Foundations of Human

Cmputer Interaction
Introduction
 The study, planning, and design of what happens when you
and a computer work together is known as Human
Computer Interaction, or HCI. HCI, as the name implies, is
made up of three components: the user, the computer, and
the ways in which they interact.

The Goals of HCI

 The goals of HCI are to create systems that are both useful
and safe, as well as functional. To create computer systems
that are easy to use, programmers must try to:
 BE AWARE OF THE FACTORS THAT AFFECT HOW PEOPLE USE
TECHNOLOGY
 PRODUCE TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR BUILDING
APPROPRIATE SYSTEMS
 ACHIEVE EFFECTIVE, SAFE, AND EFFECTIVE INTERACTION
People utilizing a computer system should come first,
according to HCI, and developers should design systems around
their needs, capabilities, and preferences for doing specific
activities. People should not be forced to alter their behavior to fit
into a system. Instead, the system should be tailored to their
specific needs
Human capabilities
Introduction

 Card, Moran, and Newell proposed the Model Human Processor in 1983. (MHP). The perceptual
system, the motor system, and the cognitive system are the three subsystems of the MHP. MHP
additionally provides a set of operating principles that govern the system's behavior.
 Sensation, perception, cognition, and action are all intricately intertwined in the human brain.
Experts have traditionally divided these systems' research. I would suggest, though, that
drawing a clear line between them is impossible. These systems and their interconnections are
critical in the development of technology.
 When interacting with a computer, the human input becomes the computer's data output and
vice versa. The most significant senses in human-computer interaction are vision, hearing, and
touch (HCI). The primary effectors are the fingers, voice, eyes, head, and body posture.

The Input-Output Channels

 Information is received and sent, and this is how a person interacts with the outside world.
Sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell are the five main senses. During a computer interaction,
the user receives information from the computer and replies by providing input to the
computer.

VISION

 The eye is a device that receives light and converts it to electrical energy. Objects in the visual
field reflect light, which is focused on the back of the eye, where it is converted into an electrical
signal and transmitted to the brain. The cornea and lens, as well as the retina with the blind spot
and photoreceptors, are the most critical components.

HEARING

 The outer ear (pinna and auditory canal), middle ear (tympanic membrane), and inner ear
(tympanic membrane) are the three regions of the ear (with cilia). Frequencies between 20 Hz
and 15 kHz are audible to the human ear. The frequency of a sound is its pitch, the higher the
frequency, the louder the sound. Timbre refers to the sound's character, regardless of its
frequency or volume.

TOUCH

 Touch (haptic perception) apparatus is not localized. Stimuli are transmitted to the brain via the
skin, which contains a variety of sensory receptors. In HCI, mechanoreceptors that respond to
pressure are significant.
MOVEMENT

 A simple action like pressing a button in response to a question goes through several levels of
processing. Each stage takes time, which can be separated into two categories: reaction time
and movement time. Reaction time can be reduced or increased depending on factors such as
skill or practice.
 This is formalized by using Fitts’s law. According to Fitts’s Law
 Movement time = a + b log2(distance/size + 1)
where a and b are empirically determined constants.

MEMORY

 Sensory buffers, short-term memory or working memory, and long-term memory are the three
categories of memory or memory function. Information is processed and transmitted between
memory stores as these memories interact. Memory is the second component of our human-as-
information-processing-system concept.

Sensory Memories Short-Term

Memory
Iconic Attention Rehearsal
or Long-Term
Echoic Memory
Working
Haptic Memory

Sensory Memory

 New information coming in through sensory channels such as visual and auditory stimuli, or
haptic and tactile stimuli, is constantly overwriting these memories.

Short term Memory

 Working memory, also known as short-term memory, serves as a scratch pad for recalling
information on the fly. It is used to store information that is only needed for a short period of
time. The last words presented are remembered better than the intermediate ones, according
to research. The recency effect is the name for this phenomenon. However, if the subject is
requested to do something else between presentation and recall, such as counting backwards,
the subject's ability to receive the other words is unaffected. This shows that extraneous
information can wreak havoc on short-term memory.

Articulatory Central Visuo-Spatial

Loop Executive
Scratch- Pad

Auditory imaging System

Long Term Memory

 Lengthy-term memory is used to store knowledge for a long period of time. Factual information,
experiential knowledge, procedural standards of action – in short, all we know – is stored here.
There is little deterioration in working memory, and recollection after minutes is the same as
recall after hours or days. These distinctions provide more evidence of a multi-part memory
system.

