The Relationship of Climate Change in Agricultural Sector in

Labrador, Pangasinan

STEM Researchers:

Jade C. Delos Santos

Roselle P. Estrada

Mark Jairus A. Orjalo

Von Russel A. Valencia

Ashly Roan R. Palma

Christian Dave L. Callos

Angela S. Olaera

Presented to:

The Faculty of Labrador National High School

Senior High Department

Labrador, Pangasinan

January 2022
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Agriculture plays a significant role in the Philippine economy. Which continues to be the

major source of employment and income of the poorer segment of the population. Involving

about 40 percent of Filipino workers, which contributes an average of 20 percent to the Gross

Domestic Product. However, agriculture also contributes to several larger problems like

environmental issues like climate change CIDA-LGSP, (2003).

Agriculture is a key sector that is extremely vulnerable to climate variability and change.

This is particularly the case in developing countries due to farmers’ great dependence on natural

weather conditions. Farmers have to cope with changes that occur from one year to the next

(climate variability) and with long-term trends such as trends towards progressively warmer and

drier weather (climate change).

According to the study that was conducted by Tuomisto et al., (2017), environmental

changes are likely to affect agricultural production over the next decades. Impact of climate

change on crop yield and role of model for achieving food security. The study made by Kumar,

(2016) attempts to provide a review on the relationship between climate change impacts and crop

production. It also emphasizes the role of crop simulation models in achieving food security.

Significant progress has been made in understanding the potential consequences of environment-

related temperature and precipitation effects on agricultural production during the last half-

century.

This study focuses on the relationship of climate change in the agricultural sector of

Labrador, Pangasinan. The relationship between climate change and agriculture and climate
change adverse effects in the agriculture sector in various ways. On the other hand, some

negative effects have been studied like changes in average temperatures; rainfall that can cause

floods and drought. Climate extremes with an important impact on soil erosion, changes in pests,

and diseases.

Climate is continuously changing and affects the agricultural sector that serves as a

disaster to the farmers. So, the researchers decided to gather data from different people as well as

on the internet to support and able to have accurate information for our study:

1. To help the farmers as they will learn to cope with changes in our climate.

2. To help crop growers to decide about their crop season.

Statement of the Problem

This research study entitled, “The Relationship of Climate Change in Agricultural Sector

in Labrador, Pangasinan” aims to:

1. Determine the relationship of climate change in the agricultural sector in Labrador,

Pangasinan.

2. Determine how climate change affects the municipality's farmers.

3. Determine if the farmers changed their crop season due to climate change.

4. Identify the effects of climate change in planting crops.

Research Hypotheses

In line with the specific problems, this study sought to test the following hypotheses:

H₀: There is no relationship in climate change and agriculture in Labrador, Pangasinan.

 Hₐ: There is a relationship in climate and in the crop of farmers in Labrador, Pangasinan.

Significance of the Study

The accomplishments and results of this study will be helpful to the following:

Farmers. The farmers would also be beneficial in a way that they can address their

concerns and thus improve and adapt to new agricultural management to lessen the effect of

climate change.

Policymakers and Development Planners. This research would be beneficial to

policymakers and development planners in such a way that they can help to create new

technologies that will help to mitigate the climate change and problems of farmers. Also, they

can help to raise awareness for those who are related to this problem.

Government Agricultural Agencies. The results of this study will be useful to

government agricultural agencies in learning about the perspectives of the researchers and those

who participated in the surveys. It will also assist them in broadening their knowledge to develop

a good strategy for mitigating current climate change.

Students. This study will be informative to students because they will be knowledgeable

about the inflation of goods in the market caused by climate change. As well as, they will know

that climate change is one of the reasons why agriculturists are also having a hard time coping

with climate change.

Community. The community, in general, would be informed about the problem since

most of the agriculture is consumed by the public. They could take a step in their ways to

mitigate the problem or even allocate the resources properly. This study will give them

knowledge on how they will avoid the already-existing climate change from worsening, as well
as what to do when the time comes to confront it. The results of this study will become a way for

the community to know more about climate change in our agriculture.

Future Researchers. This study will help future researchers since this will serve as a

reference for related studies. This study will help them to understand more about the impact of

climate change on our farmers and it will also help them in the development of their research.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This study is all about the Relationship of Climate Change to the Agricultural Sector in

Labrador, Pangasinan that aims to know the effects and impacts of climate change on the farmers

and their cropping season. The researchers have finished this study for 4 months. The researchers

only used survey questionnaires to gather data. The researchers will use Google Forms and

messenger-generated texts platforms in gathering responses from our respondents. The

respondents were only limited to the farmers in Labrador, Pangasinan. The researchers have

selected 30 farmers in different barangays of the municipality of Labrador, Pangasinan as some

respondents. The respondents were selected through simple random sampling. The researchers

used mean and percentage as their statistical analysis.

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 shows the block diagram of the conceptual framework of the study. It has three

significant components: Input, Process, and Output.

 Input Process Output
1. Determine the The researchers will be The Relationship of
relationship of climate using an instrument in a Climate Change in
change in the form of survey- Agricultural Sector in
agricultural sector in questionnaires. Since Labrador, Pangasinan.
Labrador, Pangasinan. we are in the midst of
2. Determine how pandemic, the
climate change affects researchers will use
the municipality’s Google Forms and
farmers. messenger-generated
3. Determine if the text to gather the data.
farmers change their
crop season due to
climate change.
4. Identify the effects of
climate change in
planting crops.

Figure 1. Block Diagram of the Study

Definition of Terms

These are words used in the research and will give meaning to the main idea of the study.

Here, the researchers will give meaning to the important and unfamiliar keywords used in the

study. The following terminology was defined by the researchers of how it was used in this

research:
Climate. Is the usual weather of a place. It can be associated with seasons such as winter,

summer, fall, and autumn. It would take at least a hundred years before it changes.

Climate change. Is the change in global climate patterns attributed largely to the increased

atmospheric carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere. This could mean a change of how much

rain or even the change in temperature a certain place gets can for a month or year.

Climate vulnerability. Is an assessment of vulnerability to climate change.

Agriculture. Is a practice of science in the farming sector, which including the cultivation of the

soil for the growing crops and the rearing of animals to provide food, wool, etc. According to

Rubenstein (2003), it is the deliberate effort to modify a portion of Earth's surface through the

cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance or economic gain.

CIDA-LGSP. Is a short-term used for Canadian International Development Agency Local

Government Support Program.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Is defined as the total of all value-added created in an

economy.

Yield. Is the amount of an agricultural product.

 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter will contain publications related to this research, including publications,

books, web pages, as well as other related studies such as thesis and dissertation and other

references that are already the available basis of evaluation. The research also provides a short

critique of other studies which helps to improve the study. Conclusion and recommendations will

be provided in the last part.

The agricultural sector is highly known for the most country as a high productivity

growth, which is the key driver of structural transformation on promoting long-term economic

growth. However, due to the low agricultural productivity development, it hindered the

economic growth and employment foundation in the Philippines, wherein agriculture, which

signifies one-third of employment remain as a key sector. Climate change has the capacity to

damage the crop productivity, affect the domestic agricultural production, consumption, and the

food security. Furthermore, the global impact of climate change could stimulate changes in the

international and national product prices that would cause negative effects on both Philippines

agriculture and the county’s overall economy. The development of agricultural adaptation and

growth strategies is a major key to maintain a domestic agricultural production. Sustainment of

the agricultural production growth in helping achieve inclusive growth and poverty reduction is

one of the key goals for the Philippine government.

 In order to discuss what climate change is; the researchers first identify what is climate.

NASA (2014) defined climate as the usual weather of a place. It can be associated with seasons

such as winter, summer, fall, and autumn. As for the climate change, it is the change in the usual

climate found in a place. This change of climate is not necessarily bad for the Earth, but the pace

of this change is quite alarming.

Foreign Literature

Hanif, Syed, and Ahmad et al. (2010) has confirmed in their study that climate change is

assessing the cost of land especially the agricultural farms. The benefits of the adaptation of

farmers to climate change in Punjab, Pakistan shows that there is an increase in the long-run net

revenues.

