Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition

waste in geotechnical applications: A literature review
Rafaela Cardoso a,⇑, Rui Vasco Silva a, Jorge de Brito a, Ravindra Dhir b,c
a
ICIST, CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georresources, Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b
School of Civil Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
c
Applying Concrete Knowledge, 1A Blakeney Avenue, Birmingham B17 8AP, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The use of recycled aggregates (RA) in construction constitutes a significant step towards a more sustain-
Received 17 June 2015 able society and also creates a new market opportunity to be exploited. In recent years, several case-
Revised 15 November 2015 studies have emerged in which RA were used in Geotechnical applications, such as filling materials
Accepted 23 December 2015
and in unbound pavement layers. This paper presents a review of the most important physical properties
Available online xxxx
of different types of RA and their comparison with natural aggregates (NA), and how these properties
affect their hydraulic and mechanical behaviour when compacted. Specifically, the effects of compaction
Keywords:
on grading size distribution curves and density are analysed, as well as the consequences of particle
Recycled aggregates
Compacted materials
crushing on the resilient modulus, CBR and permeability. The paper also contains an analysis of the influ-
Pavement layers ence of incorporating different RA types on the performance of unbound road pavement layers as com-
RCA pared with those built with NA by means of the International Roughness Index and deflection values. The
RMA results collected from the literature indicate that the performance of most RA is comparable to that of NA
RAP and can be used in unbound pavement layers or in other applications requiring compaction.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction It is still common practice to dispose of waste from construction

Almost all industrial and human activities produce waste and
its increasing accumulation is the cause of serious environmental
and economic issues around the world. In 2010, the total waste
generated in European Union amounted to 2.51 billion tonnes
(Eurostat, 2014). Construction and demolition activities (859 mil-
lion tonnes, 34% of the total) and mining and quarrying activities
(672 million tonnes, 27% of the total) are the major economic sec-
tors that generated most waste in 2010. Of the total waste gener-
ated by these two sectors, 97% was mineral waste or soils
(excavated earth, road construction waste, construction and demo-
lition waste, dredging spoil, waste rocks, tailings, and others). The
share of mineral and solidified wastes in relation to the total waste
and total hazardous waste produced was 76% (Eurostat, 2014).
Abbreviations: RA, recycled aggregates; NA, natural aggregates; CDW, construc-
tion and demolition waste; RCA, recycled concrete aggregates; RMA, recycled
masonry aggregates; RMC, residual mortar content; MRA, mixed recycled aggre-
gates; CDRA, construction and demolition recycled aggregates; RAP, reclaimed
asphalt pavement; CBR, California Bearing Ratio; IRI, International Roughness
Index; FWD, falling weight deflectometer.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rafaela@civil.ist.utl.pt (R. Cardoso).
or demolition sites in landfills; however, there have been several
cases in which substantial amounts of waste materials have been
recovered. Some examples of applications are their use as general
bulk fill, sub-base, base or surface material in road construction,
hydraulically bound materials or new concrete manufacture
(Hansen, 1992), provided that these waste materials do not have
hazardous contaminants (EU WFD, 2015). As an alternative to
depositing them in landfills, the use of recycled aggregates (RA)
creates a new market opportunity to be exploited, and one that
is also favourable to the environment. For geotechnical applica-
tions, however, the use of RA is not very common and natural
aggregates (NA) are preferred. This can be explained by the follow-
ing reasons:
 From an economic point of view, except in some particular
cases, the use of NA is more advantageous than RA because it
is more readily found, while RA must be transported to the
construction site, sometimes from far distances.
 The variability of composition of RA is much higher than that of
NA due to the different sources of RA. The composition and
grading size distribution of RA must fit those of the NA usually