Long Term Memory Structure

 Long-term memory is divided into two types: episodic and semantic. Episodic memory is a type
of memory that records events and experiences in a sequential order. A systematic record of
facts, concepts, and skills that we have gained is known as semantic memory. We can learn new
facts or concepts from our experiences since the material in semantic memory is derived from
that in episodic memory.
 Long-term memory processes
 There are three main activities related to long-term memory:
 Storage or remembering of information
 Forgetting
 Information retrieval.

Storage or remembering of information

 Baddeley and others' experiments imply that learning time is most efficient when it is spread out
throughout time. Interference, according to the second explanation, causes information to be
lost from memory. When we acquire new information, we lose previous information. The old
memory trace might sometimes burst through and interfere with fresh information. Proactive
inhibition is the term for this type of behavior.

Forgetting

 Emotional considerations have an impact on forgetting. Subjects who were given emotive and
non-emotive words found the former to be more difficult to remember in the short term but
easier in the long run. Positive information is remembered more readily than negative
information, and highly emotional events are remembered more readily than boring activities.
There is evidence that humans do not fully lose information from our long-term memory.

Information Retrieval

 Information may not be recalled but recognized, or it may only be accessed with prompting. In
recognition, the material is presented in such a way that it is obvious that the information has
been seen before. The information is retrieved from memory in recall and provided as a cue in
recognition.
THE COMPUTER

DEVICES

TEXT ENTRY DEVICES

 The most obvious means of text entry is the plain keyboard.

The alphanumeric keyboard

 Today, the keyboard is still one of the most widely used input devices. The first six letters of the
top row of alphabetical keys, QWERTY, are used to identify the great majority of keyboards,
which have a standardized layout. 26 key layouts and chord keyboards are the two types.

26 key layouts

 The arrangement of the alphabetic keys is rearranged in a 26-key layout, putting the most often
used letters under the strongest fingers or adopting simpler methods. The digits and letters of a
QWERTY keyboard are fixed, although non-alphanumeric keys vary amongst keyboards. The
conventional French layout places the important letters in various locations - the top line starts
AZERTY. Different national keyboards have accented letters, and the typical French layout places
the main letters in different locations – the top line starts AZERTY. The QWERTY keyboard layout
may be traced back to the days of mechanical typewriters, when pressing a key caused an arm
to shoot towards the carriage, imprinting the letter on the ribbon head and hence onto the
paper. The solution was to arrange the keys so that typical combinations of consecutive letters
were located at opposite ends of the keyboard, causing the arms to move from opposite sides
most of the time.
Phone pad and T9 entry

 The numeric buttons on most phones have two modes: one where the keys represent digits and
another where they represent letters. Some phones include extra modes that make it easier to
type accented characters. To input a character in a text message, you'll need to use a particular
mode or configuration.

POSITIONING, POINTING AND DRAWING

 Pointing devices allow the user to point, position, and select items directly on the screen or by
moving a pointer. The mouse is still the most common input device for desktop computers, but
it is experiencing competition as laptop and mobile computing grow in popularity.

The mouse

 The mouse is an essential part of most desktop computer systems. It's a palm-sized box with a
weighted ball inside. The table rolls the ball around inside the enclosure, which causes it to
revolve. This action allows the mouse to move the cursor, which is a pointer on the screen.

Touchpad

 Touchpads are small, touch-sensitive tablets that are approximately 2–3 inches in size. They're
controlled by swiping a finger across their surface, similar to a simulated trackball. The feel is
quite different from that of other input devices, but like with all devices, users rapidly become
accustomed to it.

Optical mice

 A dim red light is emitted from the mouse's base, which is reflected off a specific pad and
captured by sensors in the base. Some optical mice do not require specific mats, only a suitable
surface, and detect movement using the surface's natural texture.

Trackball and thumbwheel

 The trackball is just a mouse that has been turned upside down. Inside a static housing, a
weighted ball faces upwards and rotates. As a result, the trackball does not require any more
room to operate, making it an extremely small device. It is fairly accurate, but extended
movements are tough to sketch with. Thumbwheels differ from other cursor control devices in
that they contain two orthogonal dials to control the cursor position. This type of device is
inexpensive, but it is slow, and it is difficult to move the cursor in any direction other than
horizontally or vertically. In the appropriate situation, this limitation can be a valuable
constraint.

Joystick and keyboard nipple

 The joystick is a device that causes the screen pointer to move in response to the movements of
the stick. The most significant feature of an absolute joystick is movement, whereas in an
isometric joystick, the pressure on the stick correlates to the cursor's velocity. When the stick is
released, it returns to its normal upright, centered position.
Touch-sensitive screens (touchscreens)

 Touchscreens are an alternative to using a mouse for pointing and selecting objects on a screen.
They work in one of two ways: by disrupting a matrix of light beams with the finger (or stylus),
or by capacitance changes on a grid overlaying the screen. The touchscreen is extremely
responsive and does not require the use of a specific pointing device.

