CASE STUDY

INTRODUCTION
On the most recent estimate by the UN, they revealed that there are 7.3 billion people in
the world and it will reach up to 9.7 billion by the year 2050. This excessive growth in population,
along with the rising incomes in developing countries, is driving up the global food demand. By
2050, food demand is expected to increase between 59% to 98%. This speculation will shape the
agricultural sector in ways that this world has not seen before. Farmers all around the world will
eventually have to cope with the sudden demand and increase their crop production. They might
be forced to either expand the agricultural land to grow crops or to enhance the productivity and
yield on existing agricultural lands by using fertilizers, developing better irrigations, and adopting
new methods like precision farming (Elferink and Schierhorn, 2016). If land expansion is taken
into account, it would happen at the expense of forests, natural habitats of animals, wild crops, and
the natural predators of crop pests. Considering these limitations, increasing the productivity on
existing agricultural lands might be the better choice (Popp et al, 2013). To meet such demand,
farmers tend to rely on the extensive use of pesticides to increase yield (Lu, 2010).
The word pesticide comprises a wide range of compounds like insecticides, fungicides,
herbicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, nematicides, plant growth regulators, and others (Aktar et
al, 2009). Pesticides are substances that are intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or
mitigating pests and other various plants and fungi. They have widespread use in the agricultural
sector, and are therefore present in food production. This means that people are exposed to some
levels of pesticide residue from their food (Andreotti et al, 2018) (Thayer et al, 2012).
Pesticides are beneficial since food crops have to compete with approximately 30,000
species of weeds, 3,000 species of worms, and 10,000 species of plant-eating insects (Gianessi et
al, 2005). This, in turn, can damage crops, and cause more damage in storage from bugs, molds,
and rodents. Pesticides also allow longer storage of crops that prevent storage losses (Gianessi et
al, 2005). Since pesticides are used to kill pests and certain fauna, they therefore contain poisons
which could harm whatever the pesticide is applied on. In this case, these would be the food crops.
Farm workers, rural residents, and livestock can have an exposure to pesticides through proximity
(OECD-FAO, 2012). Banning pesticides would have impacts that are the reverse of their effects
right now. An example of which would be a decrease in the food supply due to pests but allowing
less cases of acute and chronic poisoning. Statistically speaking, our society could not do without
pesticides, as the demand for food is simply too much, and is only growing larger. This means that
suppliers and farms could not afford losses to their inventory (PAN-UK, 2017). To further discuss
the importance of pesticides and the effects of it to the environment and agriculture, this case study
will focus on one pesticide that is widely in the Philippines, the organophosphates pesticides,
According to the National Center for Environmental Health, organophosphates are the
most widely used insecticides today. They are used in agriculture, homes, gardens, and veterinary
practices. Three types of pesticides are frequently used by farmers in Benguet, one of the largest
vegetable-producing areas in the Philippines. These are the organophosphates, carbamates, and
pyrethroids (Lu, 2010). The objectives of this case study are to decide whether people can function
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without the aid of pesticides, describe organophosphates and discuss its properties and effects, and
provide the best alternative to the said pesticide.