Hertel, Thomas, and Rosch (2010) presented the evidence of climate change. The carbon

dioxide emission in the atmosphere is rising as the temperature is rising too. According to the

researchers, there is a connection between poverty, agriculture, and climate change. The impacts

of poverty in attempting to mitigate climate change have a greater effect in developing countries.

The mitigation programs depend on the extent that forestry and agriculture would offer low

mitigation opportunities and know which government can utilize the resources to slow the rate of

GHG emissions.

Archer, Oettle, Louw, and et al. (2008) documented and presented the effect of climate

change on rooibos tea in South Africa. Climate change represented by drought brings a severe

impact on the production of tea. It depicts that climate change in South Africa would likely

increase in the future. The application of soil conservation and adjusting the plowing season are

some of the measures made by the government.

 Kelman (2011) stated that the main impact of climate change to Small Island Developing

State (SIDS) are the following: increase in the temps true of air and sea, changes in precipitations

that leads to frequent rain and storm and lastly ocean acidification which in turn affects the

ecosystem, freshwater, and natural resources.

Kumar (2007) assessed that there is a significant drop in the yields of important crops

such as rice and wheat under climate change. On the other hand, there is a lack of research on the

impact of climate change on sugarcane, cotton, and sunflower. He presented an agricultural

economic TEV model and a Ricardian model to support his claim that by having agricultural

areas with the same variables except for the rate of increase in temperature, people would pay

extra dollars just to slow the temperature of the fast increased agricultural area.

Mearns (2010) said that even there are a lot of researches about climate change, there are

still uncertainties to it. She pointed out that one problem in quantifying the uncertainties of

climate change is the diversity of information that the researchers find useful. There are many

approaches in finding the uncertainties of climate change such as providing probabilistic

information and presenting concrete scenarios that the researchers can choose from yet the

diversity of these research methods are still not clear.

Matthew and Hamill (2009) connected technology to climate change, sustainable

development, and agricultural production. Climate change would likely trigger technological and

institutional innovations that may bolster sustainable development; it will also amplify some of

the challenges that have slowed the pace of sustainable development. Climate change may also

act to increase the vulnerability of the poor to climate risk, especially if they respond to climate

stress by moving into fragile environments and onto marginal lands. There is no doubt that

people who are least advantaged from an economic perspective often demonstrate remarkable
capacities to cope, adapt, and survive. They change livelihoods, diversify their household

incomes, move to cities or across borders, place family members abroad who can send

remittances and obtain micro-credit.

Tessa and Kurukulasuriya (2010) suggested that by facilitating the innovation and

diffusion of technology, the resilience of vulnerable communities to climate change, variability,

and extreme would be greatly affected. Enhancing the technical capacity of key stakeholders,

specifically farmers and pastoralists, to identify, disseminate and implement sustainable land

management techniques to restore degraded soils, stabilize land and improve agricultural

productivity.

Another point of view from the book “Crop Protection” by Christian Bockstaller, is said

that, “All three dimensions of sustainability economic, social and environmental must be

integrated into a holistic assessment framework in the development of sustainable cropping

systems. Numerous sustainability assessment methods meet this requirement, but most of them

handle only one type of production system (arable crops, fruit, or vegetables). We propose here a

common framework for sustainability assessment applicable to various types of crop production.

The DEXiPM model was designed for the ex-ante assessment of innovative arable. However, CS

was adapted to other production systems. This common framework for sustainability assessment

has several advantages. It can facilitate communication between stakeholders involved in the

development of innovative production systems.”

Antle and Capalbo (2010) identified that there is the various process involved in

generating economic, environmental, and social outcomes, including agricultural production

systems, transportation and marketing of commodities, and transformation of commodities into

food products. In a relatively certain world - e.g. greenhouse vegetable production for sale into
some stable market decision-makers rationally choose systems based on maximum expected

efficiency.

According to Reilly (2004), economists in association with other disciplines have done

many studies on the effects of the projected climate change on US agriculture. Some review

result from the 1999-2000 US National Assessment was conducted by a team of scientist (Reilly

et al., 2002, USGCRP). In addition to the study is the effect of climate change in the markets,

this also examined the possible implications of climate change on the environmental outcomes.

Agricultural crop production is more likely to be affected by both climate change and the

increase of CO₂ in the atmosphere. The increase of CO₂ affected the changes in temperature and

precipitation has the potential to affect crop yield either positively or negatively. Currently, the

climate scientist uses a Hadley model project which is much wetter climate than the Canadian

model. The research paper also states the Agriculture Climate Environment Interaction which

helps the readers understand more about the impact of climate change on agriculture. Land and

water use is another factor used in the research which overall increase productivity which meant

that less crop, pasture, and grazing land was needed. The result of the economic modeling

assessment presents a 5-35% reduction in irrigated acres and water demand for irrigation. The

empirical analysis was used for pesticides concerning the developments of the climate using

historical observations. The derived relationship was used to stimulate the future use of

pesticides in the economic model. Reilley emphasizes the importance of soil moisture which is a

critical issue for agriculture. Soil moisture levels are determined by an intricate interplay among

precipitation, evaporation, runoff, and soil drainage. It was said that precipitation would increase

soil moisture. In the statistical analysis of historical yield patterns and climate conditions,

increased precipitation was found to reduce yield variability. Thus, ending his study, he
concluded that precipitation predictions of climate models remain highly uncertain. Thus

confidence in these results still awaits more study with a wide range of climate model scenarios.

In accordance with the book “Journal of Cleaner Production” by Fu Chen that “Crop

production not only creates economic values but also has ecological functions. The carbon sink

function of crops plays an important role in mitigating climate change. This paper collected and

analyzed the carbon cost data of staple crops in China, estimated the carbon sink and carbon

source effects of farmlands, and quantitatively evaluated the carbon inputs and outputs of crop

production systems. In conclusion, the carbon footprints of crops in the six typical agriculture

regions are somehow different, and the production of the major crops showed as carbon sinks in

general. The carbon sequestration of different crops in the same region was significantly

different, as well as the same crop in different regions. China’s occurrence of carbon

sequestration effect showed in the farmland ecosystem: the total of the annual nets of carbon sink

of the three major are crops, rice, wheat, and corn. The estimation was about 165.76 TgC, in

which rice was the highest, accounting for 48.71. This study provided an important basis for

policy formulation and planning about the low-carbon agriculture development in China.

The research study that was made by Mendelsohn (2016) focuses on the water sector in

connection with climate change, adaptation, agriculture, and water. Water is known to have

already scarcity value in many watersheds. Over seventeen countries currently withdraw more

than half of their available renewable water supply (FAO, 2016). The continuous growth of

population and GDP will only increase future water demand and raise the scarcity value of water.

Managing water more efficiently is already an issue in semi-arid regions and will be ever more

important in the future. Climate change is a potential problem that would make it worse. The

higher future temperatures will increase evaporation and lowering water supply will also increase
the demand for water irrigation, cooling, and other uses (IPCC, 2014). If society fails to adapt to

these challenges, some of the analysts argue that there will be large damages from future water

scarcity (Titus, 1992). Several mechanisms can help lead to efficient and right water allocation.

Central authority can determine the value of water in every use and simply allocate it to the

highest value use. The process of using market allocation water gives flexibility to water

distribution. During the time of drought, water would temporarily be diverted from low-valued

uses. The high-valued would retain their water. This short-term flexibility is said to be more

important in the long term.

Climate change, food, water, and population health in China a research study conducted

by Tong, Berry, Ebi, Bambrick, Hu, Green, Hanna, Wangg, and Butlerb talks about climate

change appears to be increasing the frequency, duration, and intensity of extreme weather events.