Stylus and light pen

 A stylus is frequently used in systems with touch sensitive surfaces. Rather than directly pointing
at the screen, a small pen-like plastic stick is used to point and draw on it. This is very common
in PDAs, although it is also found in some laptop computers. During the display scan, the pen is
attached to the screen by a cable and detects a burst of light from the screen phosphor. The
light pen can target individual pixels and is significantly more effective more precise than a
touchscreen.

Cursor keys and discrete positioning

 On most keyboards, there are cursor keys. The cursor is controlled by four keys on the
keyboard: one for up, one for down, one for left, and one for right. The keys do not have a
consistent layout. Small gadgets, such as cellphones, personal entertainment systems, and
television remote controls, frequently require separate controls, either for a specific function,
such as volume, or for general menu selection.

DISPLAY DEVICES

Cathode ray tube

 The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a television-like computer screen that functions similarly to a
traditional television screen. An electron gun emits a stream of electrons that are focus and
directed by magnetic fields. Grayscale can be displayed on black and white screens by adjusting
the strength of the electron beam; color is achieved through more complicated ways.
Liquid crystal display

 The principle of liquid crystal displays is similar to that of a digital watch. A small layer of liquid
crystal is placed between two glass plates to create them. The crystal twists when a voltage is
supplied to it via the conducting glass plates. This causes it to rotate the incoming light's
polarization plane, preventing it from returning through the top plate.

Special displays

 Direct view storage tubes are commonly employed as the display for analog storage
oscilloscopes and are likely the only location where they are utilized in large quantities. Direct
scan displays update the screen at least 30 times per second to decrease flicker, and the direct
drawing of lines at any angle eliminates jaggies, allowing for higher resolutions. Color is achieved
on such screens utilizing beam penetration technology, which is often of lower quality.

Large displays and situated displays

 Large screen displays come in a variety of shapes and sizes. To generate big flat bitmap screens,
some people use gas plasma technology. These works just like a regular screen, only they're
bigger and usually have a wide-screen HDTV (high-definition television) format. Display screens
can be utilized in many public settings to provide information, link spaces, or act as message
areas for lectures and meetings

Digital paper

 The different types of digital paper are a novel form of display that is still in its infancy. These are
thin, flexible materials that, like a computer screen, can be written to electrically, but retain
their contents even when disconnected from an electrical source. One involves covering the
entire surface with small spheres, black on one side and white on the other. When the
electronic signal is turned off, the ball returns to its previous position.

DEVICES FOR VIRTUAL REALITY AND 3D INTERACTION

Positioning in 3D space

 Virtual reality technologies create a three-dimensional virtual environment. Users must navigate
these environments and control the virtual objects they encounter. Moving from mice to 3D
devices frequently necessitates a jump from two to six degrees of freedom, not simply three.

Cockpit and virtual controls

 The controllers in many PC games and desktop virtual reality are virtual. This might be a mock-
up of the cockpit controls or more mundane up/down, left/right buttons. Pilots of helicopters
and airplanes are already required to maneuver in real space. Users must, however, put in a lot
of practice to be able to function efficiently in such circumstances.
The 3D mouse

 A multitude of devices that operate as 3D versions of the mouse are available. You can pick up
the mouse and move it in three dimensions instead of just moving it on a tabletop. Because its
position can be tracked (three degrees) and its up/down angle may be adjusted, the 3D mouse
has a total of six degrees of freedom (called pitch).

Data glove

 The data glove is a 3D input device that detects finger and thumb joint angles. More light leaks
from the fiber as the bend increases, and the drop in intensity is proportional to the degree of
bend in the joint. Two ultrasonic sensors are attached to the top of the glove and use ultrasound
to detect 3D positional information as well as the angle of roll.

Virtual reality helmets

 Some VR systems employ helmets or goggles that serve two purposes: I they display the 3D
world to each eye, and (ii) they track the user's head position.

Whole-body tracking

 Some VR systems strive to be immersive, allowing users to feel as if they are truly immersed in
the virtual environment. It is possible in the actual world. The user can travel through virtual
space. The movement of the entire body can be tracked in extreme cases utilizing equipment
like the data glove or image-processing algorithms.

Simulators and VR caves

 Large screens are positioned to fill the main portion of your visual field in motorbike or skiing
simulators in video arcades. Large displays positioned all around the user, or multiple rear
projectors, are used in caves, which are more general-purpose rooms. The user can glance
around and view the virtual environment around them in these systems.