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.021
0956-053X/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, R., et al. Use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste in geotechnical applications: A
literature review. Waste Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.021
2 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
used for that purpose; therefore RA must be subjected to rigor-
ous selection and calibration procedures, which can be time-
consuming and expensive.
 RA compaction may change their properties (due to crushing
mainly) and therefore their performance for a given application
requires previous investigation done by experimental tests in
the laboratory and in the field.
 In the case of pavements and embankments, the number of trial
tests when using recycled materials is expected to be higher
than those necessary for NA, because RA properties are not well
known. Adding to this, the compaction procedure must be
updated according to the RAs’ variability as well as their
changes during construction and exploitation.
 For some countries and applications (for example, ballast in
railways and earth and rockfill dams), the design rules are
very restrictive and the use of recycled materials is still not
allowed.
 When mixing RA with NA, besides the need to define the most
adequate replacement levels (which depend both on RA and NA
characteristics), their incorporation may have negative impact
in soil stiffness and strength.
 Designers and contractors have large experience in the beha-
viour of NA for several types of geotechnical structures and
applications and know how to deal with their natural variabil-
ity. Since they normally favour conservative approaches, this
way of thinking may not be easily changed while natural
resources are still abundantly available.
 Although Geotechnical Design Codes such as Eurocode 7 (EC7)
accept design based on comparable experience, there are no
specifications concerning the use of RA in geotechnical applica-
tions, where safety issues are fundamental.
Nevertheless, owing to their size distribution reproducing that
of natural soil, there have been several attempts to incorporate
RA in geotechnical applications mainly as filling material or in
pavement layers (e.g. base and sub-base layers in roads). Provided
that the amount of hazardous contaminants is kept to a minimum,
when compacted, these materials must also exhibit the minimum
values for mechanical (stiffness and strength) and hydraulic (per-
meability, expansiveness and frost-free) related properties neces-
sary for any given application.
The properties of aggregates define the compaction conditions
and the behaviour of the compacted material (Barata and
Cardoso, 2013; Cardoso et al., 2012; Mitchell and Soga, 2005), as
it happens in the particular case of pavement layers. Understand-
ing the effect of RA on the behaviour of the compacted material,
in comparison to that observed when NA are used, is fundamental
to validate and promote the wider use of these materials in that
particular application.
This paper presents a review of the most important physical
properties of different types of RA from construction and demoli-
tion and their comparison with NA, and how these properties affect
the hydraulic and mechanical behaviour of compacted materials.
The analysis is focused mainly on unbound pavement layers
because this is, by far, the major application of RA in Geotechnical
works. The behaviour of the compacted material made with differ-
ent kinds of RA and compositions of RA and NA is reviewed and
some properties are quantified. The paper ends with some com-
ments about the use of different types of RA in current unbound
applications and the main differences when compared with con-
ventional compacted materials. It is believed that the information
provided will be very useful to Contractors and Geotechnical engi-
neers to evaluate alternative solutions and to explore the rational
use of such non-traditional material in Geotechnical applications
in general.
Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, R., et al. Use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste in geotechnical applications: A
literature review. Waste Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.021
2. Properties of recycled aggregates
There are four main types of material (Fig. 1) derived from most
construction and demolition waste (CDW) and road renovations:
crushed concrete; crushed masonry; mixed demolition debris;
and road planings. After crushing and beneficiation, the resulting
aggregates may be assigned to one of the five following categories:
 Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) – Some of the existing spec-
ifications (DIN-4226, 2002; LNEC-E471, 2006; NBR-15.116,
2005; PTV-406, 2003) have reached a consensus that, in order
to be considered as RCA, they must comprise a minimum of
90%, by mass, of Portland cement-based fragments and NA.
 Recycled masonry aggregates (RMA) – Sourced from crushed
masonry, these materials may include: aerated and lightweight
concrete blocks; ceramic bricks; blast-furnace slag bricks and
blocks; ceramic roofing tiles and shingles; and sand-lime bricks
(Hansen, 1992). RMA are composed of a minimum of 90%, by
mass, of the summation of the aforementioned materials.
 Mixed recycled aggregates (MRA) – Aggregates acquired from
mixed demolition debris are a mixture of the two main compo-
nents obtained from the beneficiation process of CDW: crushed
and graded concrete and masonry rubble. Some specifications
(BS-8500, 2006; NBR-15.116, 2005) state that they are com-
posed of less than 90%, by mass, of Portland cement-based frag-
ments and NA.
 Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) – When mainly composed of
asphalt-based materials (more than 90% in composition). The
literature shows that this material has been successfully used
in the production of bituminous mixtures, but it is highly detri-
mental to cement bound materials (Silva et al., 2014).
 Construction and demolition recycled aggregates (CDRA) – In a
study carried out by Silva et al. (2014), the authors found that
the literature contains limited information on the origin and
composition of aggregates or that these had high levels of con-
taminants (e.g. glass, plastics, wood). Therefore, since the com-
position of these materials differed greatly from the others
(RCA, RMA, MRA), they were called CDRA.
RA from crushed concrete, RCA, may be used for concrete pro-
duction and in high performance pavements, while those contain-
ing materials from crushed masonry, RMA and MRA, may be
applied in the construction of certain types of pavement, where
strength and size requirements are usually less demanding, and
safety and risk are less significant than those in structural concrete.
CDRA can be comprised of various contaminants that affect
handling and properties of the final product (Buyle-Bodin and
Hadjieva-Zaharieva, 2002), and therefore must be analysed prior
to processing in order to determine the most suitable and cost-
effective recycling procedure. Recycling plants have progressed to
a point that minimizes the content of contaminants (wood, soil,
asphalt, glass, metal, and plastic) by subjecting these materials to
various processing techniques developed for this purpose, which
are extensively described in the literature (Chen et al., 2003; Cho
and Yeo, 2003; Dhir et al., 1999; Dosho et al., 1998; Eguchi et al.,
2007; Gokce et al., 2011; Li, 2009; Mas et al., 2012; Muscalu and
Andrei, 2011; Nagataki et al., 2004; Nagataki and Lida, 2001; Sim
and Park, 2011; Yanagi et al., 1998; Zhao et al., 2010). However,
the use of the term ‘‘contaminant’’ depends on the intended
application of the RA containing it.
High quality RA can be produced nowadays by CDW recycling
plants, which are not very different from plants that produce
crushed NA. The basic method of recycling, employed in most
recycling plants, is crushing the CDW debris to produce a granular
product of a given particle size. The process for removing
 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Fig. 1. Main types of RA sourced from CDW – From left to right: crushed concrete, crushed masonry and mixed recycled aggregates (adapted from Cachim, 2009 and Poon
et al., 2009b).
contaminants is still somewhat precarious in most facilities, since
the output is often a mixed product rather than an easily identifi-
able and uncontaminated one. There are some contaminants,
which cannot be removed with mechanical methods alone because
their characteristics are similar to those of RA, thus the need to
include specialized manual separation in the recycling procedure.
Different crushers may be used in different circumstances and
in a varying number of crushing stages (Dosho et al., 1998;
Gokce et al., 2011; Nagataki et al., 2004; Nagataki and Lida,
2001; Yanagi et al., 1998). It is possible for a large proportion of
the product coming from a primary crusher to exhibit particle sizes
less than 40 mm. The adoption of several crushing stages reduces
the average size of the aggregate and generates more fines (parti-
cles with diameter D < 0.074 mm). For better control of the RA
grading curve, it is recommended to process CDW at least in two
crushing stages, but the quantity of fine material needs to be con-
trolled to obtain the grading size distributions required for
unbound applications (Kasai, 2004). By adjusting the setting of
the crusher aperture it is possible to produce good quality coarse
aggregates (Hansen, 1992) that meet the specifications necessary
for a given purpose (e.g. EN-12620 (2013) and EN-13043 (2013)).
However, it is difficult to produce good quality fine RA, since it con-
tains a high quantity of old mortar, which dictates the performance
of the end-use application.
Apart from decreasing the amount of old mortar, two or more
crushing stages typically lead to rounder and less sharp particles
(Barbudo et al., 2012); if RCA only undergo a primary crushing pro-
cess, they will usually present higher shape and flakiness indexes
than those of NA. (González-Fonteboa and Martínez-Abella, 2008;
Ferreira et al., 2011; Fonseca et al., 2011). Still, it should also be
noted that there are cases (Agrela et al., 2012) in which NA are flat-
ter and sharper than RA, especially if these are from crushed slate
or from other natural stones with marked cleavage planes. When
evaluating the shape of ceramic particles from crushed bricks, de
Brito et al. (2005) found that these RMA consistently presented
higher shape indexes for larger particles, which only decreased
with decreasing particle size. Therefore, considering the strict
limits imposed by some specifications (e.g. EN-12620 (2013) and
EN-13043 (2013)), whenever the shape of aggregates has to be
characterized, this will be made in terms of the flakiness and shape
indexes (EN-933-3 (2012) and EN-933-4 (2008), respectively,
according to European standards).
The properties of RCA strongly depend on the properties of the
source concrete (Silva et al., 2014). High-strength concrete, with
lower w/c ratios, will exhibit greater density values and lower
water absorption values, due to the lower amount of water
required to produce these mixes (i.e. less porous). Therefore, the
RA that result from crushing these materials will present higher
oven-dried density, lower water absorption and higher resistance
to fragmentation when compared to the RA coming from low-
strength concrete. A very strong correlation (directly proportional
Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, R., et al. Use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste in geotechnical applications: A
literature review. Waste Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.021
3
relationship) can be observed when comparing the quality of these
materials to the mechanical and durability-related performance of
the resulting construction material. Additionally, the quality of
RCA is mostly governed by their residual mortar content (RMC).
It has a more porous and less denser microstructure than NA.
Therefore, as the RMC increases, RCA is more likely to exhibit pro-
gressively worse mechanical performance. The quality of RCA is
dependent on these two factors.
As shown in Table 1, which presents the range of values found
for some properties of RCA after one and three crushing stages, the
presence of old adhered mortar affects the properties of RCA by
decreasing their density and crushing strength, and increases
water absorption. With increasing crushing stages, there is cumu-
lative loosening of adhered cement paste from the surface of the
coarse RCA, and therefore the density of the coarse fraction
increases while the density of the fine fraction decreases
(Nagataki et al., 2004).
Also as shown in Table 1, increasing processing levels lead to
progressively higher density. Aggregates with higher density val-
ues will normally provide better performances in their future
applications when strength, stiffness and reduced water adsorp-
tion are necessary. The density of RMA was found to be lower than
that of RCA (Debieb and Kenai, 2008). These density values vary
between 10% and 25%. The particle density values for MRA can
be estimated through their composition ratios since RMA and
RCA content affect this property. Density also decreases when
RMA content increases (Dhir et al., 2008).
The simplest and commonest method for characterization of
aggregates is by considering their specific gravity, i.e. (i) normal
weight, (ii) lightweight and (iii) heavyweight. Normal weight
aggregates are the largest group of aggregates for concrete produc-
tion. They include natural sands and gravels, and crushed rocks,
e.g. granite, dolerite, basalt, limestone and sandstone. RA usually
fit this group, in addition to manufactured aggregates such as
air-cooled blast furnace slag and recycled glass aggregates.
In light of the aforementioned characteristics of RA, when using
them in any given application, it is important to account for the
fact that their physical properties depend both on the type of recy-
cled material and manufacturing process, while the latter is pre-
ponderant for NA. Nevertheless, from a geotechnical point of
view, knowing the grading size distribution and optimum condi-
tions for compaction, it is possible to estimate the properties of
Table 1
Properties of RCA (adapted from Nagataki et al., 2004).
Process Adhered cement Dry unit Water Crushing
level paste content weight (kg/m3) absorption (%) value under
(% by mass) 100 kN (%)
1 52.3–55.0 2370–2420 4.88–6.27 3.83–6.30
3 30.2–32.4 2480–2510 3.14–3.76 1.53–2.28
4 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Table 2
Comparison between some properties of RA and NA.

Property NA RA RA versus NA
Size Depends on the crushing process. Depends on the crushing process. Higher breakage is expected for RA
Breakage may occur for softer rocks. Fines Breakage and fines generation are
may be generated by friction between expected during compaction,
rough grains disaggregating the grains
Shape and Depends on the type of rock and its Depends on the original material and Depends on the crushing process and type of materials.
roughness cleavage plans crushing process. Less adhered old May be more difficult to attain homogeneity for RA
mortar helps to create smoother surfaces
Particle density Depends on the type of rock Depends on size and materials and their Larger density expected for NA. Larger porosity expected
and porosity proportions present in the particles for RA, but not homogeneous
Particle crushing Depends on size and type of rock Depends on size and materials and their Smaller strength is expected for RA, but is not
strength proportions present in the particles homogeneous. Smaller strength for masonry fragments
than for concrete particles. Lower resistance is expected
when adhered cement paste is present
Particle stiffness Depends on size and on the type of rock Depends on size and on the materials High stiffness is expected for RCA aggregates of
and their proportions present in the structural concrete. Smaller stiffness is expected
particles masonry particles than for concrete fragments
Water retention Depends on the type of rock and amount Depends on the materials and their Larger water absorption is expected for RA due to the
properties of accessible pores proportions present in the particles presence of adhered cement paste but the value
decreases significantly for bituminous, glass or vitrified
masonry
Frost resistance, Depends on the type of rock Depends on the materials and their Toughness depends mainly on the number of cracks and
soundness and proportions present in the particles defects in the grains. They are present in both types of
toughness aggregates but more in large fragments of rocks. Freeze–
thaw resistance and soundness depend on the accessible
porosity and size of pores

Table 3
Relationship between the aggregate properties and the properties of the compacted material (adapted from Saeed, 2008).