Due to this calamity, such even had caused substantial impacts on socio-economic development

and in the population of health. Food, health system, and water are factors that are examples of

profound impact. The paper focuses on how climate change affects the food system, human

health, and water in China. The research paper tackles how climate change affects all four key

dimensions of food supply: stability, availability, access, and utilization. Food security and water

security in China have a connection with a variety of anthropogenic, sociopolitical, and policy

factors, which include the following: air pollution, industrialization, population growth,

urbanization, and the incensement of affluence in the middle class in China and the associated

nutritional transition. However, it was said that urbanization has a severe impact on the

agricultural sector and agricultural cost in China which often leads to the loss of fertile land. At

the end of the research study, a policy implication was stated saying there would be an increase

in the share of total primary to renewable energy to 20% by 2030, a decrease in the carbon
intensity of the gross domestic product to 60-65% of the 2005 level and an increase of 4.5 billion

in China’s forest volume. If the proposition of the increase in the forest stock can be achieved by

sustainable reforestation that improves rural livelihoods and ecosystem services, then there may

be co-benefits such as improvements in small-scale agricultural practices and the local watershed

management.

Under the book that discusses the weather connection from the book “Environmental

Development” by WoldeamlakBewket. The local climate variability and crop production in the

central highlands of Ethiopia “We used monthly rainfall and temperature data from 132 points

which represents a pixel of 10×10 km, which are reconstructions based on station records and the

use of meteorological satellite observations. The labor data of five major crops for the main

cropping season, which is locally known as Meher, were collected between 2004 and 2013 for

three districts (Basona Werana, Efratana Gidim, and Menz Gera Meder) from the Central

Statistical Agency (CSA). The production data are at the Enumeration Area (EA1) level and

hence the best available dataset on crop production. Therefore, there is no published local scale

study, as is attempted here, on local-scale climate variability and crop production in the country

insofar as it is known to the authors. The labor productivity of four out of five crops in Basona

Werana and three out of five crops in both Efratana Gidim and Menz Gera Meder showed a

declination throughout the study; the regression’s conclusion indicates that the rainfall is the

most important determinant of production levels. It is therefore concluded that current climate

variability has a significant influence on crop production in the area and any unfavorable change

in the local climate shortly will have some serious implications for household-level food

security. Efforts to adapt to the ongoing climate change should begin from tackling the current
climate variability and take a climate risk management approach for adapting to the ongoing

climate change.”

Lobell et al. (2008) investments aimed at improving agricultural adaptation to climate

change inevitably favor some crops and regions over others. Based on statistical crop models and

climate forecasts for 2030 from 20 general circulation models, an analysis of climate risks for

crops in 12 food-insecure regions was undertaken to identify adaptation priorities. Results

indicate South Asia and Southern Africa as two regions that without sufficient adaptation

measures, will likely suffer negative impacts on several crops that are important to large food-

insecure human populations. This study also discovered that uncertainties vary widely by crop,

and therefore priorities will depend on the risk attitudes of investment institutions.

D’souza, Cyphers, and Phipps (2016) a logit model and data from a 1990 survey of West

Virginia farmers were used to evaluate the extent to which individual factors influence the

adoption of sustainable agriculture methods. The results are, as expected, different from those of

conventional agricultural technologies. However, the likelihood of adoption of sustainable

agricultural practices is affected most by the environmental characteristic of whether or not the

producer is aware that groundwater contamination exists on his farm. It also implies the

existence of derived demand for sustainable agriculture.

In the study of Obasi, Henri-Ukoha, Ukewuihe, and Chidiebere-Mark (2013) the main

objectives were to examine and identify the factors that affect agricultural productivity in Imo

State, Nigeria. Analysis of resource use efficiency shows that farmers are highly efficient in the

use of planting materials but highly inefficient in the use of land and chemical fertilizer. It is

recommended that extension agents teach farmers to use the right quality and quantity of
chemical fertilizers, and the use of high-yielding planting materials to enhance farmers’

productivity.

The study of Muhammad-Lawal (2006) focused on the growth of the agricultural sector

of the Nigerian economy. Descriptive statistics and regression analysis were the major tools of

analysis in this study. This study recommended the need to increase per-capital productivity

through the introduction of improved technology in agricultural production.

Crowley (2000), recent reconstructions of Northern Hemisphere temperatures and climate

forcing over the past 1000 years allow the warming of the 20 th century to be placed within a

historical context and various mechanisms of climate change to be tested. Comparisons of

observations with simulations from an energy balance climate model show that solar irradiance

and volcanism were responsible for up to 41 to 64 percent of anthropogenic (pre-1850) decadal-

scale temperature variations. Removal of all forcing except greenhouse gases from the 1000-year

time series results in a residual with a very large late 20 th century warming that closely agrees

with the response predicted from greenhouse gas forcing.

Aydinalp and Cresser (2008) climate is the primary important factor for agricultural

production. Concerning the potential effects of climatic change on agriculture has motivated

important change of research during the last decade. The research topics concentrate on possible

physical effects of climatic change on agriculture, such as changes in crop and livestock yields as

well as the economic consequences of these potential yield changes.

In the study of Traore et al. (2013) in West Africa predictions of future changes in

climate and especially rainfall are highly uncertain. Data from an experiment conducted at

N'Tarla from 1965 to 1993, as well as a crop yield database from 10 cotton-growing areas in
southern Mali, were used to examine climatic factors and crop production. There was a negative

effect of maximum temperature, number of dry days, and total seasonal rainfall on cotton yield.

The variation in cotton yields was related to the rainfall distribution within the rainfall season,

with dry spells and seasonal dry days being key determinants of crop yield. In the driest districts,

maize yields were positively correlated with rainfall.

White et al. (2011) said that Eco-physiological models are widely used to forecast

potential impacts of climate change on future agricultural productivity and to examine options

for adaptation by local stakeholders and policymakers. However, the methodologies used in

these assessments differ to the point where they limit cross-study syntheses and increase the risk

of bias in estimated impacts.

Praveen and Sharma (2009), agricultural practice is affected by climate changes because

of its direct dependence on climatic changes. There are two methods of relationships between

agriculture and climate change and has huge significance especially for developing and

underdeveloped or low-income countries, who are largely dependent on agriculture for

subsistence and their lack of infrastructure for adaptation as compared with developed countries.

Geographically high-latitude areas with already existence of low temperatures, under increasing

temperature due to climate changes, could allow for the longer growing season. Agricultural

fields are affected by the emission of GHG such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane.

Gasses affect climate through the discharge of greenhouse gasses. Emissions mostly come from

the tillage practices, fossil fuels, fertilized agricultural soils, and farm animals’ manure in a huge

amount and affected the agriculture sector. On the contrary, agriculture could be a solution for

climate change by reducing emissions and implementation of mitigation and adaptation actions
widely. It will happen with the assistance of best management practices such as agroforestry

practice, organic farming, rainwater harvesting, irrigation planning, and manure management.

Jones et al. (2012), it is not clear if agricultural producers will be able to keep up with the

unprecedented speed at which climate is expected to change in the coming years.

In the study of Meldrum et al. (2018), the perception that farmers have about climate

change not only informs their planting decisions but also determines the adoption of adaptation

measures.

Hansen et al. (2012) said that the variability that local weather can have from one day to

the other, from one season to the next, and between years, is one of the many challenges that a

person faces when trying to distinguish between normal short-run variations and climate change

manifestations.

Asfaw et al. (2016) said that to protect the livelihoods of the population that directly

depends on agriculture, the adaptation of the agricultural sector to the adverse effects of climate

change is crucial.

NAP (1989) more and more farmers are adopting a diverse range of alternative practices

designed to reduce dependence on synthetic chemical pesticides, fertilizers, antibiotics, cut costs,

increase profits, and reduce the adverse environmental consequences of agricultural production.

Alternative agriculture describes the increased use of these new practices and other changes in

agriculture since World War II and examines the role of federal policy in encouraging this

evolution, as well as factors that are causing farmers to look for profitable, environmentally safe

alternatives. Eleven case studies explore how alternative farming methods have been adopted

and with what economic results on farms of various sizes from California to Pennsylvania.
 Wiley and Sons (1987) said that the scientific developments of this century have brought

a significant change in the way that agricultural activity affects the environment.

Rosenberg (1992) preparing agriculture for adaptation to climate change requires

advanced knowledge of how climate will change and when. The direct physical and biological

impacts on plants and animals must be understood. The indirect impacts on agriculture’s

resource base of soils, water, and genetic resources must also be known. We lack such

information now and will, likely, for some time to come. Thus impact assessments for

agriculture can only be conjectural at this time. However, guidance can be gotten from an

improved understanding of the current climatic vulnerabilities of agriculture and its resource

base, from the application of a realistic range of climate change scenarios to impact assessment,

from consideration of the complexity of current agricultural systems, range of adaptation

techniques and policies now available and likely to be available in the future.