MEMORY

 We can think of the computer's memory as working at several levels, similar to human memory,
with those with faster access having less capacity. Primary and secondary storage are the terms
used to describe the different tiers of computer memory. The user interface designer isn't really
interested in the specifics of computer memory.

RAM and short-term memory (STM)

 The majority of current active data is stored on silicon-chip random access memory (RAM). The
precise access times, power consumption, and features of different types of RAM vary. The
majority of RAM is volatile, which means that when the power is switched off, the contents are
gone. Some people also utilize flash memory, which is a type of memory that sits between ROM
(read-only memory) chips and regular RAM.
Disks and long-term memory (LTM)

 The LTM for most computer users consists of disks, potentially with backup tapes. Disks are
made up of two types of technology: hard and optical. Hard disks can hold anywhere from 40
Mbytes to tens of millions of bytes. Laser light is used to read and (sometimes) write data on
optical drives.

Compression

 Text, bitmaps, and video can all benefit from compression techniques to minimize their storage
requirements. Text can be compressed by a factor of five, while bitmaps can often be reduced to
1% of their original size. We can take use of the fact that successive frames are generally similar
in addition to compressing each frame. An image can be decompressed to any degree of
accuracy, ranging from a very crude soft-focus image to one that is more detailed than the
original.

PROCESSING AND NETWORKS

There are two sorts of faults due to processing speed: those when it is too slow, and those when it is too
fast!

 Functional fault: This is a problem with the system's implementation rather than the design.
To be fair, lower tiers of system software may not provide the programmer with the necessary
information.

 A second flaw caused by sluggish processing occurs when the program accomplishes the
proper thing in theory, but the feedback is too slow, resulting in odd interface consequences. To avoid
the first type of error, the system buffers user input, which means it retains keystrokes, mouse buttons,
and movement. Unfortunately, this creates its own set of issues. Cursor tracking, which occurs in
character-based text editors, is an example of this type of issue.

 On window systems, another issue known as icon wars occurs. The user clicks on a menu or
icon, but nothing happens; the machine is busy or slow for whatever reason. So the user clicks again,
tries something different – and then all of the buffered mouse clicks are translated, and the screen
becomes a jumble of flashing windows and menus.

Limitations on interactive performance

There are several factors that can limit the speed of an interactive system:

Computation bound

 Long delays in the middle of contact should be avoided when designing computer screen
systems. If the process is going to take a lengthy time, try to give an estimate of how long it will
take before it begins. This can be accomplished by displaying a counter or a steadily filling bar on
the screen that indicates how much work has been completed.
Storage channel bound

 The speed with which data is accessed from memory can have an impact on interactive
performance. It is feasible to rade off memory against processing speed if the system has plenty
of raw calculation capability but is held back exclusively by memory.

Graphics bound

 To handle many of the most frequent graphics processes, most computers contain a special-
purpose graphics card. It's easy to underestimate how long it takes to do seemingly simple
interface tasks. There is a lot of variation in performance amongst programs that run on the
same computer.

Network capacity

 Networks connect most computers. This can be as simple as using shared files on a remote
machine. When accessing such files, the network's speed, rather than the memory's, may be the
limiting factor.

Networked computing

 We don't utilize computers on their own; instead, we use them as part of a network. This has
the extra benefit of facilitating communication between different parties who are connected to
the same network, as well as allowing the desktop computer to access resources that are not on
the same network. Increased computing power and memory are only part of the tale, because
the benefits of providing people considerably more extensive, faster, and simpler access to
information are extremely significant to individuals, communities, and institutions.

INTERACTION
MODELS OF INTERACTION

At least two people are involved in interaction: the user and the system. To allow for successful
interaction, the interface must successfully translate between them. This translation can fail for a variety
of reasons at various places. The usage of interaction models can assist us in understanding exactly what
is going on in the interaction and identifying the likely source of problems.

1. Norman’s execution–evaluation cycle

The terms of interaction

 Traditionally, the goal of an interactive system has been to assist a user in achieving goals
related to a specific application area.

 A domain defines an area of expertise and knowledge in some real-world activity. A domain
consists of concepts that highlight its important aspects.

 Tasks are operations to manipulate the concepts of a domain. A goal is the desired output
from a performed task.
  An intention is a specific action required to meet the goal. Task analysis involves the
identification of the problem space for the user of an interactive system in terms of the domain, goals,
intentions and tasks. The concepts used in the design of the system and the description of the user are
separate, and so we can refer to them as distinct components, called the System and the User,
respectively.

 The System and User are each described by means of a language that can express concepts
relevant in the domain of the application. The System ‘s language we will refer to as the core language
and the User ‘s language.

 The core language describes computational attributes of the domain relevant to the System state,
whereas the task language describes psychological attributes of the domain relevant to the User state.

