A Research Proposal on

READING COMPREHENSION OF GRADE VIII A STUDENTS OF ASBURY

COLLEGE INC.

Presented to Mr. Josel Hubert T. Salmorin

of Asbury College, Inc.
Anda, Pangasinan

In Partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Secondary Education major in English

by

Renalyn C. Aspa

March 2017

1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research paper is made possible through the help and support of my parents and
friends. And I want to dedicate this acknowledgement of gratitude towards the following.

Most of all, I would like to thank God for giving me a strength, knowledge, and
understanding to making this research paper.

And I would like to thank my family who are always there and support me.

And to my Instructor in this subject Sir Josel Hubert T. Salmorin, thank you Sir for giving
a research paper that one of the best experience.

And lastly, I would like to thank to all of them especially to God and to my family for their
support and guidance in the preparation and doing this research paper.

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 Dedication

First of all, I will dedicate this research paper

To our Almigthty God who gave me knowledge, wisdom and He makes me stronger.

To my family who gave me love

And always there by my side

For their constant financial and support

And for their presence when I feel tired

To my Instructor Josel Hubert Salmorin who teach us on how to do a research paper

For his encouragement, support and the best motivator

To my friends and classmates who never leave me

Without them this research paper will not finish successfully.

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Contents

Title Page…………………...............…………………………………………………...1

Acknowledgement..........…..……………………………………………………………2

Dedication……………........…………………………………………………………….3

Chapter I

Background of the Study……….......…………………….……………………………...5

Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………………….…..7

Scope and Delimitation……………………………………………………………….….8

Definition of Terms………………………………………………………….………..….8

Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………..…….9

Chapter II

On Reading Comprehension …………………………………………………………....10

On Factors Affecting the Reading Comprehension……………………………..……....11

On Reading Skills……………………………………………………………………......23

Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………….…25

Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………………….....…31

Research and Instrument…………………………………………………………..…….32

Curriculum Vitae…………………………………………………………………….…..53

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………...…..54

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 Chapter I

THE PROBLEM

Background of the study

Reading comprehension is defined as the process of simultaneously extracting and

constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language. We use
the words extracting and constructing to emphasize both the importance and the
insufficiency of the text as a determinant of reading comprehension.

According to William S. Gray he believed that reading consisted of four

hierarchical skills – word perception, comprehension, reaction and synthesis. Reading
comprehension is the process of constructing meaning from text. The goal of all reading
instruction is ultimately targeted at helping a reader comprehend text. Reading
comprehension involves at least two people: the reader and the writer.

In addition, reading comprehension is also affected by the quality of the reading

material. Text that is well organized and clear is called "considerate text and text that is
poorly organized and difficult to understand can be called "inconsiderate text." The more
inconsiderate the text, the more work will be required of a reader to comprehend the text.
Readers who do not have the background, abilities, or motivation to overcome the barriers
presented in inconsiderate text will have more difficulty comprehending these types of
texts. And they need to develop the language skills and strategies necessary for becoming
proficient readers.

However, the students with poorly developed language skills and strategies will not
have the tools to take advantage of the obvious structures and comprehension cues that are
part of considerate text nor will they have the extra tools needed to overcome the barriers
of inconsiderate text.

Reading comprehension of the Grade 8A students of Asbury College Inc. is the

main target of this research.

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 This research contains factors that affect the reading comprehension of the students,
this are the attitude toward reading ; level of motivation; mass media exposure; reading
habits; gender and the parent occupation. It is also have local and foreign findings to give
everyone a clear understanding and accurate knowledge that will help to develop and
enhance the reading comprehension of the students. This is also having different theories
from different proponents, literary pieces and test questions.

Indeed, a student, who can read comprehensively, can also be successful in all
especially in their lesson because the more a student’s became readable the more he or she
become active and participants in the lesson. Their teacher was encouraged and chose to
determine the reading comprehension of Grade 8A students at Asbury College, Inc.

Teachers have a very important role in helping the Grade 8A students of Asbury
College especially on how to comprehend and get most out of reading and become good
readers. They need to introduce to them extensive reading and provide them essential
guidance as they read comprehensively. While teaching reading comprehension, teachers
must always keep in mind that the goal is to let the students understand what the author
meant.

Based on my interview, the Grade 8A English teacher said that girls are more
competent than the boys in terms of reading and participating in class. Especially the top
ten because the grades and awards are serves as their motivation in their study. He also has
a strategy in teaching if their lesson is about story, he explain it in every paragraph in order
to understand what is the meaning and point of view of the lesson about. So in terms of
reading, Grade 8A students prefer the silent reading than oral reading because they can
focus on what the story is and easily to understand the meaning.

The purpose of this reading comprehension is for students to understand and

interpret what they read. In order to follow a story, the reader must comprehend what is
happening as the story progresses. Without good reading comprehension, a person may be
able to pronounce the words in a text but not be able to grasp which parts are important or
to determine the main idea of a passage.

6
Statement of the Problem

The primary purpose of this study is to determine the second language reading
comprehension of the Grade 8A students of Asbury College Inc. Specifically; this will
answer the following questions.

1. What is the profile variable of the respondents in terms of:

a. gender
b. mass media exposure;
c. parent Occupation;
d. attitude toward reading;
e. parent educational attainment;
f.. reading habits; and
g. level of motivation?

2. What is the reading comprehension of the students along the following skill:
a. Getting the main idea;
b. Decoding meaning through Context Clues;
c. Sequencing of Events;
d. Correct Usage;
e. Drawing conclusion?

