451

Chapter 29:
Alternating
currents
Learning outcomes
You should be able to:
■ measure frequency and voltage using a cathode-ray
oscilloscope
■ describe an alternating current or voltage in terms of
period, frequency, peak value and r.m.s. value
■ relate r.m.s. and peak values for sinusoidal currents
■ solve problems involving transformers
■ explain the benefits of transmission of electrical energy
at high voltages
■ explain how diodes and capacitors can be used to
produce rectified, smoothed currents and voltages
 Cambridge International A Level Physics

Describing alternating current

In developed countries, mains electricity is a supply
of alternating current (a.c.). The first mains electricity
supplies were developed towards the end of the 19th
century; at that time, a great number of di erent
voltages and frequencies were used in di erent places.
In some places, the supply was direct current (d.c.).
Nowadays this has been standardised across much of
the world, with standard voltages of 110 V or 230 V (or
similar), and frequencies of 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
In this chapter we will look at some of the reasons
why a.c. has been chosen as standard. First, however,
we must take a close look at the nature of alternating Figure 29.1 Public electricity supplies made possible new
currents. forms of street lighting and advertising.

Sinusoidal current
An alternating current can be represented by a graph such
as that shown in Figure 29.2. is shows that the current
varies cyclically. During half of the cycle, the current is
positive, and in the other half it is negative. is means
that the current ows alternately one way and then the
452 other in the wires in which it is travelling. Whenever
you use a mains appliance, current ows backwards and
forwards in the wires between you and the power station
where it is being generated. At any instant in time, the
current has a particular magnitude and direction given by
the graph.
e graph has the same shape as the graphs used to
represent simple harmonic motion (see Chapter 19), and
it can be interpreted in the same way. e electrons in a
wire carrying a.c. thus move back and forth with s.h.m.
e current varies like a sine wave and so it is described
as sinusoidal. (In principle, any current whose direction
changes between positive and negative can be described
as alternating, but we will only be concerned with those
which have a regular, sinusoidal pattern.)
/A 3
2 frequency f in the same way as for s.h.m.:
1
0 t / ms
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
–1
–2
–3
Figure 29.2 A graph to represent a sinusoidal alternating
current.
QUESTION
1 The following questions relate to the graph of
Figure 29.2.
a What is the value of the current when time
t = 5 ms? In which direction is it flowing?
b At what time does the current next have the
same value, but negative?
c What is the time T for one complete cycle?
d What is the frequency of the alternating
current?
An equation for a.c.
As well as drawing a graph, we can write an equation to
represent alternating current. is equation tells us the
value of the current I at any time t:
I = I0 sin ωt
where ω is the angular frequency of the supply measured
in rad s−1 (radians per second). is is related to the
ω = 2πf
and the frequency and period are related by:
1
f=
T
e quantity I0 is known as the peak value of the
alternating current, found from the highest point on the
graph. (It is the amplitude of the varying current.)

QUESTIONS
2 The following questions relate to the graph of
Figure 29.2.
a What are the values of 0 and ω?
b Write an equation to represent this current.
3 An alternating current (measured in amps, A) is
represented by the equation:
= 5.0 sin (120πt)
a For this current what are the values of 0, ω
and f ? What is the period T of the oscillation?
b Sketch a graph to represent the current.
Alternating voltages
Alternating current is produced in power stations by large
generators like those shown in Figure 29.3.
Figure 29.3 Generators in the generating hall of a large power
station.
In principle, a generator consists of a coil rotating in a
magnetic eld. An e.m.f. is induced in the coil according
to the laws of electromagnetic induction. is e.m.f. V
varies sinusoidally, and so we can write an equation to
represent it which has the same form as the equation for
alternating current:
V = V0 sin ωt
where V0 is the peak value of the voltage. We can also
represent this graphically, as shown in Figure 29.4.
Chapter 29: Alternating currents
V
V0
0
T T 3T t
2 2
–V0
Figure 29.4 An alternating voltage.
QUESTION
4 An alternating voltage V (in V) is represented by
the equation:
V = 300 sin (100πt)
a What are the values of V0, ω and f for this
voltage?
b What is the value of V when t = 0.002 s? (Recall
that 100πt is in radians when you calculate this.)
c Sketch a graph to show two complete cycles of
this voltage.
453
Measuring frequency and voltage
An oscilloscope can be used to measure the frequency and
voltage of an alternating current. Box 29.1 explains how to
do this. ere are two types of oscilloscope. e traditional
cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.) uses an electron beam.
e alternative is a digital oscilloscope, which is likely
to be much more compact and which can store data and
display the traces later.
BOX 29.1: Measurements using an oscilloscope
A c.r.o. is an electron beam tube, as shown in Figure
27.4 (page 424), but with an extra set of parallel
plates to produce a horizontal electric field at right
angles to the beam (Figure 29.5).
The principles of a c.r.o.
The signal into the c.r.o. is a repetitively varying
voltage. This is applied to the y-input, which deflects
the beam up and down using the parallel plates Y1
and Y2 shown in Figure 29.5. The time-base produces
a p.d. across the other set of parallel plates X 1 and X 2
to move the beam from le to right across the screen.
 Cambridge International A Level Physics