Aggregate property Compacted material

Grading size Compaction curve (affects shear strength, CBR, Permeability Freeze–thaw and
distribution curve stiffness and load bearing capacity) soundness resistance
Maximum dry density Optimum water content
Size YES YES NO YES YES
Shape and roughness YES YES NO YES NO
Density and porosity NO YES YES YES NO
Crushing strength and toughness YES YES YES NO YES
Stiffness NO YES NO NO NO
Water retention properties NO NO YES YES YES
Freeze–thaw resistance and soundness YES YES NO YES YES

the material regardless of their nature. The main difficulty resides
in estimating the performance of these materials when compacted.
Table 2 presents the comparison between the main properties of
NA and RA, which are known to affect the performance of unbound
compacted applications, as presented in Table 3. In this table, YES
means that the compacted material property is dependent on that
aggregate property. Indeed, the size and shape of the aggregate
affect the grading size distribution curve before and after com-
paction and compaction properties, such as maximum dry unit
weight and optimum water content, affect shear strength and stiff-
ness (Mitchell and Soga, 2005). Grading size distribution also affects
permeability and freeze–thaw resistance. Density and crushing
strength affect maximum dry unit weight, while porosity and water
retention properties strongly affect optimum water content. Tough-
ness, porosity, water retention properties and frost resistance affect
freeze–thaw resistance. Soundness affects resistance to chemical
attack. The way these characteristics are affected when using differ-
ent kinds of RA is discussed in this paper.
3. Recycled aggregates in pavement layers
In pavements, both flexible and rigid, RA can be used as NA
replacement or mixed with them. Besides evidencing strength in
case of structural layers, the material must also ensure adequate
drainage and frost-free characteristics. The properties of RA rele-
vant to the performance of flexible and rigid pavements depend
on the main function of the layer where they will be incorporated.
The properties of the compacted material that influence pavement
performance with different functions are summarized in Table 4,
where YES means that that property affects the performance of
the material in the pavement.
As expected, some RA may be more appropriate than others.
Selection is based on the properties of the aggregate that influence
the behaviour of the compacted layer with a given function
(Table 3). Its size distribution mimics that of natural soils tradition-
ally used for different applications, with diameters typical of gravel
and sands, and with controlled percentage of fines (usually below
10%). For this reason, if no changes in grading sizes are expected
due to compaction, the differing behaviour of compacted materials
made of RA or NA are explained only by changes in the aggregates’
characteristics. In general, the incorporation of RA has negative
effects on frost susceptibility and durability, as well as in shear
strength and stiffness, because the physical properties of RA are
generally worse than those of NA. These parameters may be esti-
mated by grading size distribution and dry density after com-
paction as if RA were NA, however RA may be more prone to
change their properties in service due to crushing or abrasion of
adhered mortar. It is worth noting that, despite the varying quality

Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, R., et al. Use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste in geotechnical applications: A
literature review. Waste Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.021
 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 5

Table 4
Characteristics of the compacted material relevant for pavement layers according to their function (adapted from Saeed, 2008).

Characteristic of the compacted material Function of the layer

Structural layer Construction platform Drainage layer Frost blanket Control pumping Select fill
Grading curve YES YES YES YES YES YES
CBR and shear strength (friction angle) YES YES NO NO NO NO
Stiffness YES YES YES YES YES YES
Permeability NO NO YES YES YES NO
Freeze–thaw resistance YES NO YES YES NO YES

of RA (usually due to the amount of adhered old mortar), it is the ated to freeze–thaw cycles may also affect the pavement’s
overall behaviour that must be considered, which can be indepen- performance.
dent from their limitations.
An increasing number of studies (Aqil et al., 2005; Arm, 2003;
4. Mechanical characteristics of compacted recycled aggregates
Barbudo et al., 2012; Bazaz et al., 2006; Bennert and Maher,
2008; Chini et al., 2001; Fernandes et al., 2009; Gokce et al.,
The mechanical characteristics of compacted RA of different
2011; Ho et al., 2008; Jiménez et al., 2011, 2012; Junior et al.,
types collected from the literature are presented in this section.
2009; Kim et al., 2007; Kumar and Reddy, 2008; Lancieri et al.,
Table 6 summarizes some studies considered representative of
2006; Lee et al., 2009, 2011; Leite et al., 2011; Melbouci, 2009;
the type of research performed on the use of RA in unbound pave-
Molin et al., 2004; Nataatmadja and Tan, 2000; O’Mahony, 1990;
ment layers.
Papp et al., 1998; Park, 2003; Poon and Chan, 2006b; Poon et al.,
As seen in Table 6, most of the studies are experimental and
2006b; Vegas et al., 2011; Wilcken and Fleischer, 1999) confirm
were performed in order to characterize the mechanical properties
that the properties of RA greatly influence the performance of
of various types of aggregates or of mixtures with given aggregates’
unbound granular pavement layers. The relationship between the
composition. The comparison of the properties measured with
properties of aggregates and the problems observed in pavements
those of NA is made in most of these studies, in particular when
is synthesised in Table 5. In general, the main problems identified
the research is focused on optimizing the compaction conditions
in pavements are fatigue cracking, rutting, depressions and frost-
in the field (Saeed, 2008) but there are also some field case-
related heaving, which can result from the poor performance of
studies (Fernandes et al., 2009; Ho et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2009) that
the unbound base and sub-base layers. Such problems may lead
motivated more detailed experimental tests.
to failure or to important deformations that can compromise the
Studies on the mechanical and hydraulic behaviour of mixtures
in-service behaviour of the pavement.
of RCA, RAP, RMA with NA or between them with varying propor-
Strength (mainly to crushing) is the aggregate’s most important
tions are very usual. The main results reported consist in changes
property to be considered both for flexible and rigid pavements
in the grading size distribution curves caused by compaction, dry
when their performance is deficient (lack of global strength and
unit weight and water content achieved for a known compaction
cracking and local deformation). Aggregate stiffness is also relevant
effort, strength (through CBR tests) and stiffness (by quantifying
because it affects global stiffness; however grading size distribu-
the resilient modulus). Only few studies are focused on quantifying
tion and dry unit weight after compaction are aspects that must
the effects of the stiffness and strength of the aggregate in the
be controlled to ensure adequate performance of the layer. Layer
same property of the compacted material. These latter studies
stiffness and strength of the aggregate are often related because
could help in a better selection of the aggregates.
stiffness decreases if crushing occurs but increases significantly
due to densification after the arrangement of fragments of crushed
aggregates. Such parameters are not easy to quantify in RA due to 4.1. Grading size distribution and optimum point of compaction
the heterogeneous properties of their particles such as porosity
(dry volumetric weight) and size. Even if impact compaction is not appropriate for granular mate-
For rigid pavements, permeability is an important property to rials, Proctor tests continue to be used and provide the reference
prevent pumping and faulting. This is necessary to prevent the curves for compaction control. In this case ASTM standards
accumulation of water and consequent development of interstitial ASTM-D698 (2012) and ASTM-D1557 (2012) (standard and modi-
pressures that can cause heave and cracking due to lack of fied effort, respectively), and standards UNE-103501 (1994), NF-
strength. When water is allowed to accumulate, problems associ- P94-093 (1999), AASHTO-T99 (2010) and AASHTO-T180 (2004),
are some examples. Compaction by vibration must be adopted
for materials with less than 15% fines following standards BS-
Table 5
1377-1 (1990), BS-1924-1 (1990), BS-5835-1 (1980) and ASTM-
Properties of the aggregate that influence pavement performance (adapted from
Saeed, 2008). D4253 (2006). In both cases, a high compaction effort reproduced
in the laboratory by the modified Proctor is desirable to avoid set-
Pavement type Performance parameter Property
tlements upon subsequent wetting and/or vibration of the soil, as
Flexible Fatigue cracking Stiffness observed when granular fills are placed with reference to the Stan-
Rutting, corrugations Shear strength
dard Proctor (Day, 1995).
Fatigue cracking, Toughness
rutting, corrugations Frost resistance
The main difference between compaction by impact or by vibra-
Permeability tion is mainly the effect in grain size because fragments tend to
Rigid Cracking, pumping, Shear strength
break or crush when compacted. The fines resulting from this pro-
faulting Stiffness cess can have a negative impact on the performance of pavements,
Toughness mainly in the hydraulic properties. The higher breakage or
Permeability crushing caused by impact compaction of MRA when compared
Cracking, pumping, Frost susceptibility
with that caused by vibration is shown in Fig. 2 (Fig. 2a for impact
faulting, roughness
and Fig. 2b for vibration). The plotted grading size distribution

Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, R., et al. Use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste in geotechnical applications: A
literature review. Waste Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.021
 Table 6

6
literature review. Waste Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.021
Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, R., et al. Use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste in geotechnical applications: A

Some studies on using RA in unbound pavements and main results.