Darwin (1995) studies suggest that possible global increases in temperature and changes

in precipitation patterns during the next century will affect world agriculture. Because of the

ability of farmers to adapt, however, these changes are not likely to imperil world food

production. Nevertheless, world production of all goods and services may decline, if climate

change is severe enough or if cropland expansion is hindered. Impacts are not equally distributed

around the world. Agricultural production may increase in arctic and alpine areas, but the

decrease in tropical and some other areas. In the United States, soil moisture losses may reduce

agricultural production in the Corn Belt and Southeast.

Salam (2019) our world is vulnerable to climate change risks such as glacier retreats,

rising temperatures, more variable and intense weather events (e.g., floods, droughts, and frosts),

deteriorating mountain ecosystems, soil degradation, and increasing water scarcity. However,
there are big gaps in our understanding of changes in regional climate and how these changes

will impact human and natural systems, making it difficult to anticipate, plan, and adapt to the

coming changes. The IoT paradigm in this area can enhance our understanding of regional

climate by using technology solutions while providing the dynamic climate elements based on

integrated environmental sensing and communications that are necessary to support climate

change impacts assessments in each of the related areas (e.g., environmental quality and

monitoring, sustainable energy, agricultural systems, cultural preservation, and sustainable

mining). In the IoT in Environmental Sustainability and Climate Change chapter, a framework

for informed creation, interpretation, and use of climate change.

Pivot Food Investment (2020) said that climate-related weather disasters including

droughts, floods, hurricanes, and wildfires have significant adverse financial impacts on factory

farming operations. These impacts reverberate along the factory-farming value chain and include

losses of infrastructure and large numbers of densely populated livestock, shortages or high

prices of feed inputs, operation-halting power outages, shipping channel disruption, and

increased insurance costs. Negative environmental impacts are also among the climate-disaster-

related financial risks associated with factory farms.

World Bank (2021), the agricultural sector is especially vulnerable to climate change

impacts. Both increased flooding and the increased likelihood of droughts could impact

agricultural land. This could contribute to decreased agricultural productivity.

Mamauag et al. (2013), fisheries and aquaculture provide a better way to understand the

interactions among the natural system, pressures, and threats, which serve as a basis for the

development of climate change adaptation (CCA) options.

 Eckstein et al. (2017) the country is ranked 5 th in the world in terms of extreme weather

events floods, heatwaves, etc. Sajise et al. (2012) and RP (2014) said that the agriculture sector is

highly vulnerable to climate change due to its reliance on favorable growing conditions. He gave

water resources, temperature, air humidity, wind velocities, precipitation intensity, and solar

radiation as an example.

Esham and Garforth (2013) climate change is inevitable and will continue into the next

century. Since the agricultural sector in Sri Lanka is one of the most vulnerable to climate

change, a thorough understanding of climate transition is critical for formulating effective

adaptation strategies. This article provides an overview of the status of climate change and

adaptation in the agricultural sector in Sri Lanka. The review indicates that climate change is

taking place in Sri Lanka in terms of rainfall variability and an increase in climate extremes and

warming. Some planned and reactive adaptation responses stemming from policy and farm-level

decisions are reported. These adaptation efforts were fragmented and lacked a coherent

connection to the national development policies and strategies. Research efforts are needed to

develop and identify adaptation approaches and practices that are feasible for smallholder

farmers, particularly in the dry zone where paddy and other food crops are predominately

cultivated. To achieve the envisaged growth in the agricultural sector, rigorous efforts are

necessary to mainstream climate change adaptation into national development policies and

ensure that they are implemented at national, regional, and local levels.

In the study of Hassan (2010), he analyzed how climate change (CC) has shaped African

agriculture in the past and how it might impact African farm economies in the future and what

adaptation strategies African farmers have adopted to cope with these changes. The analyses

covered all key farming systems and agro-climates of Africa in 11 countries in which data were
collected from over 10,000 farm household surveys. Results provided evidence that African

agriculture and the welfare of its rural population are vulnerable to CC. The highest risk of future

CC damages is associated with specialized crop and livestock farming (mono systems)

particularly under dryland conditions in arid and semi-arid regions. This indicates how difficult it

is to achieve an African green revolution under the current high reliance on dryland systems

(more than 95% of the land) given predicted harsh future climates (warmer and dryer

projections) for most of the dryland areas in Africa. It will require substantial public and private

investments in expanding irrigation and development of crop varieties and animal breeds that are

tolerant to heat, water and low fertility stresses, in building roads and marketing infrastructures

that will improve access to critical inputs (e.g., fertilizer) and output trade. This essentially

requires mainstreaming climate sensitivity as an integral component of all agricultural and

broader economic development planning and policy design. Although the expected damages are

large, many farming systems and communities in Africa face serious limiting conditions which

reduce their ability to adapt and hence increase their vulnerability. Among the key factors found

to constrain African farmers’ ability to adopt effective adaptation measures are poor access to

information, capital, technology, and markets. Policies aimed at promoting farm-level adaptation

need to emphasize the critical role of farmers’ education; provision of improved climate,

production and market information, and the means to implement adaptations through affordable

credit facilities. Other needed public interventions to help promote adaptation measures and

reduce vulnerability include insurance against climate risks to farmers and provision of safety

nets.

Hatfield, Antle, and Ziska (2018) climate change affect all segments of the agricultural

enterprise, and there is mounting evidence that the continuing warming trend with shifting
seasonality and intensity in precipitation will increase the vulnerability of agricultural systems.

Agriculture is a complex system within the USA encompassing a large number of crops and

livestock systems, and the development of indicators to provide a signal of the impact of climate

change on these different systems would be beneficial to the development of strategies for

effective adaptation practices. A series of indicators were assembled to determine their potential

for assessing agricultural response to climate change in the near term and long term and those

with the immediate capability of being implemented and those requiring more development. The

available literature reveals indicators on livestock-related heat stress, soil erosion related to

changes in precipitation, soil carbon changes in response to increasing carbon dioxide and soil

management practices, economic response to climate change in agricultural production, and crop

progress and productivity. Crop progress and productivity changes are readily observed data with

a historical record for some crops extending back to the mid-1800s. This length of historical

record coupled with the county-level observations from each state where a crop is grown and

emerging pest populations provides a detailed set of observations to assess the impact of a

changing climate on agriculture. Continued refinement of tools to assess climate impacts on

agriculture will provide a guide on strategies to adapt to climate change.

Mall et al. (2006), during the recent decade, with the growing recognition of the

possibility of climate change and clear evidence of observed changes in climate during the 20th

century, an increasing emphasis on food security and its regional impacts has come to the

forefront of the scientific community. In recent times, climate change's impact on agricultural

production and food security has been studied extensively using crop simulation models.

The study of Parry and Rosenzweig et al. (2004), global consequences to crop yields,

production, and risk of hunger of linked socio-economic and climate scenarios. Projected
changes in yield are calculated using transfer functions derived from crop model simulations

with observed climate data. The basic linked system (BLS) is used to evaluate consequent

changes in global cereal production, cereal prices, and the number of people at risk from hunger.

Akinnagbe and Irohibe (2014) climate change is expected to intensify existing problems

and create new combinations of risks, particularly in Africa. The situation is made worst due to

factors such as widespread poverty, over-dependence on rain-fed agriculture, inequitable land

distribution, limited access to capital and technology, inadequate public infrastructures, such as

roads, long-term weather forecasts, and inadequate research and extension. By lessening the

severity of key damages to the agricultural sector, adaptation is the key defensive measure.

Adaptation to climate change involves changes in agricultural management practices in response

to changes in climate conditions. This paper reviews agricultural adaptation strategies employed

by farmers in various countries in Africa in cushioning the effects of climate change. The

common agricultural adaptation strategies used by farmers were the use of drought-resistant

varieties of crops, crop diversification, changes in cropping pattern and calendar of planting,

conserving soil moisture through appropriate tillage methods, improving irrigation efficiency,

and afforestation and agro-forestry. The paper concluded that improving and strengthening

human capital through education, outreach programs, extension services at all levels will

improve capacity to adapt to climate change impact.