1. The execution–evaluation cycle

 Execution and evaluation are the two key parts of the interactive cycle. These can then be
further broken into seven stages. The user creates a strategy, which is subsequently carried out
via the computer interface. After the strategy has been carried out, the user evaluates the
outcome and decides on next steps. The stages in Norman‘s models of interaction are as
follows:
 Establishing the goal.
 Forming the intention.
 Specifying the action sequence.
 Executing the action.
 Perceiving the system state.
 Interpreting the system state.
 Evaluating the system state with respect to the goals and intentions.

A user's interaction with a computer consists of a sequence of steps in which the user formulates a goal
and the computer conducts activities to achieve it. If the system state represents the user's purpose, the
interaction was successful; if not, the user must develop a new goal and restart the cycle. Norman
employs this approach to demonstrate why some user interfaces generate issues. He distinguishes
between two sorts of interactions: execution gulfs and evaluation gulfs. The discrepancy between the
user's definition of the activities required to achieve the goal and the actions permitted by the system is
known as the gulf of execution. The distance between the physical display of the system state and the
user's expectation is known as the gulf of evaluation. The interaction will be effective if the activities
permitted by the system correspond to those desired by the user. Norman's approach is helpful for
grasping the interaction in a clear and understandable manner, but it does not address the system's
communication through the interface.

The interaction framework

 By explicitly including the system and breaking it down into

four basic components, the interaction framework tries to
provide a more accurate description of interaction. The four
essential components of an interactive system are represented by the nodes: the System, the
User, the Input, and the Output. Each component has its own language, and the interaction
 cycle comprises four steps, each of which corresponds to a translation from one component to
the next.

 The User begins the interactive cycle with the formulation of a goal and a task to achieve that goal.

 The only way the user can manipulate the machine is through the Input, and so the task must be
articulated within the input language.

 The input language is translated into the core language as operations to be performed by the System.
 The System then transforms itself as described by the operations; the execution phase of the cycle is
complete, and the evaluation phase now begins.

 The System is in a new state, which must now be communicated to the User.

 The current values of system attributes are rendered as concepts or features of the Output.

 It is then up to the User to observe the Output and assess the results of the interaction relative to the
original goal, ending the evaluation phase and, hence, the interactive cycle. There are four main
translations involved in the interaction: articulation, performance, presentation, and observation.

 The User ‘s formulation of the desired task to achieve some goal needs to be articulated in the input
language. The tasks are responses of the User, and they need to be translated to stimuli for the Input.
The task is phrased in terms of certain psychological attributes that highlight the important features of
the domain for the User.

 At the next stage, the responses of the Input are translated to stimuli for the System. Of interest in
assessing this translation is whether the translated input language can reach as many states of the
System as is possible using the System stimuli directly. Once a state transition has occurred within the
System, the execution phase of the interaction is complete, and the evaluation phase begins.

 The new state of the System must be communicated to the User, and this begins by translating the
System responses to the transition into stimuli for the Output component. This presentation translation
must preserve the relevant system attributes from the domain in the limited expressiveness of the
output devices.

 The response from the Output is translated to stimuli for the User which triggers assessment. The
observation translation will address the ease and coverage of this final translation.
FRAMEWORK
Ergonomics is a field that deals with concerns on the user's side of the interface, including input and
output as well as the user's immediate context. The input branch of the framework, which addresses
both articulation and performance, is a good area to put dialog design and interface styles. The
complete framework can also be placed in a social and organizational environment, which has an impact
on how people interact.

ERGONOMICS

 The study of the physical features of the interaction - how the controls are constructed, the
context in which the interaction takes place, and the layout and physical properties of the
screen - is known as ergonomics (or human factors).

Arrangement of controls and displays

 The user should be able to quickly access sets of controls and elements of the display by
grouping them logically. This is especially vital in safety-sensitive applications like plant control,
aviation, and air traffic control.

Appropriate layout is important in all applications possible organizations include the following:

• Functional controls and displays are grouped together when they are functionally connected.

• Sequential controls and displays are arranged in the sequence in which they are used in a
typical interaction.

• Frequency controls and displays are grouped by how often they are used, with the most
frequently used controls being the easiest to reach. The complete system interface must be designed
appropriately in regard to the user's position, in addition to the arrangement of the controls and
displays in connection to each other.

The physical environment of the interaction

 The field of ergonomics is concerned with the design of the workplace itself. The physical
environment in which the system is used may have an impact on how well it is adopted, as well
as the users' health and safety. It should be considered in all aspects of design, from the
machine interface's layout and arrangement to the user's hand motions and gestures.