Reference RA studied Grading size Compaction Strength/CBR Stiffness

O’Mahony (1990) RCA compared with NA
(limestone)
Papp et al. (1998) RAP, DGA and RCA were studied
with different compositions
Arm (2003) RCA, RMA and NA compared
Park (2003) Two RCA of different quality
Coarse materials. Grading The maximum dry unit weight of The CBR of CDRA was significantly lower
size distribution curves CDRA and RCA was lower than that of than that of NA, but RCA performance
before and after NA was equivalent to NA
compaction. Small changes
observed for the RCA
ASTM D698 – Standard compaction. The resilient modulus increased as RCA or RAP
Small difference between the contents increased
maximum dry unit weight of RAP and
RCA compared to that of the dense
graded NA
RCA samples exhibited a resilient modulus
increase over time, which was not found in NA
samples
Coarse material with less ASTM D1557. The high quality RCA
than 10% fines had maximum dry unit weight higher
than that of the NA. The opposite
occurred for the low quality RCA

R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Molin et al. (2004) RCA from concrete materials The resilient modulus of RCA of materials with
with different strengths 30 MPa and 73 MPa was higher than that of the
NA, but lower when 7 MPa RCA were tested
Lancieri et al. MRA were used for an unbound The resilient modulus increased over time due to
(2006) base layer the self-cementing properties of the fine RCA in
the aggregate blend
Poon and Chan RCA and RMA Different grading size The maximum dry unit weight The CBR of RCA was lower than that of
(2006a) distribution curves before decreased as the RMA content in the NA and more so if the coarse and fine
compaction MRA blend increased, and more so RMA content increased
when fine RMA were used
Poon et al. (2006a) Two different RCA mixed with Two different grading size The CBR of RCA samples was slightly
NA. RCA with varying distribution curves before lower than that of the NA samples
compositions compaction
Kim et al. (2007) RAP mixed with NA. RAP with Grading size distribution AASHTO T99 Method C. Compaction The resilient modulus increased as the RAP
various compositions studied curves curves for the different compositions. content increased
Optimum water content decreased
when using RAP. RAP and NA
exhibited similar maximum dry unit
weight values
Transportation Several RA AASHTO T 180. The maximum dry RCA and RAP samples showed a slightly
Research Board unit weight decreased when RCA and lower resilient modulus than that of the
(2008) RAP were used NA and decreased in wet conditions.
Bennert and RCA, RAP and NA As RAP content increased, CBR decreased
Maher (2008)
Ho et al. (2008) Compared RCA and NA Coarse material with less BS 1377-4. The maximum dry unit
Case-study in than 10% fines weight of the RCA base course was
Singapore below that of the NA base course
Kumar and Reddy RMA compared with NA RMA had lower maximum dry unit As RMA content increased, CBR
(2008) weight than that of NA decreased
Junior et al. (2009) RCA and RMA samples The maximum dry unit weight of RCA
and RMA was lower than that of NA
Melbouci (2009) RCA with additions of sand, Coarse material with less NF 94-093. The maximum dry unit CBR depended on the additive. Very large
cement and ceramics than 10% fines weight of RCA was lower than that of values were found after immersion
the NA and increased with additives
Fernandes et al. RCA Grading size distribution Three trial embankments were Settlements measured in the trial embankments
(2009) Case- curves before and after performed to optimize the
study in Lisbon compaction compaction procedure with
construction equipment
 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 7

curves define the boundaries of curves found for several MRA sam-

Resilient modulus of CDRA was similar to that of

ples before and after being compacted. As expected, diameters
decrease after compaction and there is a rearrangement of diame-
ters distribution. The fines percentage increases from 3–5% to 10–
12% when impact is applied, while it remains below 8% in the case
of vibration. Nevertheless, in the case of vibration some changes
can also be seen in the grading size distribution independently of
the method used because the curves found after compaction are
a standard well-graded NA

above those found before compaction and this indicates some

breakage even if there is no generation of fines (Hardin, 1985).
Fig. 2b also includes the curves for RCA and NA for comparison
with MRA. It can be concluded that vibration has similar effects on
all types of aggregates but slightly higher for RA than for NA. Such
Stiffness

conclusion cannot be generalized because it depends on the nature

of the NA and RA used; however, this is an expected result because
aggregates with lower crushing strength exhibit higher breakage
The CBR of RCA was the highest, followed

The CBR of the various types of RA were

(Barata and Cardoso, 2013; Coop, 1990; Lade et al., 1996).

The CBR of CDRA was between 73% and

equivalent to or higher than that of NA

showed a slightly lower CBR than NA

The differences obtained by changing the compaction proce-

by RMA and RAP, which exhibited a
117% and increased with increasing

proposed in the specification; RCA

All RA had a higher CBR than that

dure are not evident in what concerns maximum dry unit weight
and optimum water content, as illustrated in Fig. 3a, which pre-
sents some of the optimum results collected in the literature
(Barbudo et al., 2012; Ho et al., 2008; Jiménez et al., 2011, 2012;
significantly low CBR

Kim et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2009; Melbouci, 2009; O’Mahony,

compaction energy

1990; Papp et al., 1998; Park, 2003; Poon and Chan, 2006b;
Strength/CBR

Saeed, 2008) for different kinds of aggregates and compaction pro-

cedures. The differences between standard and modified efforts are
not significant (identified as str comp and comp in the legend of the
plot, respectively) and for each type of compaction large variability
of data can be seen, and for this reason the average values were
The maximum dry unit weight of RCA

dry unit weight of RCA and MRA were

UNE 103501 (1994). The maximum
decreased when RCA and RAP were

higher optimum water content and

obtained using all points (Table 7). In general, optimum water con-
UNE 103501 (1994). RCA and MRA
used. Water content decreased for
The curves adopting standard and
modified efforts were determined

UNE 103501 (1994). RA exhibited

tent increases for RCA and MRA and decreases for RAP when com-
had a lower maximum dry unit
The maximum dry unit weight

lower maximum dry density.

pared with NA. This result can be explained by the different

was lower than that of NA

porosities and water absorption properties of the various types of

weight than that of NA

lower than that of NA

recycled aggregates studied. The values of maximum dry unit

weight found are higher for NA than for the various RA studied
(presented in Table 7). This result is expected because of the lower
Compaction

density and greater porosity of the various RA when compared

with NA, and is possible only if particles breakage during com-
paction occurs in a similar manner for NA and RA (in accordance
RAP

with Fig. 3b).

Several other authors studied mixtures of NA and RA with vary-
before and after compaction

distribution curves for RCA

Coarse materials. Grading

ing proportions, which have intermediate properties to those

Grading size distribution

several different grading

size distribution curves

size distribution curves

curves before and after

Coarse materials with

Different grading size

observed in Table 7. Fig. 3b presents the optimum points of com-

paction curves corresponding to specimens prepared with 50% of
and MRA studied

NA plus 50% of RAP or 50% of RCA, as well as the points found in

Grading size

compaction

specimens prepared with 100% NA, 100% RCA and 100% RAP for
comparison (Barbudo et al., 2012; Ho et al., 2008; Papp et al.,
1998). The results were obtained with different compaction proce-
dures because overall variability of results found in these materials
does not justify a better approach. The clouds of data found for
MRA made of RCA, RMA and RAP.
RCA compared with NA (granite)

100% of each type and mixtures

CDRA were tested for possible

RCA and MRA were compared

RCA and MRA were compared

each case show that the addition of NA mitigates the decline in

use as road sub-base and not

performance caused by RA, but the mixture still behaves as a RA

RCA, RMA and MRA were

mixture owing to the physical properties of RA, which influence

the compacted material of NA. Different proportions studied by
compared with NA

compared with NA

some authors (usually 25% of RA or 75% of RA) confirm this result.