BOX 29.1: Measurements using an oscilloscope (continued)

anode
vacuum
X2
Y2
X1
Y1
heated
cathode
electron beam
electron gun
screen
Figure 29.5 The construction of a cathode-ray
oscilloscope. Cathode rays (beams of electrons) are
produced in the electron gun and then deflected by
electric fields before they strike the screen.
When the beam hits the screen of the c.r.o. it
produces a small spot of light. If you look at the screen
and slow the movement down you can see the spot
move from le to right, while the applied signal moves
the spot up and down. When the spot reaches the right
side of the screen it flies back very quickly and waits
for the next cycle of the signal to start before moving to
454
the right once again. In this way the signal is displayed
as a stationary trace on the screen. There may be many
controls on a c.r.o., even more than those shown on the
c.r.o. illustrated in Figure 29.6.
The controls
The X-shi and the Y-shi controls move the whole trace
in the x-direction and the y-direction, respectively. The
two controls that you must know about are the time-
base and the Y-gain, or Y-sensitivity.
You can see in Figure 29.6 that the time-base control
has units marked alongside. Let us suppose that this
reads 5 ms/cm, although it might be 5 ms/division. This
shows that 1 cm (or 1 division) on the x-axis represents
5 ms. Varying the time-base control alters the speed with
which the spot moves across the screen. If the time-base
is changed to 1 ms/cm, then the spot moves faster and
each centimetre represents a smaller time.
The Y-gain control has a unit marked in volts/cm,
or sometimes volts/division. If the actual marking is
5 V/cm, then each centimetre on the y-axis represents
5 V in the applied signal.
It is important to remember that the x-axis
represents time and the y-axis represents voltage.
Determining amplitude and frequency
If you look at the c.r.o trace shown in Figure 29.7, you
can see that the amplitude of the waveform is 2 cm
and the distance along the x-axis for one complete wave
is 4 cm.
If the Y-gain or Y-sensitivity setting is 2 V/cm, then
the highest voltage is 2 × 2 = 4 V. If the time-base setting
is 5 ms/cm, then the time for one wave (the period) is
4 × 5 = 20 ms.
Since the x-axis measures time, the c.r.o. trace can
be used to measure frequency. In the above example,
since
1
period =
frequency
1
frequency = = 50 Hz
0.02

brightness focus

time-base Y-gain

X-shi Y-shi
on
Y input
o 1 cm
Figure 29.7 A c.r.o. trace when a sinusoidal alternating
Figure 29.6 The controls of a typical c.r.o. current is applied to the Y-plates.