3. Is there significant relationship between the profile variables and the reading
comprehension of the students?

7
Scope and Delimitation

This study is focused on determining the reading comprehension of Grade 8A students

different as expose to literary pieces in Literature and its relationship to certain significant
variables as stated in the statement of the problem such as: exposure to the English
language and activity, study habits, language spoken at home, mass media exposure,
parents occupation and age of the students.

The subject involved in this research is the Grade 8A students of Asbury College Inc.
during the school year 2016-2017.

Significance of the Study

This study will benefit the students, teachers, parents and school administrators of
Asbury College Inc. students. Through them the students will help to develop the skill and
they acquire more knowledge.

Teachers. This study will benefit the teachers in formulating their activities to suit the
students need. It also helps the teacher to formulating test and approach.

Students. The findings of this study will help the students especially on how they improve
their skills and language. They are also the one who use the reading skills in the classroom.

Parents. The findings of this study will give an understanding to the parents. They are the
first teacher that teach their child especially in reading and know the strength and
weaknesses of their child.

School Administrators. The findings of this study may serve the guide of the
administrators in implementing and planning the activities to help the students develop
their own skills especially in reading skills.

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Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined operationally and better for clearer understanding
of the study.

Reading – Reading refers to a complex "cognitive process" of decoding symbols in order

to construct or derive meaning (reading comprehension). According to Goodman and
Smith they defined reading as an interaction of three basic cuing systems and the readers’
accurate first guesses about a system. In this study reading is a means of language
acquisition, communication, and of sharing information and ideas. 

Reading comprehension - defined as the level of understanding of a text/message. This

understanding comes from the interaction between the words that are written, and how they
trigger knowledge outside the text/message. It also refers as a passage presented to the
reader. Then a series of questions are presented that test the reader's comprehension of this
passage.
English – defined as the main target for learning, it is the second language that is using
inside the classroom in different subject of the Grade 7A students.-grammar.

Grade VIII students – this is the target group of the study. It refers to on how the students
participate in the reading activities have in school.

Asbury College Inc.- it is the target Institution of this study. In this study the students are
the main focus and this institution help them to develop their reading skills.

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 Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Cognizant to the fact that related literature are of great importance in making the
study more meaningful and in enabling the researchers to gain deeper insights into the
problem on hand, the researcher made use of the relevant readings adapted to the present
investigation. These served as bases in organizing the conceptual framework of the study.

On Reading Comprehension

As viewed by Albert Bandura Reading comprehension and vocabulary are

inextricably linked. The ability to decode or identify and pronounce words is self-evidently
important, but knowing what the words mean has a major and direct effect on knowing
what any specific passage means. Students with a smaller vocabulary than other students
comprehend less of what they read and it has been suggested that the most impactful way
to improve comprehension is to improve vocabulary. They give students more and more
responsibility for using the strategies until they can use them independently. This technique
is generally associated with the idea of self-regulation and reflects social cognitive theory,
originally conceptualized by Albert Bandura.

Reading comprehension is the ability to read text, process it, and understand its
meaning. Although this definition may seem simple; it is not necessarily simple to teach,
learn or practice. An individual's ability to comprehend text is influenced by their traits and
skills, one of which is the ability to make inferences. If word recognition is difficult,
students use too much of their processing capacity to read individual words, which
interferes with their ability to comprehend what is read. There are a number of approaches
to improve reading comprehension, including improving one's vocabulary and reading
strategies. According to a study by Arijit Ghosh, the students with higher level of reading
proficiency frequently used reading strategies to comprehend academic texts.

Reading comprehension is as the level of understanding of a text/message. This

understanding comes from the interaction between the words that are written, and how they
trigger knowledge outside the text/message. 10
Comprehension is a "creative, multifaceted process" dependent upon four language
skills: phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Proficient reading depends on the
ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. It is also determined by an individual's
cognitive development, which is "the construction of thought processes". Some people
learn through education or instruction and others through direct experiences.

Frank Smith (1973) stated that reading as a process of communication transfers

information from a transmitter to a receiver.  Goodman (1976) defined reading as a
psycholinguistic guessing game where the reader reconstructs a message which has been
encoded by an author as a graphic display.

There are specific traits that determine how successfully an individual will
comprehend text, including prior knowledge about the subject, well-developed language,
and the ability to make inferences.

On Factors Affecting the Reading Comprehension

First factor is gender.

As stated by Clark and Douglas (2011) found that boys enjoy reading less with
43% of boys and 58% of girls enjoying reading either very much or quite a lot. Between
2005 and 2009 there has been an increase in the gap between boy and girls who enjoy
reading. In 2005 11% more girls than boys enjoyed reading; by 2009 this has widened to a
15% gap. Nearly twice as many boys than girls agreed with the statement that reading is
boring and that reading is hard and were more likely to say that they did not read outside
the classroom and could not find anything that interests them. Boys are also less likely to
say that they have access to a computer, magazines, newspapers, blogs or books compared
with girls. Sixty-seven percent of boys say they have books of their own at home as
opposed to 79% of girls. Girls were also more likely to rate themselves as better readers.
Clark (2011) also found that boys were more likely to have negative attitudes towards
reading. She found that more boys than girls agreed with the statements that they prefer
watching TV to reading, that they did not read as well as other pupils in their class, that
they only read when they had to, and that they would be embarrassed if their friends saw
them read outside of class. 11
 http://www.thenewatlantis.com/docLib/gender.pdf