RA studied

4.2. California Bearing Ratio

with NA

with NA

California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR) provides information on the

resistance of compacted layers independently of the nature of the
Vegas et al. (2011)
Leite et al. (2011)
Case-study in

particles used. It must be performed on compacted samples with

Lee et al. (2009)
Table 6 (continued)

Barbudo et al.
Jiménez et al.

Jiménez et al.

the compaction water content or under soaking. There are several

Singapore
Reference

standards for CBR tests (AASHTO-T193, 2013; ASTM-D1883, 2007;

(2011)

(2012)

(2012)

BS-1377-1, 1990; EN-13286-47, 2012).

The literature review presented in Table 6 showed that the study
of RA as material for unbound applications primarily used RCA, RAP

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8 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

100 23
NA st comp
90

dry unit weight (kN/m3)

MRA before compacon 22 RCA st comp
80
Passing material (%)

70 MRA aer compacon NA comp

21
60 RCA comp
50 20
RAP comp
40
19 NA Vibr
30
20 18 RCA vibr
10 RAP vibr
0 17
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0 5 10 15 20
D (mm) water content (%)
(a) (a)
100 23
90

dry unit weight (kN/m3)

MRA before vibraon 22
80
Passing material (%)

MRA aer vibraon 100% NA

70 RCA before vibraon 21
60 RCA aer vibraon 100% RCA
NA before vibraon 20
50 100% RAP
NA aer vibraon
40
19 50% RCA
30
20 18 50% RAP
10
0 17
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0 5 10 15 20
water content (%)
D (mm)
(b) (b)

Fig. 2. Changes in grading size distribution due to compaction: (a) by impact Fig. 3. Relationship between maximum dry unit weight and optimum water
(adapted from Fernandes et al., 2009); (b) by vibration (adapted from O’Mahony, content: (a) for various RA types and for different types of compaction; (b) for RA
1990). with different proportions.

and MRA. The Land Transport & Authority (LTA, 2010) established
that processed RA from approved CDW recycling processing plants Table 7
must contain at least 60% of RCA, with no more than 40% of RMA Average values of the maximum dry unit weight and optimum water content of the
compaction curves obtained when using various RA types and different compaction
and/or not more than 10% of other foreign materials such as wood,
energies.
asphalt, glass, plastic and metals. It was also established that the
fraction of material which passes through the 20 mm sieve must RA type Average maximum Average optimum
dry unit weight (kN/m3) water content (%)
satisfy the CBR requirements of 30%, for sub-bases (soaked value),
when tested in accordance with BS-1377-1 (1990). NA 21.90 7.3
RCA 19.70 10.9
Table 8 synthesises the information collected in the literature. In
RAP 19.80 7.1
general, the CBR of a RCA sample is lower than that of a NA sample. MRA 19.00 12.3
The study of Bennert and Maher (2008) demonstrated that the use
of RAP as material for an unbound application resulted in a very low
CBR ratio. These results show that RAP may be unsuitable for sub-
base and base application because of their low strength. However, Table 8
Vegas et al. (2011) found higher CBR value for RAP than for MRA. CBR values found in the literature for different types of RA.
Both studies confirm the need to perform tests when using RA Reference RA type CBR (%) Standard used
because their properties depend on their origin. This is necessary
Bennert and Maher (2008) NA 182 Not mentioned
even if the RA used are supplied by the same recycling plant. RCA 169
According to Vegas et al. (2011), it is possible to account for an RAP 18
increase in bearing capacity through adding a greater amount of Jiménez et al. (2011) NA 152 UNE 103502
RCA to RA blend. The increase in the bearing capacity may be RCA 97–138 (under soaked conditions)
attributed either to the pozzolanic reactions between the finer MRA 62–94
RMA and existing cement particles, to some latent binding proper- Melbouci (2009) RCA 128 NF 94-078
ties in the unhydrated cement particles contained in RCA (mainly MRA 83
in adhered old mortar), or to the higher strength of RCA particles Leite et al. (2011) MRA 73–117 ASTM D1883
when compared with those of RMA. Poon et al. (2006a) NA 83 BS 1377-4
Increasing the RMA content in a MRA blend resulted in decreas- RCA 66
ing CBR. This is mainly due to the lower strength of RMA particles Vegas et al. (2011) MRA 77–90 UNE 103502
and poorer interlocking mechanism between RMA and RCA, which RCA 198
RAP 124
decreased the load transfer capability of the sub-base materials
RMA 152
(Poon and Chan, 2006b).

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 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 9

In the investigation performed by Jiménez et al. (2011), NA and
different types of RA were compacted at their optimum water con-
tent and then CBR tests were carried out under soaking conditions
for 4 days, using a total overload of 4.5 kg. The test results showed
that the RA studied exhibited a high bearing capacity. NA had the
highest CBR values (152%), followed by RCA (97–138%) and MRA
(62–94%). The performances of the different aggregates studied
in full saturated conditions are identical to those found for speci-
mens with the compaction water content. No data were found con-
cerning the comparison between the CBR measured in identically
compacted specimens before and after being fully saturated. It is
possible that lower CBR would be measured in soaked specimens
when compared with those measured with the compaction water
content because the strength of particles decreases when they
are wetted and also because they break more due to decreasing
toughness with the amount of water present in the cracks of the
particles, as observed in NA (Lade et al., 1996; Maranha das
Neves and Veiga Pinto, 1988; Oldecop and Alonso, 2001, 2003).
The results from the literature review indicated that, provided
that the RMA content is controlled, most RA are comparable to high
quality NA. According to the Brazilian standard NBR-15.116 (2005),
RA must have a CBR value of at least 60% to be used as a base layer,
for low-volume roads. Given this requirement, as well as those sta-
ted by the Land Transport Authority for the CBR for sub-bases,
most RA can be considered to be suitable for use in either unbound
base or sub-base applications.
4.3. Resilient modulus and load bearing capacity
Resistance to permanent deformation, or load-bearing capacity,
can be defined as the load a layer of material can carry without
being deformed more than the allowable amount. It can be com-
pared with the yielding stress under lateral confined compression;
therefore the material of the pavement is expected to behave in the
elastic range (over consolidated or very dense). The energy adopted
during compaction and the choice of the compaction interval is an
indirect way to control yielding stress since the dry unit weight of
the material is controlled and is known to affect this parameter
(Mitchell and Soga, 2005). For this reason, the lower dry unit
weights found when RA are used instead of NA may be indicative
of lower load bearing capacity.
Compaction must apply sufficient energy to the material to
increase its dry unit weight but the choice of the water content
interval is also important because it defines stiffness both under
shear and under compression, apart from defining its sensitiveness
to further wetting. Due to suction (mainly capillary action), the
material is stiffer when the compaction is done in the dry side than
when it is done in the wet side. In pavements, in general, com-
paction is done in the dry side but this is done mainly to enhance
equipment traffic above the layers under construction.
Shear stiffness of an unbound pavement layer is quantified by
the resilient modulus. Several researchers (Arm, 2003; Kim et al.,
2007; Lancieri et al., 2006; Leite et al., 2011; Molin et al., 2004;
Papp et al., 1998; Saeed, 2008; Soleimanbeigi and Edil, 2015;
Soleimanbeigi et al., 2015) have compared the resilient modulus
of RA with that of NA. Some authors have suggested that using
RA as material for unbound applications results in equivalent or
even higher resilient moduli (Arm, 2003; Kim et al., 2007;
Cyclic load triaxial tests carried out by Arm (2003) showed that
RCA initially exhibited the same resilient modulus as NA. However,
over time, both laboratory and field results showed an increase in
stiffness for unbound layers with RCA, which did not occur for
those containing NA. This stiffness increase in field tests was con-
siderably larger than that observed in lab; it showed a greater
slope in early months followed by stabilization. The increment of
the resilient modulus was explained by the self-cementing proper-
ties of the unhydrated cement particles of RCA, which caused an
increase in stiffness. This phenomenon was also perceived by
Lancieri et al. (2006) and Soleimanbeigi et al. (2015).
In the study performed by Molin et al. (2004), the resilient mod-
uli of RCA from materials with various compressive strengths were
compared to that of NA. The values for low strength RCA (7 MPa)
were, on average, 14% lower than those of the reference NA. High
strength RCA (73 MPa) exhibited a similar performance to that of
NA. Normal strength RCA (30 MPa) showed excellent resilient
moduli which were, on average, 45% higher than those of the ref-
erence NA samples. The results of the cyclic loading tests showed
permanent deformations of 0.65%, 2.30%, 0.35% and 1.10% for sam-
ples containing NA and 7 MPa, 30 MPa and 73 MPa RCA,
respectively.
Kim et al. (2007) studied the effect of increasing RAP content on
an aggregate blend used as material for unbound application. They
also studied how different water contents affected the resilient
modulus of these materials by measuring the values for specimens
compacted with different water contents (65% and 100% of opti-
mum). The main results are presented in Table 9. The increase
was more noticeable with the reduction of water content from
100% to 65% of the optimum water content. This can be explained
by a large suction installed in the drier materials. Less sensitivity to
wetting of samples containing RAP particles would be expected
because of their impervious characteristics.
Resilient modulus increased with the addition of RAP as well.
This result is in agreement with the results obtained by Papp
et al. (1998) presented in Table 10, who studied the effect of
increasing RAP and RCA content on an aggregate blend under con-
stant confinement stress. The larger stiffness observed when RAP
and RCA are used instead of NA may have several explanations,
starting with the nature of the NA and RA used. However, it is pos-
sible that compaction was responsible for the densification of the
Table 9
Resilient modulus for different water contents (Kim et al., 2007).
Aggregate Resilient modulus (MPa) for
65% optimum water content 100% optimum water content
NA 450 400
25% RAP 550 400
50% RAP 550 450
75% RAP 700 550
Table 10
Resilient modulus for different confinement stresses (Papp et al., 1998).
Aggregate Resilient modulus (MPa) for constant
confinement stress
138 kPa 344 kPa