I. Analysis and Evaluation of “The Case”

A. ANALYSIS
Organophosphates are a class of organophosphorus compounds. The compounds are
generally made of esters, amides, or derivatives of phosphoric, phosphonic, or phosphorothioic
acids. The synthesis of these materials are through the esterification of phosphoric acid. The
general structure of organophosphates can be denoted by the figure O=P(OR)3 (Inchem, n.d.,
Adeyinka, Pierre, 2019).
The properties of organophosphates differ. For example, parathion’s molecular mass is
291.3 grams per mole and contains an oral and dermal LD50 of 13 mg and 21kg respectively.
Comparatively, Fenitrothion’s molecular mass is 277.2 grams per mole and has an oral and dermal
LD50 of 475 mg and >1000 kg respectively (Freed, Haque, Schmedding, & Kohnert, 1976). The
characteristics to be mentioned in this part of the paper are the general attributes of all
organophosphates unless mentioned otherwise, thus the state and color of the compounds will not
be stated unless the specific compound is specified.
Organophosphates have low water solubility and high oil-water partition coefficient. These
compounds are not volatile and have a low vapour pressure. Dichlorvos, on the other hand, is very
volatile. These compounds can be degraded through hydrolysis to create water soluble materials;
however, parathion is not water soluble but is soluble in hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, ketones,
and esters. Pesticides made of these compounds are easily degraded through the soil, wind, and
light. The powdered and granule form of these compounds are also not combustible (Inchem, n.d.).
During the 1940s, organophosphates were started to be synthesized in large amounts. An
organophosphate based insecticide, tetraethylpyrophosphate, was developed and mass produced
(Cecchine, Golomb, Hillborne, Spektor, Anthony, 2000). Organophosphates can be used in the
industrial and domestic setting. Organophosphates are mainly utilized in agriculture as the main
components of insecticides, herbicides, and pesticides; however, these are also the main
component of nerve agents (Adeyinka, Pierre, 2019).
Organophosphates are one of the three most widely used types of pesticides in the
Philippines (Tirado, Bedoya, & Novotny, 2008). Some commonly sold organophosphate
pesticides are malathion, parathion, diazinon, fenthion, dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos, ethion. Based on
a study by Lu, Cosca, and del Mundo (2010), malathion is one of the most commonly used
insecticide in the country wherein an estimated 311.67 liters is used per peso. Malathion is also
liquid in nature. The researchers also found that 2 to 5 mL of liquid pesticide can be diluted to 16
liters of water. Organophosphates utilized for agriculture use are usually granular, powder, or
liquid which may be put inside sprays.
According to Lucio Costa, a toxicologist at the University of Washington,
organophosphates, a widely used pesticide developed in Germany in the 1940s, are very effective
and posed minimal environmental risks. However, it so happened that the same pesticide is said to
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be extremely toxic (Than, 2013). The best known among the organophosphate pesticides (OPs)
around the world are probably chlorpyrifos, malathion,azinphos-methyl, and diazinon. As stated
by Dana Boyd Barr, an exposure scientist at Emory University in Atlanta, organophosphates are
considered as junior-strength nerve agent because of its similar mechanism of action to nerve gases
like Sarin (Than, 2013).
People who are usually at risk are factory workers in charged with the production and
agricultural farmers who use them to spray crops (Bolla & Cadet, 2007). The route of entry of
organophosphates into the body can be done through absorption on the skin, inhalation, or
ingestion by eating foods that have been sprayed with it. Amounts of this compound can be found
on crops including apples, celery, bell peppers, peaches, strawberries, grapes, lettuce, and others
(Robb & Baker, 2019). Azinphos-methyl, a broad spectrum of organophosphate pesticide, has
been the primary component used in fighting codling moth in apple production in the United States
since the late 1960s (Goldberger, Lehrer, & Bruner, 2013)
As a result of organophosphate exposure, an illness can be developed and it is known as
Organophosphate poisoning. Study shows that nearly 25 million cases of unintentional pesticide
poisoning occur in the agricultural industry around the world each year. Symptoms of poisoning
can range from mild to severe and can also cause death in some severe cases. The nature of
symptoms depends on the length and strength of exposure (Fletcher, 2017).
Organophosphorous compounds owe their toxic effect to the inhibition of cholinesterase
enzyme activity in the nervous tissue. Stated in a compiled journal about the said pesticide, high-
dose exposure to OPs can cause acute poisoning from the irreversible inhibition of the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase (AChE). This will result to cholinergic syndrome accommodated with
narrowed pupils, excessive salivating, bronchoconstriction, mental confusion, convulsions, and
even death in some cases. Meanwhile, according to a study by Boyd Barr and his colleagues in
2010 focusing on Mexican-American children, prenatal and early childhood exposure can increase
the risks of neurological disorders like attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Figures from the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization and the U.S. Geological Survey
shows that there has been a drop in the use of organophosphates in the U.S. and selected countries
in Europe and East Asia. However, in developing countries, the use has been steadily increasing
and the overall imports have jumped by 65% between 2006 and 2016 (Stecker, 2018). Moreover,
as other pesticides becomes off-patent, local production of organophosphate like neurotoxin
chlorpyrifos becomes cheaper and more accessible in the market. Furthermore, despite several
phase out, some pesticide still persists like the Azinphos-methyl (Stecker, 2018). On a list
compiled by the Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority (FDA), Parathion-ethyl, Parathion-methyl, and
Azinphos-ethyl are pesticides that are banned in the Philippines. These three pesticides are under
the organophosphate group. These pesticides are not allowed to be brought in and used in the
country under any circumstances (ATI, 2009).