As stated by Topping (2010) the Evidence from the Programmed for International
Student Assessment (PISA) has shown that boys are on average 39 points behind girls in
reading, the equivalent of one year’s schooling. One study reports that boys are reading
nearly as much as girls, but they tend to read easier books.
http://www.theevidence.com /gender
As stated by Maccoby and Jacklyn (2004) affirmed that females are superior in
verbal and reading skills and males get better results at mathematical skills, though, in their
opinion, it is difficult to untangle the influence of stereotyping on individuals’ perceptions
and to separate innate or learned behaviors that underpin the development or behavioural
or cognitive sex differences. The value of this research lies in the analysis of the responses
from people when confronted by test situations. The validity of tests related to sex
differences predicting performance or future capacity to learn. A gender bias is produced
by a particular test itself or the differential responses to it from males and females. The
tests predict what researchers believe to be a particular capacity to learn instead of the
capacity required by the school curriculum.
http://menandboys.ids.ac.uk/men-boys-and-gender-equality/evidence/review-
findings
As stated by Riley (2000) and Hill-Collins (2001) they agree that men have more
power in reading over women and therefore are in a position to interpret their differences
in stereotyped ways. The outstanding idea of this perspective is that gender or sex
difference is a cultural phenomenon rooted in a particular era or culture. This perspective
considers education as an instrument to explain sex differences, to encourage greater
equality between the sexes and to challenge assumptions in order to promote equal
opportunities.

www.nwmissouri.edu

As stated by Clark (2011) a number of studies have shown that boys enjoy reading
less than girls. His evidence has found that 58% of girls enjoy reading either very much or
quite a lot in comparison to 43% of boys. 12
 In all countries, boys are not only less likely than girls to say that they read for
enjoyment, they also have different reading habits when they 13do read for pleasure; with
girls more likely to read fiction or magazines, and boys more likely to read newspapers or
comics (OECD, 2010).

http://menandboys-gender-equality/evidence/review-findings

Second factor is mass media exposure.

According to Narayana Menon (2005) the notion of individuality is lost in the word
‘mass’ and various forms of media such as radio, television, newspaper, etc., report events
intended for such an enormous number of listeners, viewers, and readers. The advances in
telecommunication networks have revolutionized the function of mass media to serve
wider coverage at a faster pace worldwide. This has provided an enabling environment for
media in the new era to achieve its ultimate aim of reaching to a very large audience. Mass
communication, therefore, plays a crucial role in connecting the world to an individual, and
provides opportunity for the individual to communicate with a wider audience. However,
the downside of mass media communication, as national and international media
ownership is more likely to be influenced by a few, is in its difficulty to maintain neutrality
to what is being shared through different modes of public communications.

http://www.mediaexposure.com

According to Kuensel & May (2005) the study aimed to determine the level of
exposure to mass media. It employed mean values to determine the respondents’ level of
exposure to mass media and their level of reading proficiency. Pearson-product moment
coefficient of correlation was utilized to determine the relationship between their level of
exposure to mass media and their reading proficiency. The findings revealed that the
students had inadequate or low exposure to mass media on the basis of interest, availability
of materials, time spent for their choices and benefits they would receive. Exposure to the
different mass media must be enhanced to further develop the students in their intellectual
capacities, especially in their reading proficiency skills. 13
 http://www.mass-exposure.m.com

As stated by Mukharji, (2004) Environmental education also gives people a deeper

understanding of the environment, inspiring them to take personal responsibility for its
conservation and restoration. Through media exposure the education increases public
consciousness and knowledge of environmental issues and challenges. They acquire and
gaining more understanding of how their individual actions affect the environment,
acquiring skills that they can use to evaluate various sides of issues, and becoming better
equipped to make informed decisions.

https://www.ncbi.media.com

As stated by McDonald, (2004) Mass media is an unfamiliar expression of a

familiar medium of communication that was dominant in Bhutan, particularly in the form
of radio and print media prior to the advent of more invasive forms of media such as TV
and the internet. Even though, mass media has been present in the country for nearly five
decades, it is not until the turn of new millennium, with increased accessibility to other
pervasive forms of media, that it is able to gain fresh momentum and significance.

https://www.google.com.ph

As stated by Ura, (2006) the mass media may promise to enhance opportunities to
keep abreast of modern events and experiences happening globally. On the contrary, the
importance of preserving traditional values in the developing world is as crucial for
existence as modernizing ways of life in the developed world. This is probably allow the
introduction of mass media, particularly television and the internet. With more than thirty
foreign television channels and with little restriction in viewing, the unquenchable grip of
the media has almost completely seized the nation overnight.

http://www.studies.org.bt/publicationFiles/ConferenceProceedings/MediaAndPubli
cCulture/M-19.pdf

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 Third factor is parent occupation.