Lancieri et al., 2006; Leite et al., 2011; Molin et al., 2004; Papp NA 111 157
et al., 1998). Others (Saeed, 2008) have shown that the increasing 25% RAP 157 288
50% RAP 194 277
ratio of RA incorporation reduces resilient modulus. This may be 75% RAP 183 274
explained by the different materials resulting from compaction RAP 253 342
and by the effects of adding significant amount of fragments of 25% RCA 119 209
recycled material with lower strength and toughness. In cases 50% RCA 205 327
75% RCA 210 328
where RA are more susceptible to crushing than NA, the increment
RCA 249 370
may not be significant even if the density of the layer increases.

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10 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
material due to crushing or eventually to bituminous softening
providing some cohesion to the non-bituminous fragments present
in the mixture. This process is similar to the hydration of cement
from the RCA aggregates already described, but with bituminous
it is an entirely physical process. Still, despite the increasing
stiffness with increasing RAP content, the authors observed that
the resistance to permanent deformation decreased with it; sam-
ples containing NA exhibited 0.70% whilst fully replaced samples
with RAP showed 5.75%. Contrarily, fully replacing NA with RCA
decreased the samples’ permanent deformation from 0.70% to
0.40%. Similar results were observed by Park (2003) when using
RCA, which allowed equivalent pavement surface deformations
to those obtained by NA bases and sub-bases.
It is worth noting that stiffness increases with confinement
stress, as is observed in compacted NA. This result confirms that
the various types of RA behave as traditional materials. Data pre-
sented by Saeed (2008) for the resilient modulus of several sam-
ples confirm this trend, but in this case the specimens prepared
with NA exhibited the highest stiffness and the resilient modulus
decreased as the RAP or RCA content increased. This effect was
more noticeable when RCA were used. Leite et al. (2011) compared
the resilient modulus of MRA with that of well-graded NA and
observed that the two exhibited comparable numbers (MRA
showed values ranging from 160 MPa to 550 MPa, while NA
showed values from 165 MPa to 420 MPa).
Soleimanbeigi and Edil (2015a) evaluated the resilient modulus,
compressibility, shear strength, and creep response of samples
containing RAP. The results showed that compaction and compres-
sion at elevated temperatures increased the shear strength and
reduced the compressibility and creep strain of RAP specimens
when later tested at room temperature. Similar results were
observed in another study (Soleimanbeigi et al., 2015), in which
three road pavements were built with a 305 mm base course made
of RCA, RAP or NA. Within the temperature range of 20–30 °C, the
resilient moduli of specimens containing RAP were greater than
those of samples containing RCA or NA. However, in the 5-year
testing period, the authors noticed decreasing resilient modulus
of RAP samples when temperatures increased up to 50 °C, whilst
the resilient moduli of RCA and NA samples remained unchanged.
For this reason, the authors recommended the construction of lay-
ers containing RAP during the warmest months of the year, in
order to induce thermal preloading, thereby reducing plastic strain
and increasing resilient modulus.
In another study by Soleimanbeigi and Edil (2015b), the com-
pressibility of embankment fills constructed using RCA and RAP
was evaluated. To illustrate settlement of embankment fills made
with these materials, calculations were made on 5 m high embank-
ment during a 40-year lifespan. The results showed that, except for
RCA, compressibility of all bituminous materials would be higher
than that of the NA. Bitumen-based materials such as RAP and also
reclaimed asphalt shingles (RAS) are expected to exhibit a much
greater compressibility over time than other recycled materials,
which can, nonetheless, be mitigated with the use of stabilizing
techniques (Soleimanbeigi et al., 2014a,b).
Finally, in the study presented by Saeed (2008), materials were
tested in both wet and dry conditions. Contrary to expectations,
stiffness did not significantly decrease in wet conditions. Since
Table 11
Permeability of sub-base prepared with NA and RCA (adapted from Poon et al., 2006b
and Bennert and Maher, 2008).
RA type Permeability (m/day) Quality of drainage (AASHTO, 1993)
NA 23.3–197.9 Good to excellent
RCA 19.9–230.7 Good to excellent
RAP 0.2–5.2 Poor to fair
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the compaction of the materials was done by impact and adopting
the modified effort, the materials were expected to be very dense
and thus almost insensitive to wetting.
5. Hydraulic characteristics and durability of compacted
recycled aggregates
The properties of the compacted material that influence its
hydraulic behaviour include gradation, compacted density and
degree of saturation. A good hydraulic behaviour is fundamental
to ensure durability. In general, permeability of coarse compacted
materials is not greatly affected by the nature of the grains but
rather by their grading size distribution (Lafleur et al., 1989;
USDA, 1986). Changing the particle size to increase permeability
can adversely affect shear strength and stiffness and for this reason
permeability is usually ensured by choosing coarse materials with
percentage of fines smaller than 10%.
Unbound pavement layers with low permeability values usually
retain water and, under repeated dynamic loads, may develop pore
pressures that result in reduced shear strength and stiffness. The
increased pore pressures, along with the lubricating effect of the
retained water, can lead to rapid degradation of the layer. Because
the materials in pavement layers are coarse, no expansive beha-
viour is expected upon wetting. However, if the material is not
dense enough and if wetting occurs under load, collapse may occur
caused by breakage and rearrangement of fragments (Maranha das
Neves and Veiga Pinto, 1988; Oldecop and Alonso, 2001). Breakage
depends on the toughness of the grains; therefore in this case the
properties of the individual grains are also important. The rear-
rangement of particles leads to localized deformation that cannot
be avoided.
Accumulated deformations caused by freeze–thaw cycles can
also compromise the performance of the pavement. In this case,
permeability is important to ensure that water does not accumu-
late but freeze–thaw resistance of the aggregates is also important
because, as in case of collapse, they may break. Their chemical
resistance, or soundness, is also important and it is important to
ensure that the pavement has the necessary resistance to environ-
mental or chemical effects. Freeze–thaw resistance and soundness
of the compacted material are expected to be comparable to the
same properties of the aggregates affected by their arrangement
in the compacted material. Localized deformation cannot be
avoided in case of breakage caused by both effects.
5.1. Saturated permeability
This property is fundamental to prevent pumping in rigid pave-
ments. Bennert and Maher (2008) studied the permeability of mix-
tures prepared with varying RCA and RAP contents (Table 11). The
results showed that the use of up to 75% RCA allowed permeability
values closer to those found in NA. This result was expected
because similar grading size distribution curves were adopted
and dry unit weight resulting from compaction is similar in both
types of aggregates.
The values in Table 11 allow classifying the quality of drainage
as good to excellent, according to AASHTO (1993). However, for
layers containing only RCA, it is possible for the permeability to
decrease, which may be explained by the generation of fines during
compaction by impact. Poon et al. (2006b), who studied the cause
and influence of self-cementing properties of fine RCA on the prop-
erties of unbound sub-bases, also compared the permeability of
sub-bases prepared with NA and RCA. The results showed that
the RCA sample exhibited higher permeability than the NA sample
and both demonstrated good quality drainage.
Table 11 shows that permeability decreased when RAP aggre-
gates were used and the blends were classified as having poor to
 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 11