Self and Grabowski (2007), the agricultural sector’s role was somewhat controversial.

While dualistic models highlighted the importance of agriculture, the mainstream literature

placed a greater emphasis on the creation of a modern industrial sector. Soon agriculture

disappeared from the mainstream development literature to re-emerge recently with a variety of
multiple-sector growth models emphasizing the key role of agriculture and specifically

technology in agriculture.

Mumtaz, Oliveira, and Ali (2019) the government have launched a massive level

awareness campaign in the province. Other important initiatives are an institutional capacity

enhancement, promotion of climate change research, the establishment of linkage with

academics, enhancement of capacity building, and involvement of farmers’ community in

climate adaptation for agriculture sectors. The autonomous adaptation initiatives include

changing planting dates, changing crops types, changing fertilizers, and planting shade trees.

Planned level adaptation is primarily driven by coordination among the respective departments,

engagement with academics, and the availability of financial resources. Autonomous initiatives

of the province are mainly driven by the previous experiences of farmers, sustainability in

agriculture production, and knowledge sharing.

Pechlaner and Otero (2008) the agricultural sector is currently being shaped by two

powerful dynamics as many nations reorganize their national agriculture according to free trade

and other supranational agreements while new agricultural biotechnologies are increasingly

adopted. This interrelationship between regulatory change and genetic engineering appears set to

form the basis of a new food regime.

Bosello and Zhang (2005) the economy-wide implications of climate change on

agricultural sectors in 2050 are estimated using a static computable general equilibrium model.

Peculiar to this exercise is the coupling of the economic model with a climatic model forecasting

temperature increase in the relevant year and with a crop-growth model estimating climate

change impact on cereal productivity. The main results of the study point out on the one hand the

limited influence of climate change on world food supply and welfare; on the other hand, its
important distributional consequences as the stronger negative effects are concentrated on

developing countries.

In the study of Anowor, Ukweni, and Ikeme (2013), they attempt to examine the impact

of trade liberalization on Nigeria's agricultural performance (model one) with a special interest in

the export sub-sector (model two) using time-series analysis. It is stated clearly that performance

of Nigeria's agricultural sector and its export sub-sector is a function of trade liberalization. In

this work, trade liberalization is decomposed into macroeconomic variables as the thus

agricultural degree of openness, agricultural capital formation, agricultural export to import price

ratio, real exchange rate, and foreign investment in agriculture.

Local Literature

In the studies of Cruz, Dimalanta, Servando, and Yumul (2011) climate change can be

loosely defined as global warming, the abnormal warming of the Earth. Its science can be

perpetually fascinating, at the same time intriguing and alarming; it describes the intricacy of the

Earth’s natural order while serving us a grim reminder of our futures that are at stake, which

heavily depend on our actions. Disasters are one of the major causes of human fatalities and

suffering among organisms, and it is imminent that the number of people affected is

continuously rising at unprecedented levels. A disaster can be defined as any serious disturbance

on societal functions involving widespread human, economic, material, or even environmental

losses and impacts, which hinders the ability of the affected to cope using its resources.

However, it must be taken into consideration that a hazard or an event should not be

automatically deemed a disaster; it depends on the locality’s response and coping mechanism.

Categorizing these disasters in regards to the type of triggering event can produce distinctions.

Usually, human-induced or artificial disasters include technological events such as fires or

transportation crashes and societal events such as acts of terrorism. Among natural disasters,

there are numerous types of triggering events: climatological (extreme temperatures),

meteorological (storms), and hydrological (inundation and storm surges), geophysical

(earthquakes and volcanic eruptions), and biological (epidemics). These disasters might also be a

result of a mix of cataclysmic events. The international response comes in when complex

emergencies result in a breakdown of the afflicted society, representing a severe humanitarian

situation.

The study that was conducted by Rosegrant, Perez, Pradesha, and Thomas (2016) for

most countries, high productivity growth in the agricultural sector has been a key driver of

structural transformation promoting long-term economic growth. Climate change has the

potential to disrupt crop productivity, and in turn affect domestic agricultural production,

consumption, and food security. Moreover, the global impact of climate change could stimulate

changes in international and domestic commodity prices, ultimately having negative effects on

both Philippine agriculture and the country’s overall economy. Developing agricultural

adaptation and growth strategies is of utmost importance, not only to maintain domestic

agricultural production but also to underpin broader economic growth and structural

transformation. Sustaining agricultural production growth to help achieve inclusive growth and

poverty reduction is a key goal for the Philippine government.

In the study that was conducted by Dait (2015) the vulnerability of Philippine agriculture

to climate change has been acknowledged to be substantial. Government policies have been

pushed through to be able to cope up with the demands of climate change. This study seeks to

determine the impact of climate change on the agriculture sector in the Philippines. This study

finds that the lag of temperature change has an inverse relationship with the change in output.
Based on the data results, a 1°C increase in temperature reduces the gross production value of

Philippine agriculture by 19.21 percent. The same is true with precipitation – gross production

value in agriculture would decrease by .24 for every 1 mm increase in precipitation but rainier

days would increase gross production value by 1.24. An increase in Diurnal range temperature as

measured by the difference between the daily maximum and minimum temperature would

decrease gross production value by 5.74. This study also supports the idea that the agriculture

sector of the Philippines as a tropical country, is rain-fed and that a drier season would decrease

agricultural output.

Lasco et al. (2008), changes in the climate are affecting the forests and their ability to

deliver their environmental services. To enhance the mitigation role of forests and, at the same

time, increase their resilience to climate change, policies and programs must be put in place. This

paper reviewed a decade of research in the Philippines on climate change and forest ecosystems.

According to limited research, dry forest types are the most vulnerable to climate change.

Potential adaptation strategies do exist, but they have not been thoroughly researched. The

majority of previous research has concentrated on the mitigation potential of terrestrial

ecosystems.

The study of Lopez, Mendoza, and Genio (2008) pursued how farmers implemented

sustainable agricultural techniques of empoldering that brought more socio-economic

opportunities and household food security to farming families. All these characterized the rice,

fish, and vegetable crops production system. The system showed a profound socioeconomic

impact on the household food security of farming families through increased income, food

availability and quality, greater employment opportunities, and other benefits. The system could

enable the farmers to realize their goals in farming.

 Lasco, Pulhin, Sanchez, et al. (2008) the Philippines, as an archipelagic and developing

country, is very vulnerable to climate change. There are currently efforts underway to address the

effects of climate change, but they may be insufficient. Climate change has not been

mainstreamed in the Philippines, according to the findings. The reasons that hinder climate

change mainstreaming are national priorities are biased towards more pressing concerns, and

there is a pervasive lack of awareness on the impacts of climate change on sustainable

development. However, there are massive investments in infrastructure projects designed to

adapt to climate-related hazards.

Sabino et al. (2021), the farmers in the Roxas mountain range, City of Koronadal used to

have bountiful harvests when the city was still free from climate-related hazards. However, this

situation has recently changed due to the increasing climate-related risk events. Moreover,

localized baseline scientific climate information is limited to foster the development of

appropriate adaptations and policies toward climate-resilient communities. This study assessed

the climate trends and the changes, impacts, and adaptation strategies of farm households in five

barangays in the Roxas mountain range, Koronadal City, and South Cotabato.

Jose & Cruz (1999), the resulting local warming with a corresponding decrease in runoff

could have adverse consequences on the water demand side. This problem could be aggravated

by the increasing population translated into more demand for water and degradation of the

physical environment that could affect, to a certain extent, the hydrology of the area.

The study conducted by Briones et al. (2010) says that the synthesis’ end goal is to

identify researchable areas related to the socio-economics of climate change in the Philippines,

specifically in agriculture, forestry, and natural resources (AFNR) sectors. Knowledge of the
socio-economics of climate change and its impacts, mitigation, and adaptation can guide

policymakers and program implementers on how to fully prepare the country for climate change.

National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) (2021) climate change worsens

the economic situation and food security among others of the Philippine people. Hence, there is a

critical and urgent need to develop climate-smart technologies available and accessible to the

farmers through the creation of an enabling institutional environment.