As stated by Ajila (2000) he pointed out that the home has a significant influence
on the psychological, emotional, social and economic state of the students. The state of the
home affects the individual since the parents are the first socialization agent in a person’s
life. It is because the family background and context of a child’s family do the effect in his
reaction to life situation and his level of performance. Although, the school is responsible
for the knowledge that make up the individual during the school period, yet Parents and the
person experiences at home play a tremendous role in building the personality and making
him what he is. One significant student difference is a social class. Even in small rural
towns, where almost all peoples are the same in ethnicity and religion. The children of the
town bankers, doctors, and teachers probably may have a different upbringing from those
children of most farmland or domestic workers.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles.pdf

According to Adekey, A. (2002) stated that it was mainly through their efforts and
abilities that children are socialized to become a productive citizen. Whenever parents
possess the resources and skills apply them efficiently and joyfully for upbringing of their
children. The entire society would benefit, and this brings joy and benefit to the nation and
encourages development and peaceful co-existence. The children themselves feel good and
bring happiness to their parents and the whole community.

www.com/hrmars_papers/The_Impact_of_Parents’_Occupation_on_Academic_Per
formance.pdf

According to Marnot, (2004) Occupations are ranked into most prestigious

occupation and lower ranking occupation. The occupation of the parents is one of the most
important to the students. It helps the students provide the needs of their child. The most
prestigious occupations are physicians, surgeons, lawyers, chemical & biomedical
engineers, and communication analysts. While lower ranking occupation are food
preparation workers, counter attendants, bartenders and helpers, dishwashers, janitors,
maids and housekeepers, vehicle cleaners, and parking lot attendants. 15
 www.com/ The_Impact_of_Parents’_Occupation_on_Academic_Performance.pdf

As stated by Saifullahi, (2011) he pointed out that parents’ occupation significantly

influence students’ achievement. The result indicated that children of government
employees secured more marks (60.02%) than the private job holders, because of the
certainty and reliability of the government jobs. Parents with government jobs are more
secured, and their families are at peace relatively compared to those who work in the
private organisation. They are always in frustration and lack of confidence at been
permanent. Likewise, occupation of the mother has an influence on students’ scores. The
result of this study indicated that the maximum percentage of marks that is 64.5% is of
students who mothers were government workers. So this seems that both fathers and
mothers profession have a significant influence on students’ academic achievement.

www.occupation_parent.com/

As stated by Vellymalay, (2012) he said that a child’s capability to succeed in

school depends on how successfully the child is managed by his/her parent in the
environment. It is an environment where the child learns skills, attitude and behaviour that
could mould them into productive and successful students. It is important to note that not
every child comes from a home that could provide them with the requisite educational
resource necessary for their academic success. In agreement with that, apparent
socioeconomic status plays a significant role in providing these educational resources and
appears to impose the greater impact on the child’s educational outcomes.

http://www.childs_abilty.educational.com

Fourth factor is the Attitude toward reading.

As conducted by McKenna and Kear (2010). Attitudes toward reading affect

student's achievement. While conventional wisdom and comparisons with low-skilled,
non-disabled students suggest that students with learning disabilities have negative
attitudes toward reading, few studies exist to support these inferences. The present study
uses the Elementary Reading Attitude Survey to describe elementary students' diagnosed
with learning disabilities attitudes toward academic and recreational reading 16
and to compare their attitudes with those expressed by their non-disabled peers. The
findings show that students with learning disabilities who received reading instruction in
special-education, resource rooms expressed reading attitudes that equaled or exceeded
those expressed by low and average non-disabled students in a nationwide study

http://www.ijonte.org/FileUpload/ks63207/File/04.bas.pdf

As noted by Guthrie and Wigfield (2000), “motivation is what activates behavior.”

Student attitudes toward reading are a central factor affecting reading performance. This
case study addressed the reading attitudes of three students enrolled in an urban teaching
college’s summer reading clinic. It was expected that these students would be provided
with supplemental support, including one on one and group coaching from reading
specialist candidates. Because instruction that provides cognitive and emotional supports
for learning can increase students’ motivation (Nolen, 2007), it was hypothesized that the
student attitudes would improve during their literacy clinic attendance. The specific
motivational and supportive components utilized by the reading specialist in conjunction
with instructional strategies and practices they chose to use with each student were
documented in order to determine their impact on student attitudes.

http://www.ijonte.org/FileUpload/ks63207/File/04.bas.pdf

According to Irene Fountas and Gay Pinnell (2006), they believe that reading
instruction which fosters the love and enjoyment of reading will result in students meeting
high expectations set by the state and teachers will see increased levels of achievement in
their classrooms. This will encourage students to read often and by choice. The only way
for students to improve their reading abilities is to read each and every day while being an
active part of the process of reading.

www.reading.hbits//ga.com

As stated by Berliner (2008) the attitude toward reading is a hard task because it
produced off-task behaviors and negative attitudes. And he found that success rates had a
substantial impact on student learning. 17
His studies produced strong, consistent evidence that tasks completed with high rates of
success were clearly linked to greater learning and improved student attitudes, while tasks
where students were moderately successful were less consistently related to learning and
hard tasks had a negative impact on learning.

www.google.com.ph

As stated by Morgan and Fuchs, (2007). In this regard, it has been concluded that
students’ attitudes towards reading are the leading factor that directly affects their reading
performances (Kush, Marley and Brookhart, 2005). While some researchers state that the
positive attitudes towards reading make academic success increase, the others state that
success in reading comprehension makes students develop positive attitudes towards
reading. http://www.ijonte.org/FileUpload/ks63207/File/04.bas.pdf

Fifth factor is parent education.