B. EVALUATION
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Although it is proven to be effective in the agricultural sector, organophosphate pesticides

are, without a doubt, a threat especially to humans that come in contact with it. Depending on the
strength and the duration of exposure, OPs can cause mild to severe effects to the health of the
people. Severe exposure may lead to organophosphate poisoning. The effects mostly happen in the
nervous system as organophosphates inhibits an enzyme called cholinesterase that breaks down
acetylcholine — an enzyme that is critical in controlling and sending nerve signals in the body.
When cholinesterase becomes inactive, acetylcholine builds up in the nerves. Later on, this will
cause paralyzation and suffocation that may lead to death.
Throughout the years, the termination of OPs has resulted to scientists, researchers and
agriculturists all over the world making experiments in order to find different alternatives in the
use of pesticides. Different types of controls have been proven and tested to reduce risk in the use
of OPs. These types are biological, chemical, and cultural controls.
Biopesticides possess an extensive variety of microbial pesticides. These are biochemicals
derived from microorganisms and other natural sources. Biopesticides also include processes
involving genetic modification of plants and have been proven effective to control target pests
without altering ecological balance. However, there are different barriers that exist to make
biopesticides more effective. To overcome these barriers, many agricultural societies have adapted
and implemented other alternative contextures, such as cultural, physical, mechanical and
biological tactics, and behavioral controls using semiochemicals and transgenic crops. (Hossain,
L. et. al, 2015)
One classic example of biological control in 1889 was the use of vedalia beetle to control
cottony cushion scale, which at that time was a major citrus pest. This control was said to be
successful in controlling cottony cushion scale but is now taken for granted by farmers.
According to Henrylito D. Tacio (2017), the use of botanical pesticides is now fast gaining
wider acceptance among farmers as a response to health concerns. Botanical pesticides are derived
from plants which have been shown to have insecticidal properties. Written by Eric Vinje of Planet
Natural he said that natural pest controls like the botanicals are safer to the user and the
environment because they break down into harmless compounds within hours or days in the
presence of sunlight. He also that they are also very close chemically to those plants from which
they are derived, so they are easily decomposed by a variety of microbes common in most soils. It
is previously widely used until the 1940’s when these natural pesticides were displaced by modern
synthetic pesticides that at the time seemed cheaper, easier and longer lasting. The advantage of
botanical products is that they are not very persistent and will break down quickly under the
influence of high temperature. Therefore, these pesticides don’t have a long lasting contaminating
effect on the environment. One disadvantage of botanical products is that they are generally not
specific. Many plant extracts will also kill or repel beneficial insects. Just like synthetic pesticides,
the botanical products should thus be avoided and only be used as a last resort. However, if a
farmer decides, after careful consideration, that active control of a pest is required, botanical
extracts are usually a better choice than chemical pesticides.
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In California farms, these innovative and technologically advanced methods and

alternatives are said to be less toxic and more environmentally friendly insect control. An example
of these is the use of pheromones. According to Christian Nordqvist 2018, a pheromone is a
chemical that an animal produces which changes the behavior of another animal of the same
species. These are chemicals secreted by insects for communication. It is used to disrupt insect
mating and thereby reduce populations of insects. It is said to be successful in controlling codling
moth in pome fruit, oriental fruit moth in peaches and nectarines, tomato pinworm in vegetables,
pink bollworm in cotton and omnivorous leafroller in vineyards. It is also said to be cost effective,
lasts longer and is easy to operate. However, scientists cannot duplicate a pheromone for some
species of insects and the development and production costs of such may be quite high.
Pheromones also disrupts mating that can prevent moths from locating traps . Male insects are also
attracted to this chemical that they begin to reproduce at a higher rate.