QUESTIONS
5 If the Y-sensitivity and time-base for the trace
shown in Figure 29.7 are 5 V/cm and 10 ms/cm,
what are the amplitude, period and frequency of
the signal to the Y-input?
6 Draw the c.r.o. trace for a sinusoidal voltage of
frequency 100 Hz and amplitude 10 V, when the
time-base is 10 ms/cm and the Y-sensitivity is
10 V/cm.
Power and a.c.
We use mains electricity to supply us with energy. If the
current and voltage are varying all the time, does this
mean that the power is varying all the time too? e
answer to this is yes. You may have noticed that some
uorescent lamps icker continuously, especially if you
observe them out of the corner of your eye. A tungsten
lament lamp would icker too, but the frequency of the
mains has been chosen so that the lament does not have
time to cool down noticeably between peaks in the supply.
BOX 29.2: Comparing a.c. and d.c
Because power supplied by an alternating current
is varying all the time, we need to have some way of
describing the average power which is being supplied. To
do this, we compare an alternating current with a direct
current, and try to find the direct current that supplies
the same average power as the alternating current.
Figure 29.8 shows how this can be done in practice.
Two lamps are placed side by side; one is connected
Figure 29.8 Comparing direct and alternating currents
that supply the same power. The lamps are equally
bright.
Chapter 29: Alternating currents
Root-mean-square values
ere is a mathematical relationship between the peak
value V0 of the alternating voltage and a d.c. voltage which
delivers the same average electrical power. e d.c. voltage
is about 70% of V0. (You might have expected it to be about
half, but it is more than this, because of the shape of the
sine graph.) is steady d.c. voltage is known as the root-
mean-square (r.m.s.) value of the alternating voltage. In
the same way, we can think of the root-mean-square value
of an alternating current, Irms:
The root-mean-square value of an alternating current
is that steady current which delivers the same average
power as the a.c. to a resistive load.
( e lamps in Box 29.2 are the ‘resistive loads’.) A full
analysis, which we will come to shortly, shows that Irms is
related to I0 by:
Irms = I0/ 2 or Irms ≈ 0.707 × I0
is is where the factor of 70% comes from. Note that this
factor only applies to sinusoidal alternating currents.
455
to an a.c. supply (on the right) and the other to a d.c.
supply (the batteries on the le ). The a.c. supply is
adjusted so that the two lamps are equally bright,
indicating that the two supplies are providing energy
at the same average rate. The output voltages are then
compared on the double-beam oscilloscope.
A typical trace is shown in Figure 29.9. This shows
that the a.c. trace sometimes rises above the steady d.c.
trace, and sometimes falls below it. This makes sense:
sometimes the a.c. is delivering more power than the
d.c., and sometimes less, but the average power is the
same for both.
Figure 29.9 The oscilloscope trace from the
experiment shown in Figure 29.8.
 Cambridge International A Level Physics

QUESTIONS QUESTIONS

7 What is the r.m.s. value of an alternating current
represented (in amps) by the equation
= 2.5 sin (100πt)?
8 The mains supply to domestic consumers in many
European countries has an r.m.s. voltage Vrms
of 230 V. (Note that it is the r.m.s. value which is
generally quoted, not the peak value.) What is the
peak value of the supply?
Calculating power
e importance of r.m.s. values is that they allow us
to apply equations from our study of direct current to
situations where the current is alternating. So, to calculate
the average power dissipated in a resistor, we can use the
usual formulae for power:
V2
P = I 2R = IV =
R proportional to the square of the current I. Figure 29.10
Remember that it is essential to use the r.m.s. values of
I and V, as in Worked example 1. If you use peak values,
your answer will be too great by a factor of 2.
456
Where does this factor of 2 come from? Recall that
r.m.s. and peak values are related by I0 = 2Irms. So, if you
calculate I 2R using I0 instead of Irms , you will introduce
a factor of 2 2, i.e. a factor of 2. ( e same is true if you
calculate power using V0 instead of Vrms .) It follows that,
for a sinusoidal alternating current, peak power is twice
average power.
9 What is the average power dissipated when a
sinusoidal alternating current with a peak value of
3.0 A flows through a 100 Ω resistor?
10 A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 325 V is
connected across a 1 kΩ resistor.
a What is the r.m.s. value of this voltage?
b Use V = R to calculate the r.m.s. current which
flows through the resistor.
c What is the average power dissipated in the
resistor?
d What is the peak power dissipated in the resistor?
Explaining root-mean-square
We will now brie y consider the origin of the term
root-mean-square and show how the factor of 2 comes
about. e equation P = I 2R tells us that the power P is
shows how we can calculate I 2 for an alternating current.
e current I varies sinusoidally, and during half of each
cycle it is negative. However, I 2 is always positive (because
the square of a negative number is positive). Notice that I 2
varies up and down, and that it has twice the frequency of
the current.
Now, if we consider <I 2 >, the average (mean) value of
2
I , we nd that its value is half the peak value (because the
graph is symmetrical):
<I 2 > = 12 I 2