• The size of the users is the first factor to consider. Obviously, this will vary significantly. However,
in any system, the smallest user should be able to access all controls, and the largest user should not
feel crowded.
 • All users should be able to see critical displays without difficulty. For comfort and stability, the
user should be seated for long periods of time.

• Back support should be provided by the seating. If the user is needed to stand, there should be
enough area for them to move around and reach all the controls.

Health issues

 Perhaps we do not immediately think of computer use as a hazardous activity, but we should
bear in mind possible consequences of our designs on the health and safety of users.

 Physical position Users should be able to reach all controls comfortably and see all displays.

 Temperature Although most users can adapt to slight changes in temperature without adverse
effect, extremes of hot or cold will affect performance and, in excessive cases, health.

 Lighting The lighting level will again depend on the work environment. However, adequate
lighting should be provided to allow users to see the computer screen without discomfort or eyestrain.

 Noise Excessive noise can be harmful to health, causing the user pain, and in acute cases, loss
of hearing. Noise levels should be maintained at a comfortable level in the work environment.

 Time The time users spend using the system should also be controlled.

The use of color

 Ergonomics is closely related to human psychology since it is concerned with human

perceptual limits. Colors used in the display should be as distinct as feasible, with
variations in contrast having no effect on the differentiation.

 Blue should not be used to display critical information.

• If color is utilized as a cue, it should not be the only one; extra coding information should
be given as well.

• The colors selected should also adhere to established standards and user expectations.

• Stop, go, and standby are commonly linked with the hues red, green, and yellow,
respectively. As a result, red can be used to represent an emergency or an alarm, green can be used
to indicate regular activity, and yellow can be used to indicate a standby or auxiliary function. These
rules should not be broken unless there is a compelling reason to do so. 3.3.5 Ergonomics and HCI

 Ergonomics is a large field that is separate from HCI yet overlaps with it. It makes a contribution
to HCI by identifying limits on how we build systems and proposing precise and specific
recommendations and standards. Ergonomic aspects are well-established and recognized in
general, and are thus utilized as a foundation for standardizing hardware designs
PARADIGMS
What are Paradigms

• Predominant theoretical frameworks or scientific world views – e.g., Aristotelian, Newtonian,

Einsteinian (relativistic) paradigms in physics

• Understanding HCI history is largely about understanding a series of paradigm shifts – Not all
listed here are necessarily “paradigm” shifts, but are at least candidates – History will judge which are
true shifts. Paradigms of interaction new computing technologies arrive, creating a new perception of
the human—computer relationship. We can trace some of these shifts in the history of interactive
technologies.

The initial paradigm

• Batch processing Impersonal computing

Example Paradigm Shifts

• Batch processing

• Timesharing

• Networking

• Graphical display

• Microprocessor

• WWW

• Ubiquitous Computing

• A symbiosis of physical and electronic worlds in service of everyday activities.

Time-sharing

• 1940s and 1950s – explosive technological growth

• 1960s – need to channel the power

• J.C.R. Licklider at ARPA

• single computer supporting multiple users

Video Display Units

• more suitable medium than paper

 • 1962 – Sutherland's Sketchpad

• computers for visualizing and manipulating data

• one person's contribution could drastically change the history of computing

Programming toolkits

• Engelbart at Stanford Research Institute

• 1963 – augmenting man's intellect

• 1968 NLS/Augment system demonstration

• the right programming toolkit provides building blocks to producing complex interactive
systems

Personal computing

• 1970s – Papert's LOGO language for simple graphics programming by children

• A system is more powerful as it becomes easier to user

• Future of computing in small, powerful machines dedicated to the individual

• Kay at Xerox PARC – the Dynabook as the ultimate personal computer

Window systems and the WIMP interface

• humans can pursue more than one task at a time

• windows used for dialogue partitioning, to “change the topic”

• 1981 – Xerox Star first commercial windowing system • windows, icons, menus and pointers
now familiar interaction mechanisms

Metaphor

• relating computing to other real-world activity is effective teaching technique – LOGO's turtle
dragging its tail – file management on an office desktop – word processing as typing – financial analysis
on spreadsheets – virtual reality – user inside the metaphor

• Problems – some tasks do not fit into a given metaphor – cultural bias

Direct manipulation

• 1982 – Shneiderman describes appeal of graphically-based interaction

– visibility of objects

– incremental action and rapid feedback

– reversibility encourages exploration

– syntactic correctness of all actions

 – replace language with action

• 1984 – Apple Macintosh

• the model-world metaphor

• What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG)

Language versus Action

• actions do not always speak louder than words!