Rosegrant et al. (2015) climate change has the potential to disrupt crop productivity, and

in turn affect domestic agricultural production, consumption, and food security. Moreover, the

global impact of climate change could stimulate changes in international and domestic

commodity prices, ultimately having negative effects on both Philippine agriculture and the

country’s overall economy.

Davis (2021) said that agriculture has been the traditional backbone of the Philippine

economy. It is a principal source of income and employment, employing almost half of the total

labor force. For the Philippines to become a progressive industrialized nation, it should have a

strong and highly productive agricultural sector.

Celeridad (2019) said that experts on climate change, agriculture, and other relevant

fields in the Philippines came together to identify climate-resilient agriculture (CRA)

technologies and practices that farmers can adopt into their fields. These CRA interventions were

selected based on their relevance to the different agro-ecological systems in the Philippines.

In the study of Jose et al. (1993), the Philippine archipelago is composed of 7100 islands,

clustered in 3 major island groups namely, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao—with a total land

area of 300000 km². The country’s climate is influenced by large-scale atmospheric phenomena
that bring in substantial amounts of rains almost all year round. However, due to the uneven

distribution of rain concerning time and space and the occurrences of extreme events such as

floods and droughts, the country’s water resources have in the past experienced imbalances in

supply and demand.

In the study of Baradas & Mina (1996) use of drip irrigation, mulching, and other

improved irrigation practices and the use of windbreaks to reduce wind speed and

evapotranspiration are some farming practices that could be adapted.

Jose (1992) said that significant changes in the earth’s climatic system, particularly an

alteration of rainfall and temperature in both time and space, are expected. During the past few

decades, extreme climatic events have adversely affected the Philippine economy. El Niño-

related droughts affected not only the water sector but also other sectors such as agriculture,

health, and the environment.

In the study of Renz Louie (2019) amid the era of a changing climate, the Philippines

must identify initiatives that can improve the productivity of its farmers and support its

adaptation and mitigation actions.

Sebastian (2019) said that the Philippines must transform its agriculture sector to thrive

under climate change conditions. The need for an agricultural transformation arises from the

complexities of climate change, which traverses the environmental, economic, and socio-

political landscapes. The steps he mentioned were grouped into actions and strategies.

Lasco, Espaldon, and Habito (2015) analyzed how farmers, members of their households,

and community leaders in the Wahig–Inabanga watershed, Bohol province in the Philippines

perceive climate change, and define and value the roles of trees in coping with climate risks.
Focus group discussions revealed that farmers and community leaders had observed changes in

rainfall and temperature over the years. They also had positive perceptions of tree roles in coping

with climate change, with most timber tree species valued for regulating functions, while non-

timber trees were valued as sources of food and income. Statistical analysis of the household

survey results was done through linear probability models for both determinants of farmers’

perceived changes in climate, and perceived importance of tree roles in coping with climate

risks. Perceiving of changes in rainfall was more likely among farmers who had access to

electricity, had access to water for irrigation, and derived climate information from government

agencies and mass media, and less likely among farmers who were members of farmers’

organizations. On the other hand, perceiving an increase in temperature was more likely among

farmers who were members of women’s organizations and had more off/non-farm sources of

income, and less likely among those who derived climate information from government

agencies. Meanwhile, marginal effects of the regression on the perceived importance of trees in

coping with climate change revealed positively significant relationships with the following

predictor variables: access to electricity, the number of off/non-farm sources of income, having

trees planted by household members, observed increase in temperature and decline in yield, and

sourcing climate information from government agencies. In contrast, a negatively significant

relationship was observed between recognition of the importance of tree roles and level of

education, and deriving income from tree products. In promoting tree-based adaptation, we

recommend improving access to necessary inputs and resources, exploring the potentials of

farmer-to-farmer extension, using participatory approaches to generate farmer-led solutions

based on their experiences of climate change, and initiating government-led extension to farmers

backed by non-government partners.

 The study of Pang, Albany, and Webb (2021) Southeast Asian forests are dominated by

the tree family Dipterocarpaceae, whose abundance and diversity are key to maintaining the

structure and function of tropical forests. Like most biodiversity, dipterocarps are threatened by

deforestation and climate change, so it is crucial to understand the potential impacts of these

threats on current and future dipterocarp distributions. We developed species distribution models

(SDMs) for 19 species of dipterocarps in the Philippines, which were projected onto current and

two 2070 representative concentration pathway (RCP) climate scenarios, RCP 4.5 and 8.5. The

current land cover was incorporated as a post-doc correction to restrict projections onto intact

habitats. Land cover correction alone reduced current species distributions by a median of 67%,

and within protected areas by 37%. After land cover correction, climate change reduced

distributions by a median of 16% (RCP 4.5) and 27% (RCP 8.5) at the national level, with

similar losses in protected areas. There was a detectable upward elevation shift of species

distributions, consisting of suitable habitat losses below 300 m and gains above 600 m. Species-

rich stable areas of continued habitat suitability (i.e., climate macrorefugia) fell largely outside

current delineations of protected areas, indicating a need to improve protected area planning.

This study highlights how SDMs can provide projections that can inform protected area planning

in the tropics.

Friedman, Christie, and Miles (2012), the Philippines is particularly susceptible to coastal

hazards, which are likely to be exacerbated by climate change. To improve coastal hazard

management and adaptation planning, it is imperative that climate information is provided at

relevant scales and that decision-makers understand the causes and nature of risk in their

constituencies. Focusing on a municipality in the Central Philippines, this study examines local

meteorological information and explores household perceptions of climate change and coastal
hazard risk. First, meteorological data and local perceptions of changing climate conditions are

assessed. Perceived changes in climate include an increase in rainfall and rainfall variability, an

increase in intensity and frequency of storm events and, sea-level rise. Second, factors affecting

climate change perceptions and perceived risk from coastal hazards are determined through

statistical analysis. Factors tested include social status, economic standing, resource dependency,

and spatial location. Results indicate that perceived risk to coastal hazards is most affected by

households’ spatial location and resource dependency, rather than socio-economic conditions.

However, important differences exist based on the type of hazard and nature of the risk being

measured. Resource dependency variables are more significant in determining perceived risk

from coastal erosion and sea-level rise than flood events. Spatial location is most significant in

determining households’ perceived risk to their household assets, but not perceived risk to their

livelihood.

In the study of Holden and Marshall (2018) the Philippines is one of the world’s most

typhoon impacted places. There is strong scientific consensus that anthropogenic greenhouse gas

emissions are causing climate change and that this is contributing to stronger typhoons due to

higher sea surface temperatures and higher subsurface sea temperatures, which remove the

natural buffer on typhoon strength occasioned when cold water upwells from below the ocean’s

surface. These stronger typhoons carry more moisture, track differently, move faster, and will be

aggravated by sea-level rise, one of the most certain consequences of climate change. The

Philippines, with its large and rapidly growing population, are vulnerable to stronger typhoons,

and this vulnerability is exacerbated by localized environmental degradation. Ultimately, a

discussion of climate injustice must be undertaken because, while the Philippines are vulnerable
to typhoons augmented by climate change, the Filipino people bear a disproportionately low

responsibility for causing climate change.

Benjamin, Claire, Joseph, and Daniel (2018) said that an increase in dry-season rainfall

leads to an increase in agricultural production and dampens conflict intensity. By contrast, an

increase in wet-season rainfall is harmful to crops and produces more conflict. Consistent with

the hypothesis that rebel groups gain strength after a bad harvest, we find that negative rainfall

shocks lead to an increase in conflict incidents initiated by insurgents but not by government

forces. These results suggest that the predicted shift towards wetter wet seasons and drier dry

seasons will lead to more civil conflict even if annual rainfall totals remain stable. We conclude

that policies aimed at mitigating the effect of climate change on agriculture could have the added

benefit of reducing civil conflict.