WORKED EXAMPLE

1 A sinusoidal p.d. of peak value 25 V is connected

across a 20 Ω resistor. What is the average power
dissipated in the resistor?
Step 1 Calculate the r.m.s. value of the p.d.: 0 t
V 25
Vrms = 0 = = 17.7 V
2 2
Step 2 Now calculate the average power dissipated: 2
2
V 2 17.7 2 < 2>
P= = = 15.6 W
R 20
0
(Note that, if we had used V0 rather than Vrms, we
252
would have found P = = 31.3 W, which is double t
20
the correct answer.)
Figure 29.10 An alternating current is alternately positive
and negative, while 2 is always positive.

To nd the r.m.s. value of I, we now take the square root of
<I 2>. is introduces a factor of the square root
1 1
of 2 , or 2 .
Summarising this process: to nd the r.m.s. value of
the current, we nd the root of mean of the square of the
current – hence r.m.s.
Why use a.c. for electricity
supply?
ere are several reasons for preferring alternating
voltages for a national electricity supply system. e
most important reason is that a.c. can be transformed
to high voltages, so that the current owing is reduced,
and this leads to lower power losses in the transmission
lines. Typically, the generators at a power station produce
electrical power at a voltage of 25 kV. is is transformed
up to a voltage of perhaps 400 kV (and as much as 1 MV
in some countries). e power is then transmitted along
many kilometres of high-voltage power lines (Figure
29.11) before being transformed down to a lower voltage
for supply to the millions of consumers. e transformers
used for increasing and decreasing the voltage are
discussed in detail in the next section.
is high voltage brings problems: the lines must be
suspended high above the ground between pylons, and
high-quality insulators are needed to prevent current
passing from the cables to the pylons. As current ows
through transmission lines (wires), it loses power because
of the resistance of the lines. e wires become warm; this
is resistive or ohmic heating, as discussed in Chapter 9. e
smaller the current, the smaller the losses. is is illustrated
in Worked example 2.
Figure 29.11 Power lines carry electricity from power station
to consumer.
Chapter 29: Alternating currents
WORKED EXAMPLE
2 A power station generates electrical power at a
rate of 10 MW. This power is to be transmitted along
cables whose total resistance is 10 Ω. Calculate the
power losses in the cable if the power is transmitted
at 50 kV and at 250 kV.
P
Step 1 Using = , calculate the current flowing in
V
each case:
10 × 106
for 50 kV: = = 200 A
5 × 10 4
10 × 106
for 250 kV: = = 40 A
25 × 104
Step 2 Using P = 2R, calculate the power losses in
each case:
for 50 kV: P = 2002 × 10 = 4 × 105 = 400 kW
for 250 kV: P = 402 × 10 = 1.6 × 104 = 16 kW
Hint: Take care! Note that we have two quantities
for which we are using the symbol P: the total power
being transmitted, and the power lost in the wires.
Notice that using a higher voltage does not change the
resistance of the cables.
We have shown that, by increasing the voltage by a 457
factor of 5, we have reduced the power losses by a
factor of 25.
Economic savings
e resistive heating of power lines is a waste of money,
in two ways. Firstly, it costs money to generate power
because of the fuel needed. Secondly, more power stations
are required, and power stations are expensive. e use
of transformers to transform power to high voltages saves
a few per cent of a national bill for electrical power, and
means that fewer expensive power stations are needed.
It is claimed that having a few, very large power
stations gives economies of scale, but this is debated by
many environmentalists who would prefer to see many
small, local power stations. It is also the case that new
developments in technology are making it easier to
transform direct current to high voltages. is is more
compatible with sustainable electricity generating systems
such as photovoltaics (solar cells), so we may see the
development of d.c. grid systems in the near future.
 Cambridge International A Level Physics