• DM – interface replaces underlying system

• language paradigm

• interface as mediator

• interface acts as intelligent agent

• programming by example is both action and language

Hypertext

• 1945 – Vannevar Bush and the memex

• key to success in managing explosion of information

• mid 1960s – Nelson describes hypertext as non-linear browsing structure

• hypermedia and multimedia

• Nelson's Xanadu project still a dream today

Multimodality

• a mode is a human communication channel

• emphasis on simultaneous use of multiple channels for input and output

Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW)

• CSCW removes bias of single user / single computer system

• Can no longer neglect the social aspects

• Electronic mail is most prominent success

The World Wide Web

• Hypertext, as originally realized, was a closed system

• Simple, universal protocols (e.g. HTTP) and mark-up languages (e.g. HTML) made publishing
and accessing easy

• Critical mass of users leads to a complete transformation of our information economy

Agent-based Interfaces

• Original interfaces

– Commands given to computer

– Language-based

• Direct Manipulation/WIMP

– Commands performed on “world” representation

– Action based

• Agents - return to language by instilling proactivity and “intelligence” in command processor –

Avatars, natural language processing

Ubiquitous Computing

 “The most profound technologies are those that disappear.” Mark Weiser, 1991 Late 1980’s:
computer was very apparent How to make it disappear? – Shrink and embed/distribute it in the
physical world – Design interactions that don’t demand our intention

Sensor-based and Context aware Interaction

• Humans are good at recognizing the “context” of a situation and reacting appropriately

• Automatically sensing physical phenomena (e.g., light, temp, location, identity) becoming
easier

• How can we go from sensed physical measures to interactions that behave as if made “aware”
of the surroundings?
THINKING REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
 While we may not always be able to recognize the processes we use, human mind is conscious
and self-aware. Some thinking tasks are highly directed and require a limited quantity of
knowledge, whilst others necessitate a large amount of knowledge from other fields. In
addition, we can think about things we've never thought about before and solve issues we've
never encountered.

Principles of Reasoning
 Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions or inferring something based on the
information we have new information in the field of interest There are other styles of reasoning:
deductive, inductive, and so on as well as abductive

 Deductive reasoning: From the provided premises, deductive reasoning draws the logically
necessary conclusion.

 For example, If it is Friday then she will go to work It is Friday Therefore she will go to
work.
It's vital to remember that this is the logical conclusion from the premises; it doesn't
have to match our definition of truth.
 As an example, If it is raining then the ground is dry It is raining Therefore the ground
is dry.
 Even if it contradicts our understanding of what is true in the world, it is a completely acceptable
deduction. As a result, deductive reasoning is frequently misapplied. In our interactions with one
another, we presume a certain level of shared knowledge, which helps us to interpret the
inferences and deductions made by others. If validity were favored over truth, all premises
would have to be stated explicitly.

 Inductive reasoning: Induction is the process of extrapolating information from situations we've
seen to cases we haven't seen. Induction is a valuable mechanism that we utilize all the time to learn
about our environment, despite its unreliability. We need to check negative evidence to see if the
assertion is true: if we can locate a card with an odd number on one side and a vowel on the other, the
statement is false.
  Abductive reasoning: Abduction is the third sort of reasoning. Abduction is a type of reasoning
that connects a fact to the action or circumstance that created it. If an event constantly occurs after an
action, this might cause issues when using interactive systems. When the event and the action are
unrelated, however, confusion and even inaccuracy are common outcomes.

PRINCIPLES OF GESTALT
 GESTALT: The Gestalt viewpoint, which dates from the first part of the twentieth century, holds
that problem solving entails both reuse of knowledge and insight. Although it has mostly been
overtaken, its effect can still be observed in subsequent study. Moving away from behaviorist
ideas helped pave the way for the information processing theory to emerge.
 Gestalt theory is a historical trend in psychology. "Unified whole" is a German phrase for
Gestalt. The word can mean "figure," "structure," "totality," "configuration," or "structured
unity," among other things. The theory was created in the twentieth century by Austrian
philosopher Christian von Ehrenfels, who was also responsible for the movement's name. The
Gestalt principles state that humans have a natural tendency to structure their experiences in a
way that is orderly, regular, and understandable or identifiable. "The whole is more than the
sum of its parts," is the most accurate definition we can give of the bizarre hypothesis.

Gestalt Principles:

• Proximity (also known as Emergence): Simple shapes arranged together can create a more
complex image.

• Similarity (also known as Invariance): The human eye tends to build a relationship between
similar elements within a design. Similarity can be achieved using basic elements such as shapes, colors,
and size.

• Continuation: The human eye follows the paths, lines, and curves of a design, and prefers to
see a continuous flow of visual elements rather than separated objects.

• Closure (also known as Reification): The human eye prefers to see complete shapes. If the
visual elements are not complete, the user can perceive a complete shape by filling in missing visual
information.