As stated by Corwyn and Bradley (2002) also found that maternal education had
the most consistent direct influence on children’s cognitive outcomes. Maternal
characteristics are a key factor that affects academic achievement. Mothers who are more
educated and have higher self-esteem have children who receive higher test scores.
http://www.education-students.com

As stated by Suitor, Plikuhn, Gilligan and Powers (2008) study isolated the variable
of mothers’ education and its impact on her children. Thirty five women in this sample
were followed for a decade to determine the longitudinal effect of their return to school and
the consequence their academic achievement had on children’s’ educational goals and
orientations. The researchers found that return to school were consequential on children’s’
aspirations only when mothers’ completed their degrees. Chiu and Khoo (2005) reported
15 year old students’ test scores related significantly with mothers’ mean year of
schooling. www.digitalcommons.brockport.edu

18
 As stated by Kuo and Hauser (2010) found that at least half the variance in
educational attainment was attributed to family background, including parental schooling.
Muola, (2010) reported that parental educational attainment correlated significantly with
academic achievement. An educated parent become more involved in education of a child
and can assist in school work. Educated parents also purchase books and other learning
materials/resources for their children who create school conditions to successful
performance but these learning conditions are absent in the poor uneducated and rural
family. Children whose parents’ educational attainment is low are unprepared for school.
They often lack readiness to learn, physical strength, and mental mindset.

https:education-students/g.com

As stated by Davis-Kean, (2005) Parental educational level is an important

predictor of children’s educational and behavioral outcomes. Through the background of
their parents is one of the important factors that the students need. Based on the
observation, the parents who has an educational level is big help especially in their child
because they know what to teach and they are the one to guide them.

www.pdf/education.com

As stated by Karl Montes, (2001) numerous studies have shown that children
experiencing parental divorce and separation manifest increased risks in various areas as
compared to children from intact families. So that students has the possibilities that they
have a mental health problems, substance abuse, and social adjustment issues, as well as
behavior problems and poor academic performance in school.

www.digitalcommons.brockport.edu

Sixth factor is reading habits.

As stated by Green (2001) reading makes way for a better understanding of one’s
own experiences and it can be an exciting voyage to self-discovery. “Reading habit is best
formed at a young impressionable age in school, but once formed it can last one’s life time.

19
The act of personal investigation requires self-study to be followed by self-thinking and
analysis. Self-study, otherwise referred to as reading at one’s own accord, requires a habit,
which is known as reading habit.

https://habits-in-reading.g/s.com

As stated by Bashir & Mattoo (2012) Reading and academic achievement are
essential for research workers and educationists to know that every child whether he or she
is gifted, average, normal or backward etc, should be educated in his or her own way but if
he or she possesses good study habits, he or she can perform well in academics and in
every situation. It is the reading habits which help the learner in obtaining meaningful and
desirable knowledge. Good reading habits act as a strong weapon for the students to excel
in life. www.achievements.students.com

According to Palani (2012), reading habit is an essential and important aspect

for creating a literate society in this world. It shapes the personality of individuals and it
helps them to develop proper thinking methods, and creates new ideas. However, the
developments in the Mass Media had continued to influence interest in reading (hard copy
of literatures such as…) books, magazines and journals, among others.

http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2908&context=libphilprac

According to The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)

continuously monitors the knowledge, skills, and performance of the nation's children and
youth in a variety of academic subjects. The data collected are available in major reports
known as "Report Cards." The NAEPfacts series takes data collected for the Report Cards
and uses them to highlight specific issues of particular interest to teachers, researchers,
policymakers, and other indi-viduals with an interest in education.

As cited in the study of Crede and Kuncel (2004), reading habits and study attitudes
are multidimensional in nature. This means that effective studying requires not only that
the students possess knowledge of appropriate studying techniques and practices (study
skills), but also sustained and deliberate effort (study motivation), self-regulation,

20
ability to concentrate, self-monitoring (study habits), and sense of responsibility for and
value in one’s own learning (study attitude). With this premise, this paper considered the
implications of the study habits and study attitudes of the students to confluent education to
provide a valuable note in designing a framework for academic intervention programs
among HEIs.

http://dx.doi.org.content.com

Last factor is level of motivation.

A group of economists from the London School of Economics conducted a study

of 51 corporate environments. Their results found that financial incentives can lead to a
negative impact on overall performance. A similar study was conducted within a medical
facility with similar results: monetary reward schemes could sometimes have positive
results but could also have serious negative effects, reducing the intrinsic desire to perform
an activity and worsening performance. Career analyst Daniel Pink (2007)  has also
cautioned against using money as a motivator, with his research supporting benefits like
recognition, flexible hours, and status as much more motivating than money in the modern
workplace.

www.pdf.-levels.com-ph

Michigan State University researchers (2007) have found that negative

reinforcement is a pretty poor way to motivate people to work hard towards a goal. While
previous studies have suggested that the threat of a penalty is more effective at getting
individuals to work harder, this study found definitively that that simply isn’t the case.
Participants in the study worked either under a reward or a penalty system. Those offered
rewards exhibited more effort, were more productive while those threatened with penalties
seemed to lose motivation and were less productive in their efforts. If you’re looking for
motivation for yourself, or trying to motivate others, forget about the consequences and
focus on the rewards for the best results. (Michigan.university.com)

21
 Researchers at the University of Illinois and Southern Mississippi University found
that those who ask themselves whether they will perform a task generally do better than
those who tell themselves that they will. It shouldn’t come as a surprise that your inner
voice would influence motivation, but what’s striking is just how much of a difference a
subtle change in phrasing can make. As it turns out, asking rather than telling yourself
something significantly raises levels of intrinsic motivation, perhaps because the question
creates less stress and more optimism about completing a given task.

