure 50.
These costs, incl. taxes and duties, are always more favourable for the e-car,
regardless of whether the car is driven in Austria or in Europe and whether it is driven
by an urban or interurban motorist.
However the comparison of energy costs excl. taxes and duties shows that running
the e-car in an urban environment results in higher costs, both in Austria and in the
European Union. The higher specific energy costs of electricity (see Section 6.1)
cannot be offset by the higher energy efficiency of the e-car (in a comparison
adjusted for taxes and duties).
1.200
Taxes and duties Energy costs excl. Taxes and duties
Urban motorist Interban motorist
1.000
Energy costs in €/year
800
436 430
205
600
168
400 219
222
99 539 483 512
79 446
200
259 246 210 260
0
e-car Diesel e-car Diesel e-car Diesel e-car Diesel
car car car car
Austria Austria EU EU Austria Austria EU EU
Figure 50: Comparison of the annual energy costs for running the vehicle
The aspects of the acquisition costs and the running costs have already been
extensively explored in [3]. As the market survey carried out in [23] shows, the
willingness of customers to accept a higher price for an eco-friendly car is very low.
31% would be willing to pay a higher price of less than € 1.000. A further 44% would
agree to higher acquisition costs of less than € 2.000. Only 4% of those surveyed
would be willing to pay a higher price of more than € 3.000.
Page 68
The estimate of the acquisition costs of a lower mid-range vehicle (reference year
2015) carried out in [24] shows that the extra costs tolerated by the customer cannot
be achieved.
Given the discrepancy shown between the willingness to pay and the anticipated
acquisition costs, extremely weak sales figures are to be expected if no special
incentive schemes are put in place.
The costs for a private charging station were not taken into account as in the short
and medium term the vehicles are charged using household sockets. The production
costs of intelligent charging stations for private use are estimated at € 700 for the
year 2020 [25].
Page 69
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Battery Electric Vehicles in Practice

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Battery Electric Vehicles in Practice

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austrian society of automotive engineers

Study published by the Austrian Society of Automotive

Politicians and the media, in particular, consider electrification of individual motor

One question remains to be answered: to what extent do electric battery passenger

Dipl. Ing. Oliver Schmerold Univ.-Prof. Dr. H.P. Lenz

3 Measurement programme and measurement technology .............................. 4

4 Vehicles assessed ....................................................................................... 11

4.1 Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion........................................................................ 11

5.1 Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion........................................................................ 15

6.1 Outline conditions ......................................................................................... 56

September 2012 B12020

(heating/air conditioning of the vehicle interior) and by replicating various motoring

The energy required to operate an e-car in a European city is 53% that of a

Diesel car 42,9 100 % 42,1 100 %

Diesel car 42,8 100 % 42,0 100 %

Diesel car 51,1 100 % 50,2 100 %

Diesel car 48,4 100 % 47,5 100 %

Manufacturing e-cars is still energy-intensive (because of the high-voltage battery),

Greenhouse gas emissions in Urban

Diesel car 128 100 % 126 100 %

Diesel car 132 100 % 129 100 %

Range and comfort

Switching on the air conditioning system at an ambient temperature of +30 °C

Range minus a reserve Ambient temperature

Table 4: Achievable ranges

Detailed data records

4. Charging and convenience

5. Climate impact and energy requirement

The benefit, if any, is negligible if the European Union as a whole is

3 Measurement programme and measurement technology

The influence of the ambient temperature on energy requirements and greenhouse

There followed a conditioning process lasting 8 hours on the climate-controlled roller

Road Ambient Test

Table 5: Measurement programme for each vehicle

Table 6: Eco-Test cycle – composition [5], [own representation]

Figure 3 shows an example of the current measuring points applied in order to

N1 to N6: low-voltage consumer units such as coolant pump

We also measured the following low-voltage consumer units:

The exhaust gas analysers used are listed in Table 7.

Exhaust gas analysers CO CO2 HC

Table 7: Exhaust gas analysers

The technical data of each vehicle is specified below.

4.1 Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion

4.2 Mitsubishi i-MiEV

4.3 Mercedes Benz A-Klasse E-Cell

Make Mercedes Benz

Type of drive train battery electric

4.4 Smart Fortwo Electric Drive

4.5 Nissan Leaf

Type of drive train battery electric

4.6 Citroën Berlingo

Type of drive train battery electric

5.1 Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion

Table 8: Greenhouse gas potential as CO2 equivalent [7]

It is noted that an optimum fuel consumption is achieved at a constant speed of 70

The conversion of the energy requirement from kWh/100km to l/100km is obtained by

Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion

The energy requirement shown in Figure 6 as a function of the ambient temperature

As expected, switching on the air conditioning at +30 °C results in a higher energy

5.2 Mitsubishi i-MiEV

Figure 7 shows the energy requirement as a function of the driving situation on a

It is important to note at this point that no stop-and-go or road gradient data is

Figure 8 indicates the energy requirement as a function of the ambient temperature

The efficiency of the on-board charger is 94%, regardless of the ambient