fair quality drainage. This result may be explained by the presence Table 13
of impervious bituminous particles and, eventually, by some Soundness test results of RCA with varying processing and produced from materials
with different strength (Gokce et al., 2011).
linking effect of the aggregates during compaction of these soft
particles. Further investigation is required. RA Type Loss in weight (%)
NA 10
5.2. Freeze–thaw resistance Air entrained RCA 60 MPa 1 Stage 30
3 Stages 8
45 MPa 1 Stage 49
Freeze–thaw resistance is an important property of pavements 3 Stages 19
in places where climate allows expecting freezing and thawing 25 MPa 1 Stage 48
cycles. The negative effects of these cycles are important, indepen- 3 Stages 22
dently of the degree of saturation of the layer. Degradation owing Non-air entrained RCA 55 MPa 1 Stage 47
to poor freeze–thaw resistance occurs because the volume of water 3 Stages 36
that penetrates the particle pores increases upon freezing, thus
creating considerable tensile stresses that can break aggregate par-
ticles. The risk of damage increases if salt is present, since salt to the self-cementing properties of unhydrated cement particles,
reduces the surface tension of water and makes it easier for water which has been previously explained.
to penetrate small pores. Freeze–thaw resistance depends on the
strength of the particle, the number of pores and the size of pores
5.3. Soundness of aggregate exposed to sulphate
inside the particles. However, only pores accessible to water are
involved in this process. Therefore, a porous material does not
The ability of an aggregate to withstand degradation due to
automatically have a low freeze–thaw resistance.
environmental or chemical effects is measured in terms of its dura-
AASHTO-T103 (2012) describes three procedures to be followed
bility and soundness. Sulphate soundness tests are often used to
in testing aggregates to determine their resistance to disintegra-
obtain a relative measure of aggregate durability. ASTM-C88
tion by freezing and thawing. Bazaz et al. (2006) compared the loss
(2013), AASHTO-T104 (2011) and EN-1367-2 (2009) recommend
in weight of RCA and RMA after being exposed to several freeze–
some methods to assess the soundness of aggregates subjected to
thaw cycles. The results, summarized in Table 12, show that
weathering. This test is performed by repeated immersion in a sat-
RMA exhibited less weight loss than RCA when exposed to the
urated solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate fol-
same number of freeze-thaw cycles. This may be explained by
lowed by oven drying to dehydrate the salt precipitated in the
the lower number of accessible pores of the masonry particles or
pores. The particle degradation during the test is caused by the
by their smaller size because water may not penetrate as easily
crystallization pressure exerted by the salt and provides a measure
in masonry as it does in adhered cement paste. The fact that in
of resistance to damage caused by wet-dry or freeze–thaw cycles.
RCA resistance decreases with increasing size of the particles while
Degradation of the base material and the changes in its related
it increases for larger RMA particles indicates that the presence of
properties (i.e. stiffness and shear strength) can lead to pavement
porous old adhered mortar is probably what is penalizing the per-
distress. This test is designed for all materials used in road con-
formance of the RCA.
struction, including RCA and RMA.
Saeed (2008) used a Canadian freeze–thaw test (MTO-LS-614,
Bazaz et al. (2006) compared the soundness of RCA and RMA
1997) to assess the aggregate’s durability under freeze–thaw
after being subjected to five cycles of immersion in sodium sul-
cycles in the presence of water. The values found are within those
phate solution followed by oven-drying. The loss of weight was
found by Bazaz et al. (2006) previously presented in Table 12. For determined as a proportion of the initial weight (10.9–4.9% for
the same number of freeze–thaw cycles, the loss of mass increased
RMA and 65.9–38.5% for RCA). The results indicate that the perfor-
as the RA content increased. This effect was more obvious for RCA, mance of RCA is very weak when compared to the soundness
while RAP showed acceptable weight loss compared with that of
results of RMA. This is mainly due to the destructive effect of sul-
the NA. The explanation is similar to that when RCA and RMA were phate on cementitious materials such as mortar and concrete.
compared, but for the bituminous material in RAP a very high
In the study of Gokce et al. (2011), the soundness of RCA derived
resistance to disintegration by freezing and thawing is expected. from materials with different strength and subjected to a different
Soleimanbeigi et al. (2015) studied the effect of increasing
number of processing stages was compared to that of NA
freeze–thaw cycles on the resilient moduli of unbound specimens
(Table 13). RCA exhibited higher loss of mass for the same number
containing three RAP and RCA. After 20 freeze–thaw cycles, all
of wet-dry cycles using sodium sulphate. This effect was more
specimens containing RAP showed around 30% reduction in resili-
noticeable if the RCA were subjected to fewer processing stages.
ent modulus, whilst that of the control NA sample only decreased
RCA from a 65 MPa concrete mix exhibited the lowest loss of
20%. In samples containing RCA, however, although these exhibited
weight when compared to other RCA from materials with lower
a similar reduction in resilient moduli to that of control samples
strength (45 MPa and 25 MPa). This means that RCA derived from
after 5 freezing and thawing cycles, thereon, their resilient moduli
high strength concrete materials exhibit greater resistance to sul-
increased with increasing freeze-thaw cycles (after 20 cycles,
phate attack. In their comparison of the loss of weight of RCA from
increases between 28% and 36% were observed for two samples
normal concrete (47%) and that of RCA from air-entrained concrete
containing RCA from different sources). This effect was attributed
(49%), the authors suggested that the immersion of RCA into satu-
rated sodium sulphate solution and drying in oven causes an
Table 12 unbearable pressure within the RCA particle, regardless of the air
Freeze–thaw test results of RA blends with RCA and RAP (adapted from Saeed, 2008 void system of the adhered cement paste.
and Bazaz et al., 2006).

RA type Loss in weight (%) 6. Quality control of pavements made with recycled aggregates
NA 0.8
RCA 12–45 (increases with size and for worst quality aggregates) Table 14 presents a summary of publications on the effect of
RMA 2–13 (decreases with size)
introducing RA on the field performance of unbound base and
RAP 4.0
sub-base pavement layers (Arm, 2003; Ho et al., 2008; Jiménez

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12 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Table 14
Compilation of literature on the influence of RA on the field performance monitoring of unbound applications.

Reference Description
Arm (2003) Compares the performance of pavements with unbound sub-bases made of different materials (RCA, RMA and NA). The FWD tests showed
that courses made with RCA exhibited equivalent performance to conventional pavements
Park (2003) Two RCA of different quality were used as base and sub-base material in rigid pavement. RCA and NA showed equivalent performance
Lancieri et al. (2006) MRA were used for an unbound base layer. The RCA courses showed increasing performance over time, relative to NA courses, due to self-
cementing properties
Ho et al. (2008) Case study in Singapore comparing an RCA and NA base course. RCA base course showed a lower deflection values than the NA base course,
thus, having the ability to provide a longer structural life
Lee et al. (2009) Case study on the use of RCA as sub-base material in Singapore. The IRI test showed that the RCA base course could provide higher bearing
capacity than the NA base course
Lee et al. (2011) RCA and NA were used as material for base and sub-base construction of road sections in Singapore. The IRI results showed that the road
sections made of RCA had performance equivalent to that of the NA sections
Jiménez et al. (2012) The static plate load test showed an excellent bearing capacity in both RCA and NA bases