Specific alternative insecticides are pyrethroids and neonicotinoids. Although these

insecticides are said to be less toxic than organophosphates, these products also have toxicity to
nontarget organisms and triggers secondary pest outbreaks.
Cultural controls that make the crop less palatable to pest insects are improved field
sanitation, targeted planting dates, crop rotation, and improved irrigation and fertilization
schedules. Successful examples include reducing dust in orchards to prevent the buildup of spider
mites, and the cleanup of unharvested grapes to limit overwintering pests.
According to Goldbeger et al (2013), consultants and growers did not believe that OP
alternatives were better than OP insecticides due to its cost, effectives, secondary pest problems,
insecticide residues and production risks. But, they also did not perceive OP alternatives as
complex and incompatible with the skills of the workers. The consultants were confident with their
knowledge in using OP alternative and with sharing these to growers. The growers’ levels of
confidence in knowing how to use the OP alternatives paralleled to the consultant’s confidence
but were slightly lower that indicates growers obtain most of their pest management information
from consultants. The study also encouraged growers and consultants to engage in research-based
and peer-to-peer information sharing to allow gradual adjustment in pest management strategies
within a shifting political, social, economic, and agronomic landscape.
II. Recommendation/Closing Statement
Pesticides play an integral role in maintaining the world’s food supply. However, the means
by which the demand of food is met through the types of widely used pesticides is flawed, and will
eventually harm the environment in the future. The short-term, high-yield practices of farms is not
sustainable for the crops planted nor the soil itself, all while the ecological balance between pests
and their predators is disrupted. In this light, compromises are necessary in order to maintain a
more sustainable and long-term food supply. The thorough analysis on organophosphates as
pesticides and insecticides reveal that, despite their widespread use, these substances can easily
cause adverse effects on people, plants and crops, beneficial insects, and the environment. Chronic
exposure to OPs can even result in nervous system damage in humans.
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The alternative solution that will be recommended is to replace OPs with organic botanical
pesticides. A defining quality of this type of pesticide is its eco-friendliness because it quickly
breaks down into harmless compounds within hours or days of its use. This alone is a huge benefit
because it is safer to use than OPs along with its effectiveness at repelling and killing pests. Such
a form of biological control is nothing new, since there is historical and documented evidence of
its efficacy, especially in developing countries and in the advent of modern synthetic and chemical
pesticides. Though botanical pesticides do not generally target specific pests, their wider range of
effectiveness makes them a sort of all-purpose, all-natural alternative to combating pests and
harmful insects while minimizing ecological damage.
In truth, articles and journals show that there is no “best” alternative for pesticides, as all
of the alternatives have their respective advantages and disadvantages. That is to say, they are all
effective but are not without weaknesses as an alternative as well. These alternatives can be still
be used to minimize the toxic effects of a certain pesticide, so it becomes a matter of choosing the
right alternative for the pest in question. Farmers or growers can choose among these alternatives
depending on the situation, and are no more difficult to use or operate than OPs. In order to
properly begin the implementation of this alternative, consultants, farmers, growers, and all other
concerned parties require a solid foundation of what botanical pesticides are and their advantages
over current pesticides. Seminars can be held by engineers and scientists versed in this field, while
manufacturers of botanical pesticides and provide samples as a sort of “test-run” to compare its
efficacy compared to the original formulation of pesticides. This will allow people to make an
informed decision on hopefully switching to botanical pesticides in the years to come, for the
shared benefit of the masses and the environment.
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