Transformers e equation above is known as the turns-ratio equation

for a transformer.
Figure 29.12 shows the construction of a simple transformer. In words, the ratio of the voltages is equal to the
e primary coil of Np turns of wire is wound around an ratio of the number of turns of the transformer. For the
iron core. e secondary coil of Ns turns is wound on the transformer in Figure 29.12, a voltage of 1.0 V applied to
opposite side of the core. (Many di erent con gurations the primary coil will result in an output of 2.0 V across the
are possible, with di erent shapes of core and with the coils secondary coil; 50 V will give 100 V, and so on.
wound separately, or one on top of the other.)
a
e p.d. Vp across the primary coil causes an
alternating current Ip to ow. is produces an alternating
magnetic eld in the so iron core. e secondary coil
is thus in a changing magnetic eld, and an alternating
Vp Vs
current Is is induced in it. ere is thus an alternating
e.m.f. Vs across the secondary coil.

iron core

secondary coil,
primary coil, Ns turns
Np turns b

Vs
Vp Vs
Vp
s
458
p

Figure 29.12 Defining quantities for a simple iron-cored

transformer. Figure 29.13 Two transformers: a step-up, and b step-down.
Note that there is no electrical connection between the
A transformer with fewer turns on the secondary coil
primary coil and the secondary coil. Energy is transferred
than on the primary coil is described as a step-down
from one to the other via the magnetic eld in the core.
transformer. It lowers the voltage at the primary coil.
Step-up, step-down Figure 29.13 shows both types of transformer. Worked
example 3 shows how to use the turns-ratio equation.
e transformer represented in Figure 29.12 has 5 turns on
its primary coil and 10 on its secondary coil. It is described
as a step-up transformer because the output voltage QUESTIONS
is greater than the input voltage (the voltage has been
11 a What is the turns ratio of the transformer
‘stepped up’).
shown in Figure 29.13a?
How does this happen? We have 5 turns producing
b What is the turns ratio of the transformer
magnetic ux. is ux links the 10 turns of the secondary
shown in Figure 29.13b?
coil. Because ux linkage NΦ is proportional to the number
c If an alternating p.d. of value 10.0 V is
of turns, it follows that there is more magnetic ux – twice
connected across the primary coil of each,
as much – linking the secondary coil than the primary. As what will be the induced e.m.f. across each
the magnetic ux changes (because we are using alternating secondary?
voltages), the e.m.f. induced in the secondary coil is greater
12 A power station generates electricity at a voltage
than the voltage across the primary coil.
of 25 kV. This must be transformed for onward
We can write an equation relating the voltages across transmission at 400 kV. If the primary coil of the
the coils to the number of turns in each coil: transformer used has 2000 turns, how many
Vs Ns turns must the secondary coil have?
=
Vp Np
 Chapter 29: Alternating currents

WORKED EXAMPLE

3 A radio requires a 6.0 V supply but has to be operated

from a 230 V mains supply. It is fitted with a
transformer to reduce the mains voltage. Calculate
the turns ratio for this transformer. If the primary coil
has 5000 turns, how many turns must the secondary
have?
N
Step 1 The turns ratio s is given by:
Np
Vs Ns
=
Vp Np
Hence:
Ns Vs 6.0
= = = 0.026
Np Vp 230