www.motivation.com.ph

According to Hauser (2010) a recent research, you’ll have a lot more motivation to
get things accomplished when you’re working in a supporting, loving environment than
when you’re made to feel as if your value hinges on accomplishing a certain goal. The
findings aren’t especially surprising, but they do underscore the importance of finding a
support team that can help you develop intrinsic motivation to accomplish a task.
Researchers at BGU recently found that young students were much more motivated to do
homework when parents focused on the value of learning itself and supported them
unconditionally, rather than pushing them to complete assignments or to work for a grade.
While the “tough love” method might sometimes work, far more effective are kinder,
gentler forms of encouragement and support.

www.tar.thailis.or.th

As stated by Kuoler (2012) the new research has shown that being too motivated can
actually undermine accomplishing long term goals. As it turns out, when individuals are a
little too motivated, they make impulsive decisions that may not always be beneficial, and
in fact, may often be quite risky. A better method of motivation? Take that early
enthusiasm and focus it on planning and information gathering instead. These behaviors
will help you have better self-control and not be so guided by impulses, keeping you on
track and motivated for longer.

http:// motivation-of-students.com
 23

On Reading Skills

The first skill is getting the main idea. This means that the main idea of a
paragraph is the author's message about the topic. It is often expressed directly or it can be
implied. It is easy to identify a main idea that is directly expressed in the text.
Main ideas are often found at the beginning of paragraphs. The first sentence often
explains the subject being discussed in the passage. Main ideas are also found in the
concluding sentences of a paragraph. The main idea can be expressed as a summation of
the information in the paragraph as well as a link to the information in the next paragraph.
The main idea is not always clearly stated. It is more difficult to identify a main idea when
it is inferred or implied. It can be implied through other words in the paragraph. An
implied main idea can be found in several ways.

The second skill is decoding meaning through context clues when attempting to
decipher the meaning of a new word; it is often useful to look at what comes before and
after that word. The surrounding words can give readers helpful context clues about the
meaning and structure of the new word, as well as how it is used. Teachers have found it
effective to model a self-questioning strategy to identify the different types of context
clues. You can ask questions that are designed to focus attention on the unknown word and
the possible clues to its meaning, such as: What are the surrounding words? How do these
offer me clues? What does this word mean in terms of the context? It is also helpful to
provide students with frequent reminders and examples of the different types of context
clues. Using online tools, you can post the list of context clues (and some corresponding
examples) on your class wiki, website, or blog. You can also display the list on the bulletin
board in your classroom so that students can easily remind themselves about context clues.
Students can also keep examples in their reading or writing portfolios.

The third skill is the sequencing of events. It is important to know the order or
sequence that events take place in a story. It helps you understand what you read.
Sequencing is one of many skills that contribute to students' ability to comprehend what
they read.
 24

Sequencing refers to the identification of the components of a story — the beginning,

middle, and end — and also to the ability to retell the events within a given text in the
order in which they occurred. The ability to sequence events in a text is a key
comprehension strategy, especially for narrative texts. Sequencing is also an important
component of problem-solving across subjects.

Fourth skill is correct usage it is the manner in which written and

spoken language is used, the "points of grammar, syntax, style, and the choice of
words". And "the way in which a word or phrase is normally and correctly used". Usage
can mean the way people actually use language or prescriptively the way one group feels
that people ought to use it. Dictionaries are not always accurate guides to "good usage."
"Despite occasional usage notes, lexicographers generally disclaim any intent to guide
writers and editors on the thorny points of English usage

And last skill is drawing conclusion. Drawing conclusions is using information

that is implied or inferred to make meaning out of what is not clearly stated. Writers give
readers hints or clues that help them read between the lines, since not everything is
explicitly stated or spelled out all the time. If that were the case in books and in real life,
then the coffee shop conversation would've resulted in the woman saying exactly how
annoyed she was rather than simply saying the word 'fine' in a suggestive manner. In order
to effectively draw conclusions, readers need to. Gather all of the information that the
author has given them. Drawing conclusions means to process the clues or information
presented, such as in a story or conversation, and draw upon one’s own knowledge and
experience to understand what is happening. Drawing conclusions is an important skill in
reading comprehension. Many authors provide indirect clues and information throughout
their writing for the reader to notice and interpret. As a person reads, he mentally collects
these bits and pieces of information and relates them to what he already knows, as well as
to the plot, characters and setting in the story. Through this process, the reader is able to
put the pieces of information together and draw conclusions about the author’s meaning
and what is happening in the story.
 25

Theoretical Framework

The theories that substantial and strengthened their study is basically focused on:

A. Schema theory

An important source of understanding about the nature of the knowledge that

informs comprehension is schema theory. Schema theory is concerned with how
knowledge is represented and organized in long-term memory (as sets of information or
schemas) and then brought to mind as new information comes in. The theory suggests that
individuals relate all new information to what they already know or have experienced. In
the context of reading, schema theory emphasizes the critical role of the reader’s prior
knowledge in comprehension.