• Symmetry and order: The design should be balanced and complete; otherwise, the user will
spend time and effort trying to perceive an overall picture

• Figure/Ground (also known as Multi-stability): The human eye isolates shapes from
backgrounds.

• Common Fate: Similar to proximity and similarity but concerning moving objects. Things that
move with similar patterns are seen as grouped.
PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN VISION/HEARING/TOUCHING
VISION

 The physical reception of the stimuli from the outside is the first stage of visual perception.

world, as well as how that input is processed and interpreted.

The Human Eye

 It all starts with light. The eye is a device that receives light and converts it into electrical signals.

energy. The components of the eye are as follows.

The receptors: They convert light into electrical signals, which are then sent to the brain for processing.

The cornea and lens: Present in the front of the eye and focuses light onto the retina to create a sharp
image.

The retina: It has two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones and is light sensitive. Because rods are
particularly sensitive to light, they allow us to see in dim light. Cones, on the other hand, do not function
because they are repressed by the rods.

Ganglion cells: Ganglion cells are specialized nerve cells found in the retina. X-cells are concentrated in
the fovea and are responsible for early pattern detection; Y-cells are more widely dispersed in the retina
and are responsible for early movement detection.

Visual Perception

 The data obtained by the visual apparatus must be filtered before being sent to processing
elements. It allows us to distinguish color, disambiguate relative distances, and detect coherent
scenes

Perceiving Size and Depth

 An object's visual angle reveals how much of the field of view it occupies. It is influenced by the
object's size as well as its distance from the eye. Our sense of size is based on factors other than
the eye angle, according to the law of size constancy.

Perceiving Brightness

 The sense of light is the initial part of visual perception. Luminance, or the amount of light falling
on an object's surface, has an impact on it. Contrast is connected to brightness: it is a function of
an object's luminance and its surroundings.

Perceiving Color

 The spectral wavelength of light determines the hue. The brightness of a color is its intensity,
and the degree of whiteness in the red, orange, or yellow spectrum is its saturation.
Reading

 The eye performs quick movements termed saccades during reading, which are followed by
fixations. Perception takes place during fixation periods, which account for roughly 94 percent of
the total time spent. Legibility is determined by the speed with which text can be read.

HEARING
 Hearing begins with vibrations in the air or sound, just as vision begins with light waves. The ear
detects these vibrations and sends them to the auditory system via numerous processes nerves.
The ear is divided into three sections: the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear. The visible
section of the ear is the outer ear. It has two parts:

 pinna, which is the structure that is attached to the sides of the head

 auditory canal, along which sound waves are passed to the middle ear.

 The tympanic membrane, or ear drum, connects the middle ear to the outer ear, creating a
small chamber. Dust and overly curious insects are kept out of the middle ear by wax in the
auditory canal. The fragile hair cells that make up the cochlea bend because to vibrations in the
cochlean fluids.

Processing Sound

 The frequency of a sound determines its pitch; a low frequency has a low pitch, while a high
frequency has a high pitch. Timbre refers to the sound's characteristics: sounds can have the
same pitch and volume yet be produced by various instruments. Different frequencies cause
different areas of the auditory system to become active.

TOUCH
 Touch gives us essential information about our surroundings. It alerts us when we come into
contact with something hot or cold, and it can also serve as a warning. Touch varies from sight
and hearing in that it is not limited to a certain location. Rather than receiving stimuli through
our eyes or ears, we receive them through our skin. The skin contains three types of sensory:

 thermoreceptors respond to heat and cold

 nociceptors respond to intense pressure, heat, and pain

 mechanoreceptors adapt to the situation. There are two types of mechanoreceptors, each of
which responds to pressure in a distinct way. As the skin is indented, rapidly evolving mechanoreceptors
respond to instant pressure. Continuously applied pressure causes mechanoreceptors to slowly adjust.

Rapid adapting, slowly adapting, and positional haptic perception are the three categories of haptic
perception. Both movement and static posture activate rapid adapting receptors. The knowledge of the
position of the body and limbs is known as kinesthesis. This perception has a range of effects on both
comfort and performance.

REFERENCES:

Hci notes. (n.d.). Academia.edu - Share

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HCI notes - ALL units (1). (n.d.).

StuDocu. https://www.studocu.com/in/document/anna-university/human-computer-
interaction/hci-notes-all-units-1/3707695

HCI - Chapter 4. (n.d.). Share and Discover Knowledge on

SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/alanjohndix/hci-chapter-4

Approaches and frameworks for HCI research. (n.d.). Cambridge

Core. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/approaches-and-frameworks-for-hci-
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