This ratio is less than one because we are reducing
the voltage.
Step 2 We know that Np = 5000, so we can
calculate Ns.
Ns = Np × 0.026 = 5000 × 0.026 = 130
So the secondary coil must have 130 turns. Check
that this seems reasonable: the voltage has to be
reduced by a factor of about 40, so the number of
turns must be reduced by the same factor.
Voltage, current, power
If there is no power lost in a transformer, it follows that the
quantity I × V is the same for both primary and secondary
coils:
Vs Ip
IpVp = IsVs or =
Vp Is
In other words, the ratio of the voltages is the inverse ratio
of the currents. If the voltage is stepped up, the current is
stepped down, and vice versa. is explains the function of
transformers in power transmission, as discussed earlier.
Note that this relationship assumes that no power is
lost in the transformer. In practice, some power is lost
because of the resistance of the transformer coil windings,
so that the windings become warm. In addition, the
changing magnetic ux can induce currents in the core.
ese eddy currents heat the core because of its resistance.
Large transformers such as the one shown in Figure 29.14
handle a large amount of power. A small percentage is
wasted, and the resulting heat is carried away by cooling
uid pumped around the transformer and through the ns
which are visible in the photograph.
e transformers used in the electricity supply industry
must be designed with great care to minimise energy
Figure 29.14 Installing a new transformer in a gold mine in
Ghana.
losses. e electricity supply may pass through as many as
ten transformers between the generator and the consumer.
If each transformer wasted just 1% of the power, that
would give an overall loss of 10%. Since there are roughly
100 big power stations in the UK, that would require ten
power stations just to cope with the losses in transformers. 459
Today’s well-designed transformers have losses of under
0.1%. is contributes greatly to energy savings in the
power transmission industry.
QUESTIONS
13 A step-up transformer has a turns ratio of 10 : 1.
When an alternating p.d. of 20 V is connected
across the primary coil, a current of 50 mA flows
in it.
a Calculate the values of the p.d. across the
secondary coil and the current flowing in it,
assuming no power is lost in the transformer.
b In practice the secondary p.d. is found to be
180 V and the secondary current is 4.5 mA.
What percentage of the power is wasted in the
transformer?
14 Table 29.1 shows information about three
transformers. Copy and complete the table.
(Assume no power is lost in the transformers.)
Transformer Np Ns Vp / V Vs / V p/A s/A P/W
A 100 500 230 1.0
B 500 100 230 1.0
C 100 12 240 0.2
Table 29.1 Details of three transformers for Question 14.
 Cambridge International A Level Physics

Rectification 1 2
Many electrical appliances work with alternating current. A
Some, like electrical heaters, will work equally well with a.c. supply ~
d.c. or a.c. However, there are many appliances such as B
electronic equipment which require d.c. For these, the 3 4
alternating mains must be converted to d.c. by the process R Vout
of recti cation.
A simple way to do this is to use a diode, which is a
component that will only allow current to ow in one
direction. Figure 29.15 shows a circuit for doing this,
Vout
together with a graph to show the e ect. You will see that
the output voltage is always positive, but it goes up and
down. is is still technically direct current, because the t
current only ows in one direction.
Figure 29.16 Full-wave rectification of a.c. using a diode
diode bridge.

a
load
a.c. supply ~ resistor Vout 2
R + A

– B 3
+
460
Vout R

Figure 29.15 Half-wave rectification of a.c. requires a single

diode.
b
is type of recti cation is known as half-wave 1
recti cation. For one-half of the time the voltage is zero, – A
and this means that the power available from a half-wave
recti ed supply is reduced. + B
+
4
The bridge rectifier R
To overcome this problem of reduced power, a bridge
recti er circuit is used. is consists of four diodes
connected across the alternating voltage, as shown in
Figure 29.16. e resulting output voltage across the load Figure 29.17 Current flow during full-wave rectification.
resistor R is full-wave recti ed.
e way in which this works is shown in Figure 29.17.
Note that in both halves of the cycle, current ows the
■ During the first half of the a.c. cycle, terminal A is positive. same way (downwards) through R, so the top end of R
Current flows through diode 2, downwards through R and must be positive.
through diode 3 to terminal B. In this half of the cycle,
You can construct a bridge recti er using light-
current cannot flow through diodes 1 or 4 because they are
pointing the wrong way.
emitting diodes (LEDs) which light up when current ows
■ In the second half of the cycle, terminal B is positive. Current through them. By connecting this bridge to a slow a.c.
flows through diode 4, downwards through R, and through supply (for instance 1 Hz from a signal generator), you
diode 1 to terminal A. Diodes 2 and 3 do not conduct can see the sequence in which the diodes conduct during
because they are pointing the wrong way. recti cation.