Holden (2018) discusses how climate change causes an intensification of Western North

Pacific typhoons and how the effects of such amplified typhoons upon the Philippines exemplify

the concept of climate injustice. Using a political ecology approach, the article begins with an

examination of the concepts of climate change, climate injustice, background injustice, and

compound injustice. This is followed by an examination of the causes of typhoons, the

vulnerability of the Philippines to typhoons, and how climate change may generate stronger

typhoons. These stronger typhoons that may be produced by climate change, and the risks that

they pose to the Philippines, are an example of climate injustice, while the legacy of colonial

exploitation in the Philippines is an example of background injustice. The struggles faced by the

Philippines in coping with climate change augmented typhoons are an example of compound

injustice. The article concludes with a discussion of the reluctance of developed countries, such
as Australia, Canada, and the United States, to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions

notwithstanding the consequences these emissions have on countries such as the Philippines.

The study of Salvacion and Martin Jr. (2016) said that climate change is expected to

affect agricultural crop production in the Philippines. Several studies were already done to

quantify the effect of climate change on agricultural crop production in the country. This study

estimated the effect of climate change on the area (suitable area) for corn production. Changes in

corn suitability in the province of Isabela were assessed using the Land Use Suitability

Evaluation Tool (LUSET) for the years 2050, 2060, and 2070.

In the study of Tatlonghari and Paris (2012), over recent decades, climate change has

rapidly become a serious threat to human society and wellbeing. One of the key identified effects

of changing climate is the expected increase in flooding events. Flooding, brought about by

heavy rainfall and frequent typhoons, is predicted to increase in a climate-change-prone country

like the Philippines.

Defiesta and Rapera (2014), farming households in the Philippines are most vulnerable to

climate change and variability due to their climate/weather-sensitive livelihood and lack of

resources to finance adaptation measures. the adaptive capacity to climate change and

vulnerability of 520 farming households in Dumangas, a town in the central Philippines

confronting climate/weather-induced risks.

Lansigan, Delos Santos, and Coladilla (2000) said that climate variability is a threat to

food production. Typhoons, floods, and droughts caused 82.4% of the total Philippine rice losses

from 1970 to 1990. In 1990 alone, domestic losses due to climatic constraints amounted to the

US $39.2 million. The vulnerability and risk of crop production due to weather fluctuations and
climate variability can be minimized if future weather variation can be adequately predicted and

a suitable process-based Eco-physiological crop yield forecasting model can be identified to

produce real-time yield forecasts.

Rowell and Godefroy (2017), the population of the Philippines has been growing rapidly

over the past decades, reaching roughly 100 million people in 2015. More than half of the people

live in rural areas and are highly dependent on agriculture and agriculture-related industries [55;

21]. Despite efforts to reach the Millennium Development Goals targets, a quarter of the

population still lives below the national poverty line. Farmers and fisherfolks remain the groups

most affected by poverty, as a consequence of dwindling investments in the agriculture sector,

which have led to low productivity at the expense of growth in the services and manufacturing

sectors.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) said that changes in climate patterns

are projected to have several impacts including possible water shortages, decreased agricultural

production, and food insecurity.

The report of Ramada (2014), climate change threatens agriculture in many ways. Many

crops are sensitive to changes in temperature and cannot survive in severe heat or cold. Climate

change can cause extreme fluctuations in temperature, affecting crop yield. The droughts and

heat waves also linked to the phenomenon can dry up water resources necessary for keeping

crops alive and healthy.

Bautista (1986) investigates empirically the economy-wide effects of agricultural

productivity increases in the Philippines, reporting the results of a quantitative analysis based on

a general equilibrium framework. A multisectoral, price endogenous model of the Philippine

economy is employed, emphasizing not only agriculture but also other production sectors with

which it closely interacts, as well as the distinction between rural and urban households in their

income generation and consumption patterns. Among other findings, the differential effects on

the real income of rural households vis-à-vis urban households arising from increased

productivity in the various components of the agricultural production sector are striking. The

resulting improvements in the trade balance and national income, among other macroeconomic

variables, are also relatively significant. Moreover, there are significant differences in the

economy-wide effects among the four sectors of food and agriculture distinguished in the study.

Particularly interesting is the highly favorable impact of rising productivity in the food

processing sector on agricultural crop production and rural income, a linkage effect that has not

received much attention in the development literature.

Laurean (2017) presented Disaster Risk Reduction Climate Change Impacts in

Agricultural Farms in Apayao Province as one of the SAFE Program on their climate change

adaptation.

In the study of Perez, Amadore, Feir (1999) the Manila Bay coastal area in The

Philippines was evaluated for the possible consequences of accelerated sea-level rise in the

context of climate change and to assess adaptive responses to such threats. The coastal area is an

important region in terms of commercial, industrial, agricultural, and aquaculture activities of

The Philippines. Results show that areas along the coast if inundated by a 1m sea-level rise

would include coastal barangays from 19 municipalities of Metro Manila, Bulacan, and Cavite

and would cover an area of 5555 ha. Proposed response strategies consist of protecting the coast

by building sea walls; institutional actions such as formulation of setback policies and

construction regulations; and adaptive planning in the context of integrated coastal zone
management to address the short and long-term problems, with the involvement of communities

in the area. Information, education, and communication are essential along with the technical and

scientific efforts to achieve a well-balanced adaptation plan.

Gray (2006) modernizing the agricultural sector is one of the main thrusts of the

Philippine government. Partnership with private and government financial institutions has been a

major mechanism of the government in developing the agricultural sector through credit and

financing. Agricultural producers rely on credit facilities to help them raise the capital needed in

their endeavors. They require investments and inputs in agriculture-related activities that will

initiate production and increase returns. Total loans granted to small farmers and fisher folk

remain low despite government efforts in agricultural credit and insurance programs. Banks are

reluctant to provide them with financial assistance due to the high risk involved in agricultural

lending.

In the study of Balisacan (1993) he provides a critical look at the country’s record

concerning agricultural growth and poverty alleviation. It argues that rapid agricultural growth,

as demonstrated by the experience in the 1960s and 1970s, is not enough to pull the rural poor

out of poverty as well as sustain rapid overall economic growth. Economic structures and the

economic policy environment have to be conducive to the rapid growth of employment

opportunities for the fast-growing labor force, particularly in the nonagricultural sector.

In another study from Balisacan (1998), he examines the character of agricultural

development and the policy environment influencing the performance of the rural economy

during the postwar period. It shows that, while domestic and global shocks could be blamed for

the poor performance of agriculture and the slow decline of rural poverty in recent decades, they

are hardly sufficient reasons. The more fundamental reasons have to be found in domestic
policies, directly and indirectly, affecting agricultural structures and incentives, particularly

market regulations and public investment biases against the rural sector. Moreover, contrary to

common perception, growth-enhancing policy reforms in recent years, albeit largely incomplete,

have favorably changed the economic environment facing the poor.

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

 This chapter presented the methods used by the researchers in the study entitled, “The

Relationship of Climate Change and Agricultural Sector in Labrador, Pangasinan.” This chapter

presents the methodology of this study; it presents a discussion of the research design, the

population and sampling, data-gathering instrument, data-gathering procedure, and the statistical

treatment used in the study.

Research Design

The researchers used a descriptive survey research design to conduct the study. The

researchers chose the descriptive design that uses a questionnaire to gather data that will answer

the question of who, what, where, and how. The researchers believe that the descriptive design is

appropriate because it will facilitate the collection of data from the respondents and this method

is the best fit for the research.

Sample of the Population

Respondents were only limited to thirty (30) farmers from Labrador, Pangasinan who

would answer each questionnaire to be distributed by the researchers.

Sampling Technique

The technique used in selecting the respondents was the simple random sampling

technique. This is the choice of the researchers because the researchers believe that this is the

best way to select their respondents. This is achieved by the willingness and availability of the

respondents. Thus, the researchers let the available sample from the accessible population answer

the questionnaire until the required number of respondents is obtained.

Sources of Data

The data used in this study have come from the answers of the farmers from the

municipality of Labrador, Pangasinan on the questionnaire that is being distributed to them. A

validated request letter signed by the proper authorities of the school was used to gather the data

from the questionnaire.

Research Instrument

To achieve the goal of this study, the researchers used a survey-questionnaire instrument

to gather data that would be needed to measure the relationship of climate change in the

agricultural sector in Labrador, Pangasinan. The survey is divided into two sections, which of

which refers to a distinct style, such as:

Part I.