According to Anderson and Pearson they define schema as "an abstract knowledge
structure". And Medin and Russ simply put schema as "a general knowledge structure used
for understanding". Schema theory is an explanation of how readers use prior knowledge to
comprehend and learn from text. The term "schema" was first used in psychology by
Barlett as "an active organization of past reactions or experiences", later schema was
introduced in reading by David Rumelhalt (1980), Carrell (1981) and Hudson (1982) when
discussing the important role of background knowledge in reading comprehension.
Rumelhart define schema as "a data structure for representing the genetic concepts stored
in memory. The fundamental tenet of schema theory assumes that written text does not
carry meaning by itself. He also stated that schemata can represent knowledge at all levels-
from ideologies and cultural truths to knowledge about the meaning of a particular word, to
knowledge about what patterns of excitations are associated with what letters of the
alphabet. We have schemata to represent all levels of our experience, at all levels of
abstraction. Finally, our schemata are our knowledge. All of our generic knowledge is
embedded in schemata. The importance of schema theory to reading comprehension also
lies in how the reader uses schemata. This issue has not yet been resolved by research,
although investigators agree that some mechanism activates just those schemata most
relevant to the reader's task.
 26

Rather, a text only provides directions for readers as to how they should retrieve or
construct meaning from their own previously acquired knowledge. This previously
knowledge is called the readers' background knowledge (prior knowledge), and the
previously acquired knowledge structures are called schemata. The schemata of a reader
are organized in a hierarchical manner, with the most general at the top down to the most
specific at the bottom. According to schema theory, comprehending a text is an interactive
process between the reader’s background knowledge and the text. Efficient comprehension
requires the ability to relate the textual material to one's own knowledge. As Anderson
point out, "every act of comprehension involves one’s knowledge of the world as well".
Reading comprehension operates in two directions, from bottom up to the top and from the
top down to the bottom of the hierarchy. Bottom-up processing is activated by specific data
from the text, while top-down processing starts with general to confirm these predictions.
These two kinds of processing are occurring simultaneously and interactively, which adds
to the concept of interaction or comprehension between bottom-up and top-down
processes.

The importance of schema theory to reading comprehension also lies in how the reader
uses schemata. This issue has not yet been resolved by research, although investigators
agree that some mechanism activates just those schemata most relevant to the reader's task.

B. Proposition theory

This theory involves the reader constructing a main idea or macrostructure as they
process the text. These main ideas are organized in a hierarchical fashion with the most
important things given the highest priority to be memorized.

Reading Comprehension testing has always proved a great tool in the assessment of
the student’ ability as it provides a feedback on the progress of student. It also enhances the
self-ability to judge ourselves, provided such tests are carefully designed. The carefully
designed comprehension test is a cleverly constructed set of questions targeted at the
summery, overall meaning of text including most important meanings of words. The
questionnaire can be of different types like open ended question, closed formats or multiple
choice questions. 27

Based on reading theories that explained by Gunning above, the writer can make
conclusion that It is interesting to note how intertwined the three theories are. Each one
supports the other. In order to form a mental model in one’s head; one must have a schema
of that topic already stored. According to the Proposition theory, the student is forming a
mental model in their mind as they are forming the macrostructure. Forming a schema is
the most basic comprehension tool used by students. As they become more advanced, they
can build on their base of schemas and create mental models throughout the reading. The
most complex comprehension tool is forming a series of propositions, which are constantly
updated throughout the text.

C. Mental models

Mental models are psychological representations of real, hypothetical, or imaginary

situations. According to American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce, who postulated
(1896) that reasoning is a process by which a human, this models are important in
developing the skill of the students. It develops our mental ability.

The Scottish psychologist Kenneth Craik proposed a similar idea; he believed that
the mind constructs “small-scale models” of reality that it uses to anticipate events, to
reason, and to underlie explanation. Like pictures in Wittgenstein’s (1922) “picture” theory
of the meaning of language, mental models have a structure that corresponds to the
structure of what they represent. They are accordingly akin to architects’ models of
buildings, to molecular biologists’ models of complex molecules, and to physicists’
diagrams of particle interactions.

Since Craik’s insight, cognitive scientists have argued that the mind constructs
mental models as a result of perception, imagination and knowledge, and the
comprehension of discourse. They study how children develop such models, how to design
artifacts and computer systems for which it is easy to acquire a model, how a model of one
domain may serve as analogy for another domain, and how models engender thoughts,
inferences, and feelings.
 28

The theory of mental models rests on simple principles, and it extends in a natural
way to inferring probabilities, to decision making, and to recursive reasoning about other
people’s reasoning. We can summarize the theory in terms of its principal predictions,
which have all been corroborated experimentally. According to the model theory, everyday
reasoning depends on the simulation of events in mental models. The principal
assumptions of the theory are:

 Each model represents a possibility. Its structure corresponds to the structure of

the world, but it has symbols for negation, probability, believability, and so on.
Models that are kinematic or dynamic unfold in time to represent sequences of
events.
 Models explain deduction, induction, and explanation. In a valid deduction, the
conclusion holds for all models of the premises. In an induction, knowledge
eliminates models of possibilities, and so the conclusion goes beyond the
information given. In abduction, knowledge introduces new concepts in order to
yield an explanation.
 The theory gives a ‘dual process’ account of reasoning. System 1 constructs initial
models of premises and is restricted in computational power, i.e., it cannot carry
out recursive inferences. System 2 can follow up the consequences of
consequences recursively, and therefore search for counterexamples, where a
counterexample is a model of the premises in which the conclusion does not hold.

The principle of truth: mental models represent only what is true, and accordingly
they predict the occurrence of systematic and compelling fallacies if inferences depend on
what is false. An analogous principle applies to the representation of what is possible rather
than impossible, to what is permissible rather than impermissible, and to other similar
contrasts.