QUESTION
15 Explain why, when terminal B in Figure 29.17 is
positive (during the second half of the cycle), the
current flows through diodes 1 and 4, but not
through diodes 2 and 3.
Smoothing
In order to produce steady d.c. from the ‘bumpy’ d.c.
that results from recti cation, a smoothing capacitor
must be incorporated in the circuit, in parallel with the
load resistor R. is is shown in Figure 29.18. e idea is
that the capacitor charges up and maintains the voltage
at a high level. It discharges gradually when the recti ed
voltage drops, but the voltage soon rises again and the
capacitor charges up again. e result is an output voltage
with ‘ripple’.
Vin ~ C R Vout
C charging C discharging
Vout
t
Figure 29.18 A smoothing capacitor is connected across (in
parallel with) the load resistor.
e amount of ripple can be controlled by careful
choice of the values of C and R. A large capacitor
discharges more slowly than a small capacitor, so will give
less ripple. Similarly, if R has a large value, C will discharge
more slowly. In practice, the greater the value of the
quantity R × C, the smoother the recti ed a.c. However, if
R and C have large values, it will be di cult to change the
value of the voltage quickly.
Note that in Figures 29.15 to 29.18 we have represented
the load on the supply by the load resistor R. is
represents any components that are connected to the
supply. For example, R could be replaced by a mobile
phone battery that is being charged, or by one of the
electronic circuits discussed in Chapter 25.
Chapter 29: Alternating currents
QUESTIONS
16 Sketch the following voltage patterns:
a a sinusoidal alternating voltage
b the same voltage as a, but half-wave rectified
c the same voltage as b, but smoothed
d the same voltage as a, but full-wave rectified
e the same voltage as d, but smoothed.
17 A student wires a bridge rectifier incorrectly as
shown in Figure 29.19. Explain what you would
expect to observe when an oscilloscope is
connected across the load resistor R.
1 2
A
Vin ~
B
3 4
R Vout
Figure 29.19 A bridge rectifier circuit that is wired
incorrectly – see Question 17.
461
18 A bridge rectifier circuit is used to rectify an
alternating current through a resistor R.
A smoothing capacitor C is connected across R.
Figure 29.20 shows how the current varies. Use
sketches to show the changes you would expect:
a if R is increased
b if C is decreased.
t
Figure 29.20 A smoothed, rectified current – see
Question 18.
 Cambridge International A Level Physics

Summary
■ A sinusoidal alternating current can be represented by ■ Transformers are used to change an alternating
= 0 sin ωt, where 0 is the peak value of the current. voltage. The voltage is stepped up or down in
■ The root-mean-square value of an alternating current proportion to the turns ratio of the transformer.
is that steady current which delivers the same V N
■ For a transformer, s = s . If it is 100% e icient, then
average power as the a.c. to a resistive load; for a Vp Np
Vp p = Vs s.
sinusoidal a.c.,
0 ■ Diodes are used to convert a.c. to d.c. A single diode
rms = .
2 gives half-wave rectification. A bridge of four diodes
gives full-wave rectification. A capacitor smoothes the
■ Electrical power is usually transmitted at high
rectified voltage.
voltages; this allows the current to be reduced, and
so resistive losses are lower.

End-of-chapter questions
462
1 Write down a general expression for the sinusoidal variation with time t of:
a an alternating voltage V [1]
b an alternating current (you may assume that and V are in phase) [1]
c the power P dissipated due to this current and voltage. [1]
2 The value in amps of an alternating current is represented by the equation = 2 sin (50πt).
a What is the peak value of the current? [1]
b What is the frequency of the supply? [2]
c Sketch a graph to show two cycles of the variation of current with time. Mark the axes with suitable values. [2]
d Calculate rms, the r.m.s. value of current, and mark this on your graph. [1]
e Find two values of t at which = rms. [3]
3 The a.c. mains of 240 V r.m.s. is connected to the primary coil of a transformer, which contains 1200 turns.
The r.m.s. output of the transformer is 6.0 V.
a Calculate the number of turns on the secondary coil. [1]
b A resistance of 6.0 Ω is connected across the secondary coil. Calculate:
i the average power dissipated in the resistor [1]
ii the peak current in the primary coil. [3]
 Chapter 29: Alternating currents

4 The graph in Figure 29.21 shows the sinusoidal variation of current in the primary coil of a transformer.
The current in the secondary coil is zero.
current

0
time

Figure 29.21 For End-of-chapter Question 4.

a Copy the graph. On your copy draw, on the same axes, the variation with time of:
i the magnetic flux in the core of the transformer – label this A [1]
ii the induced e.m.f. in the primary coil of the transformer – label this B. [1]
b State how the two graphs in a i and ii are related to each other. [1]
5 An oscilloscope is used to measure the voltage waveform across a 200 Ω resistor. The waveform is shown
in Figure 29.22. The time-base of the oscilloscope is set at 5 ms div−1 and the Y-gain at 0.5 V div−1.