et al., 2012; Lancieri et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2009, 2011; Park, 2003).
Some of the RA used in these studies are high-quality RCA fitting
the specifications of aggregates for such applications. This perfor-
mance was measured in terms of roughness, load bearing capacity,
surface deflection, and leaching.
6.1. International roughness index
The International Roughness Index (IRI) value, measured in a
longitudinal road profile (ASTM-E1926, 2008) or by the static level
method (ASTM-E1364, 2000), is found by quantifying roughness,
rut depth and deflection. The roughness of a surface strongly
influences operating costs and is closely related to its quality and
condition. Even though this property is generally related to the fin-
ished surface of pavements, it was measured in situations where
the only modification in the pavement’s composition was the type
of aggregate in the base or sub-base layers, and that is the reason
why it is mentioned in this paper.
Research performed by Ho et al. (2008) describes a case study
on the use of RCA as base course material for pavements. Two road
sections were built, one using RCA as material for the base course
and another using NA. The results showed that the sections had
similar IRI values, varying between 1 m/km and 4 m/km, which
correspond to values found in new pavements. The rut depth val-
ues obtained in the section with an RCA base course were, on aver-
age, slightly higher than those of the road section with an NA base
course. However, the road section built with NA as material for
base course exhibited a significantly higher deflection than that
of the road section with a RCA base course. Therefore, the section
with the RCA base course can provide a longer structural life than
the section with NA as material for base course.
Lee et al. (2009), who also measured the IRI of pavements built
with RCA and NA base courses, obtained results similar to those
found by Ho et al. (2008). The average IRI for the RCA base course
section was about 2.4–2.5 m/km and the average IRI for NA base
course section was about 4.1–4.5 m/km. These results show that
the RCA base course is deemed to provide higher bearing capacity
than the NA base course (for the same volume of traffic and age of
the pavement), which resulted in less pavement densification and
deformation under the action of traffic, leading to lower IRI.
Jiménez et al. (2012) evaluated the performance and environ-
mental impact of RCA as material for the surface layer of an
unpaved road. For this purpose, an experimental unpaved rural
road was built. The results of this study showed that the initial
IRI values were similar to those of surface layers made with NA
and both were of relatively good quality, as far as unpaved rural
roads are concerned (between 2.5 m/km and 6.0 m/km). Further-
more, over the course of 2.5 years, the IRI values of the NA surface
layer increased significantly (by 100%), whilst those of the RCA
surface layer increased only slightly (by 35%). These results show
that RCA can be used as a technically feasible alternative to NA
and one that can also improve the long-term performance of rural
road pavements. Nevertheless, it should be noted that this cannot
be extrapolated to high-performance road pavements.
Despite some of the aforementioned positive experiences of using
RCA in road construction, because there is little experimental
data that can give rise to comprehensive specifications from a
performance-based approach point of view, it is perfectly natural
to limit the amount of RA. This becomes especially important when
considering MRA and RMA, because they are known to significantly
decrease mechanical performance.
6.2. Deflection
Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) tests (ASTM-D4694 (2009)
for heavy weight and ASTM-E2583 (2011) for light weight, for
example) simulating and measuring the effect of a wheel passing
over a road pavement are usually carried out to evaluate the phys-
ical properties of pavements in a non-destructive manner.
In the specific case of concrete containing RCA, owing to the
residual mortar’s lesser ability to restrain deformation changes
brought upon by drying and also the applied load, its increasing
amount generally leads to greater shrinkage and creep strains,
when compared to control specimens. In spite of this, these differ-
ences are negligible in unbound applications bearing in mind the
potential deformations of a pavement due to particle sliding. The
results obtained by Lee et al. (2009) showed that the RCA base
course section exhibited lower deflections than the NA base course
section. The average deflection for the RCA base course section was
about 0.2 mm while it was about 0.5 mm for the NA base course
section. This is due to the greater roughness of RCA, which allows
great inter-particle friction and thus more even redistribution of
loads, and also because these aggregates may be more prone to
breakage, which results in layer densification.
The results from similar tests obtained by other authors (Arm,
2003; Lancieri et al., 2006; Park, 2003; Soleimanbeigi et al., 2015)
showed that base or sub-base courses made with RCA exhibited
a similar or even better performance than that of equivalent NA
base and sub-bases. In addition, RCA base and sub-base courses
demonstrate increasing performance after some time, which the
authors attributed to the self-cementing properties of unhydrated
cement particles of RCA that increase the resilient modulus and
consequently lower deflection values. It can also be associated to
particles breakage and rearrangement of grains over time, thereby
increasing dry unit weight.
7. Conclusions
This paper presents a literature review on the effects of incorpo-
rating RA on the properties of compacted granular material, mainly

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literature review. Waste Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.021
 R. Cardoso et al. / Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
focused on the evaluation of the performance of unbound pave-
ment layers. Based on the results of several experimental investi-
gations carried out by various authors, it was possible to draw
the conclusions summarized below:
 The physical properties of RA depend not only on the type of
recycled material, but also on the manufacturing process
adopted. Standard laboratory tests are necessary to evaluate
these materials’ properties, thus allowing a better understand-
ing of their performance when compacted.
 Compaction by vibration may be preferable to compaction by
impact to avoid generating fines, which is especially important
when considering RA containing old adhered mortar.
 In general, and for the compaction procedures usually adopted
in pavements construction, it is expected that the use of higher
RCA and RMA content will increase the optimum water content
and decrease the maximum dry density (more so for RMA),
while higher RAP content will slightly decrease the optimum
water content.
 The CBR of compacted RCA is often comparable to or higher
than that of compacted NA. Furthermore, even in circumstances
where the CBR of RCA was lower than that NA, it complied with
the minimum limit required for high grade applications.
 Lower CBR were observed in samples containing RMA but can
be increased by adding RCA, thereby demonstrating an opportu-
nity of using RA of lower quality in construction, as long as
specifications are met by means of laboratory trials before
application. For samples containing RAP, however, CBR was
found to be much lower than that required by most specifica-
tions. Therefore, further research about this material is required
bearing in mind that it is the main output of road renovations.
 Some studies have demonstrated that the use of RAP and RCA
may cause a decrease of the resilient modulus. However, the
results of most studies have shown that sub-bases and bases
made with RCA may exhibit increasing resilient moduli over
time and also lower accumulated permanent deformations than
those found in layers made with NA. Still, since some discrepan-
cies were found concerning the use of RCA with different
strength, more research is required on this matter; the con-
struction of embankments containing bituminous materials
such as RAP, RPM, or RAS is recommended during the summer
to induce thermal preloading and reduce long-term settlement.
 There is disagreement as to whether the use of RCA has an effect
on the permeability of sub-bases and bases. A comparison of the
performance of various types of aggregates must be made con-
sidering similar grading size distributions since it strongly
affects permeability.
 Permeability decreased when RAP was used probably due to the
presence of impervious bituminous particles. Nonetheless, fur-
ther investigation is required considering that very few data
were found that can lead to a widely-applicable conclusion.
 RCA demonstrated a significantly lower resistance to freeze–
thaw cycles than NA, but this resistance may vary according
to the quality of the RCA tested. The use of these materials in
pavements subjected to very low temperatures may not be
allowed, as it could significantly decrease their performance,
in terms of shear strength and stiffness.
 In terms of exposure to sulphate-enriched environments, test
results have shown that RCA normally have worse performance
than that of NA.
 The IRI test results showed that the performance of sub-bases
and bases made with RCA may be as good as or even better than
that of those made with NA. It was also seen that, over time, the
IRI of an NA surface layer showed a higher IRI increase than that
of RCA surface layers, meaning that RCA may provide a longer
structural life than NA.
Please cite this article in press as: Cardoso, R., et al. Use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste in geotechnical applications: A
literature review. Waste Management (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.021
13
 Similarly to IRI, deflectometer tests also showed that RCA are
capable of providing sub-bases and bases with an equivalent
or even better performance than those with NA. Results have
also shown that pavements made with RCA exhibited increasing
performance over time.
The success found when using RA in Geotechnical applications
indicates that these materials are technically-feasible alternatives
to consider in the future. In the case studies presented, RCA were
capable of achieving a performance similar to that of NA and thus
may be considered for use in most unbound applications. Further
research is required on the use of other kinds of RA, such as RAP,
MRA and RMA, in order to ascertain whether their application
complies with existing specifications and because it would lead
to a significant step towards a greater sustainability in construc-
tion. Adding to that, more studies to characterize the cyclic
mechanical behaviour of this kind of materials made in the labora-
tory, but considering the coarser aggregate fraction, are
fundamental.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the support of the ICIST/CERIS
Research Institute, IST, University of Lisbon and the FCT (Founda-
tion for Science and Technology).
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