D. Reader-response theory
 A theory, which gained prominence in the late 1960s, as defined by Stanley Fish
this focuses on the reader or audience reaction to a particular text, perhaps more than the
text itself. 29

Reader-response criticism can be connected to poststructuralism’s emphasis on the role of

the reader in actively constructing texts rather than passively consuming them. The reader-
response critic’s job is to examine the scope and variety of reader reactions and analyze the
ways in which different readers, sometimes called “interpretive communities,” make
meaning out of both purely personal reactions and inherited or culturally conditioned ways
of reading. The theory is popular in both the United States and Germany; its main theorists
include Stanley Fish, David Bleich, and Wolfgang Iser.

Reader-response theory recognizes the reader as an active agent who imparts "real
existence" to the work and completes its meaning through interpretation. Reader-response
criticism argues that literature should be viewed as a performing art in which each reader
creates their own, possibly unique, text-related performance.

According to Stanley Fish, there are multiple approaches within the theoretical
branch of reader-response criticism, yet all are unified in their belief that the meaning of a
text is derived from the reader through the reading process. Lois Tyson endeavors to define
the variations into five recognized reader-response criticism approaches whilst warning
that categorizing reader-response theorists explicitly invites difficultly due to their
overlapping beliefs and practices.

Transactional reader-response theory, led by Louise Rosenblatt and supported by

Wolfgang Iser, involves a transaction between the text's inferred meaning and the
individual interpretation by the reader influenced by their personal emotions and
knowledge. Affective stylistics, established by Stanley Fish, believe that a text can only
come into existence as it is read; therefore, a text cannot have meaning independent of the
reader. Subjective reader-response theory, associated with David Bleich, looks entirely to
the reader's response for literary meaning as individual written responses to a text are then
compared to other individual interpretations to find continuity of meaning. Psychological
reader-response theory, employed by Norman Holland, believes that a reader’s motives
heavily affect how they read, and subsequently use this reading to analyze the
psychological response of the reader. Social reader-response theory is Stanley Fish's
extension of his earlier work, stating that any individual interpretation of a text is created in

30

an interpretive community of minds consisting of participants who share a specific reading

and interpretation strategy. In all interpretive communities, readers are predisposed to a
particular form of interpretation as a consequence of strategies used at the time of reading.

This theory is one of the important especially to the readers because it helps the
students develop their reading comprehension in terms of second language, through the
different types of reader response easily know the way on how you learned from this.

E.Social Development Theory

Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development;

consciousness and cognition is the end product of socialization and social behavior.

Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role
in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should
collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in
students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.

This theory helps the readers or the learners because they need to be socialized in
other people and communicate in our relatives to acquire some knowledge and skills to
them. And this is also the one to develop our reading skills and abilities through
motivating, and inspiring.  The social development theory, Leo Vygotsky primarily
explains that socialization affects the learning process in an individual. It tries to explain
consciousness or awareness as the result of socialization. This means that when we talk to
our peers or adults, we talk to them for the sake of communication. After we interact with
other people, we tend to internalize what we uttered.
 31

Conceptual Framework

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

1. Gender 1. Getting the main idea

2. Mass media exposure 2. Sequencing of events
3. Parent occupation 3. Decoding meaning through
4. Attitude toward reading context clue
5. Parent educational 4. Correct usage
Attainment 5. Drawing conclusions
6. Reading habits
7. Level of motivation

A paradigm showing the Independent variables and Independent variables

 32

Curriculum Vitae

I. Personal Data

Name: Renalyn C. Aspa

Birthdate: August 4, 1997
Birth place: Poblacion, Anda, Pangasinan
Home Address: Poblacion, Anda, Pangasinan
Age: 19 years old
Religion: Methodist
Nationality: Filipino
Father’s name: Roman Aspa
Mother’s name: Merlina Aspa
Status: Single

II. Educational Attainment

Elementary: Anda Central School 2009-2010

Secondary: Asbury College Inc. 2013-2014

Tertiary: Asbury College Inc. 2017- present

Bibliography

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e/M-19.pdf

http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2908&context=libphilprac

http://www.gender.org/FileUpload/ks53207/File/06..pdf

http:// motivation-of-students.com

www.digitalcommons.brockport.edu

www.tar.thailis.or.th

http://www.education-students.com

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles.pdf

www.com/hrmars_papers/The_Impact_of_Parents’_Occupation_on_Academic_Performan
ce.pdf

http:/www.theory-belongs. Skhema.com.ph

http://dx.doi.org.content.com

www.com/ The_Impact_of_Parents’_Occupation_on_Academic_Performance.pdf

www.occupation_parent.com/

http://www.childs_abilty.educational.com
Afro- Asian Literature Book ( Grade 8 )

Recommendation

Based on the foregoing conclusion arrived, the researcher recommends the following:

Administration. The researcher therefore recommends that the administration should give
more focus on the materials that can be used of the students to enhance and developed the
reading comprehension.

Teachers. The researcher therefore recommends that teachers should strictly implement to
use English language as medium of instruction in the classroom and read English story.

Grade 8A students. The researcher therefore recommends that the grade 8A students
should read more books to widen their vocabulary and practice to use English language
inside and outside the classroom to enhance and developed the reading comprehension of
the students.

Other researcher. The researcher therefore recommends that other researcher should
conduct new study and survey about the Reading Comprehension to gain better
understanding about this topic.