463

1 division
Figure 29.22 For End-of-chapter Question 5.

Determine:
a the period and hence the frequency of the waveform [2]
b the peak voltage and hence the r.m.s. voltage [2]
c the r.m.s. current in the resistor [1]
d the mean power dissipated in the resistor. [2]
6 a State the relationship between the peak current 0 and the r.m.s. current rms for a sinusoidally
varying current. [1]
b The current in a resistor connected to a steady d.c. supply is 2.0 A. When the same resistor is
connected to an a.c. supply, the current in it has a peak value of 2.0 A. The heating e ects of
the two currents in the resistor are di erent.
i Explain why the heating e ects are di erent and state which heating e ect is the greater. [2]
ii Calculate the ratio of the power dissipated in the resistor by the d.c. current to the power
dissipated in the resistor by the a.c. current. [2]
c State one advantage of using alternating current in the home. [1]
 Cambridge International A Level Physics

7 A sinusoidal voltage of 6.0 V r.m.s. and frequency 50 Hz is connected to a diode and a resistor R of
resistance 400 Ω as shown in Figure 29.23.

6.0 V 400 Ω R
r.m.s.

Figure 29.23 For End-of-chapter Question 7.

a Draw a sketch graph showing the variation with time of both the supply waveform (use a dotted line)
and the voltage across R (use a solid line). Put numerical scales on both the voltage and time axes. [4]
b An uncharged capacitor C is connected across R. When the 6.0 V r.m.s. supply is switched on, the
capacitor charges fully during the first quarter of a cycle. You may assume that the p.d. across the diode
is zero when it conducts. For the next three-quarters of the first cycle, the diode stops conducting and
the p.d. across R falls to one-half of the peak value. During this time the mean p.d. across R is 5.7 V.
For the last three-quarters of the first cycle, calculate:
i the time taken [1]
464 ii the mean current in R [2]
iii the charge flowing through R [2]
iv the capacitance of C. [2]
c Explain why the diode stops conducting during part of each cycle in b. [2]
 Chapter 29: Alternating currents

8 The rectified output from a transformer is connected to a resistor R of resistance 1000 Ω. Graph A in
Figure 29.24 shows the variation with time t of the p.d. V across the resistor. Graph B shows the variation
of V when a capacitor is placed across R to smooth the output.
V/V V/V

1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 t/s 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 t / s
Graph A Graph B
Figure 29.24 For End-of-chapter Question 8.

a Explain how the rectification is achieved. Draw a circuit diagram to show the components involved. [6]
b Explain the action of the capacitor in smoothing the output. [3]
465
c Using graph B between t = 0.005 and t = 0.015 s, determine:
i the time during which the capacitor is charging [1]
ii the mean value of the p.d. across R [1]
iii the average power dissipated in R. [2]
9 A transformer is used to produce an output of peak value 12 V from the 230 V r.m.s. mains supply.
a The primary coil of the transformer contains 2000 turns. Calculate the number of turns in the
secondary coil. [3]
b The output from the secondary coil is half-wave rectified, and connected to a resistor R and
capacitor C in parallel.
Sketch graphs on the same axes to show the variation with time of:
i the output p.d. of the secondary coil [1]
ii the p.d. across R. [2]
c State and explain what happens to the p.d. across R when another capacitor of equal value is placed
in parallel with C. [3]
10 Electrical energy is supplied by a high-voltage power line which has a total resistance of 4.0 Ω. At the input
to the line, the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) voltage has a value of 400 kV and the input power is 500 MW.
a i Explain what is meant by root-mean-square voltage. [2]
ii Calculate the minimum voltage that the insulators which support the line must withstand without
breakdown. [2]
b i Calculate the value of the r.m.s. current in the power line. [2]
ii Calculate the power loss on the line. [2]
iii Explain why it is an advantage to transmit the power at a high voltage. [2]
c Power at 400 kV is converted to power at 124 kV by a step-down transformer. Describe the basic
principle of a step-down transformer. [2]