Respondents' Demographic Profile. This part of the questionnaire is composed of

inquiries about the respondent’s demographic. The researchers created the profile method which

will assess the name, age, and gender.

Part II.

Open Questions. This part of the questionnaire gives freedom to the respondents to give

answers in their own words that will define their ideas about climate change, cropping season,

the effects of different seasons, and the effects of typhoons/heavy rains and drought on their

crops.

Part III.
 Checklist Questions. This section of the questionnaire allows the respondents the

opportunity to choose the effects of climate change on their crops.

Data Gathering Procedure

The data collection procedure begins with the making of a survey-questionnaires and is

followed by the arrangement of the instrument to correct the order of the questions and ensure

the appropriateness of the questions to the problems to be solved by the researchers.

Since we are amid a pandemic, the data was gathered from thirty (30) farmers of

Labrador, Pangasinan. Researchers used Google Forms and messenger-generated text to gather

data to ensure the safety of researchers and respondents. The researchers gave answering

instructions to get the appropriate response. The answers of each participant were compared and

a summary and conclusions were given.

Statistical Treatment of Data

Percentage and mean were only used by the researchers in this study to find out the

opinion of the respondents in the study. These are based on the questions answered by the

respondents. The data were not analyzed by highly complex statistical methods because they

were only preliminary studies.

Getting Percentage

This is done to find out the percentage of answers of the respondents to each question and

find out the number with the most answers from the respondents.
Formula:

f
P= × 100
n

Where:

P = percentage (%)

f = total number of responses

n = total number of respondents

Getting the Mean

The mean was taken to determine the average answer of the respondents to each question.

Formula:

Σx
X=
N

Where:

x = total answer to each question

N = total number of data

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF

DATA
 This chapter shows data on the experimentation and observation of the researches, and

data gathered from the questionnaire followed by an interpretation of findings. The findings are

related to the research questions that guided the study.

APPENDIX A:
 Republic of the Philippines
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Region 1
SCHOOLS DIVISION OFFICE 1 PANGASINAN
Lingayen
LABRADOR NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

LETTER OF PERMISSION TO THE PRINCIPAL

October 21, 2021

Dr. Marissa M. Mamaril
Principal IV – Office of the Principal
Labrador National High School
Ma’am:
Good day! This is to ask your favorable concern in approving our questionnaire and
allow us, the researchers to conduct a survey to determine the relevance of climate change to
their agriculture to the 30 farmers from the Municipality of Labrador as our respondents in
compliance with our Practical Research II as the research study entitled, “The Relationship of
Climate Change in Agricultural Sector in Labrador, Pangasinan". We, the researchers from
Grade 12 STEM of Labrador National High School believe that this study will enlighten the
people on what is the relationship and effects of climate change on the agricultural sector in
Labrador, Pangasinan. It can also help the community, especially the farmers to help them to
cope with climate change. Regarding this, we are humbly asking for your approval to give us a
permit to conduct the said study with the participation of farmers from Labrador, Pangasinan. We
are hoping for your consideration concerning this request.

Researchers:

Jade C. Delos Santos

Roselle R. Estrada
Checked by: Mark Jairus A. Orjalo
Von Russel A. Valencia
MA. ANGELICA B. BAUTISTA, ECE Christian Dave L. Callos
Subject Teacher Ashly Roan Palma
Angela S. Olaera
Noted:

MARISSA M. MAMARIL, EdD

Principal IV – Office of the Principal
 APPENDIX B:
Region 1
SCHOOLS DIVISION OFFICE 1 PANGASINAN
Lingayen

LABRADOR NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

LETTER TO THE RESPONDENTS

October 21, 2021

Dear Respondents,

We, the researchers of Grade 12 STEM from Labrador National High School are inviting
you to participate in a research study through conducting a survey for our Research Paper
entitled, “The Relationship of Climate Change in Agricultural Sector in Labrador,
Pangasinan".

Your participation in this research project is completely voluntary. If there is a hindrance

to your participation, please let one of us know. You may decline or leave blank any questions
you do not wish to answer.

Your knowledge, concerns, and response are sure to help us in achieving our goal.

Rest assured that all the information that we would gather from you will be treated with
the utmost confidentiality and will be used for academic purposes only. No one, other than the
researchers, will know your responses to this questionnaire and will remain anonymous.

We are hoping that this request would merit your positive response. We sincerely express
our thanks for accepting our concerns.
Researchers:

Jade C. Delos Santos

Roselle P. Estrada
Mark Jairus A. Orjalo
Von Russel A. Valencia
Ashly Roan R. Palma
 Christian Dave L. Callos
Angela S. Olaera
APPENDIX D: Curriculum Vitae

Christian Dave L. Callos

#178 Greenfields, Dulig, Labrador, Pangasinan

09519924839

calloschristiandave@gmail.com

PERSONAL PROFILE

Birthdate: May 23, 2004

Age: 17

Sex: Male

Civil Status: Single

Citizenship: Filipino

Religion: Born Again

Height: 5'5

Weight: 65 kg

Father’s Name: Papiniano C. Callos Jr.

Mother’s Name: Fatima L. Callos

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Senior High School

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

October 2020 - July 2022

Junior High School

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2016 - April 2020

Primary Education

Uyong Elementary School

Uyong, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2010 - March 2016

CHARACTER PREFERENCE

Ms. Jenny V. Castillo

Teacher II, Senior High School Adviser

Labrador National High School

I hereby certify the above information is true and correct.

CHRISTIAN DAVE L. CALLOS

Signature
Mark Jairus A. Orjalo

#296 Laois, Labrador, Pangasinan

09669603990

orjalomarkjairus@gmail.com

PERSONAL PROFILE

Birthdate: December 27, 2004

Age: 16

Sex: Male

Civil Status: Single

Citizenship: Filipino

Religion: Roman Catholic

Height: 5'6

Weight: 45 kg

Father’s Name: Ranulfo I. Orjalo

Mother’s Name: Noralyn A. Orjalo

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Senior High School

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

October 2020 - July 2022

Junior High School

St. Columban’s School Inc.

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2016 - March 2020

Primary Education

Laois Elementary School

Laois, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2010 - March 2016

CHARACTER PREFERENCE

Ms. Jenny V. Castillo

Teacher II, Senior High School Adviser

Labrador National High School

I hereby certify the above information is true and correct.

MARK JAIRUS A. ORJALO

Signature
Von Russel A. Valencia

Magtaquing, Bugallon, Pangasinan

09457535073

vonrusselvalencia@gmail.com

PERSONAL PROFILE

Birthdate: January 17, 2003

Age: 18

Sex: Male

Civil Status: Single

Citizenship: Filipino

Religion: Roman Catholic

Height: 7'5 ft.

Weight: 45 kg

Father’s Name: Michael O. Valencia

Mother’s Name: Roselia A. Valencia

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Senior High School

St. Columban’s School Inc.

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

August 2020 - May 2021

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

October 2021 - July 2022

Junior High School

Pangasinan National High School

Alvear St. Lingayen, Pangasinan

June 2016 - March 2017

St. Columban’s School Inc.

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2017 - March 2020

Primary Education

Magtaquing Elementary School

Magtaquing, Bugallon, Pangasinan

June 2010 - March 2016

CHARACTER PREFERENCE

Ms. Jenny V. Castillo

Teacher II, Senior High School Adviser

Labrador National High School

I hereby certify the above information is true and correct.

 VON RUSSEL A. VALENCIA
Signature
Jade C. Delos Santos

Dulig, Labrador, Pangasinan

09327471174

jadedelossantos241@gmail.com

PERSONAL PROFILE

Birthdate: January 31, 2004

Age: 17

Sex: Female

Civil Status: Single

Citizenship: Filipino

Religion: Roman Catholic

Height: 5'4

Weight: 49 kg

Father’s Name: Sante V. Delos Santos

Mother’s Name: Cherry C. Delos Santos

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Senior High School

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

October 2020 - July 2022

Junior High School

St. Columban’s School Inc.

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2016 - March 2020

Primary Education

West Central Elementary School

Poblacion Oeste, Dagupan, Pangasinan

June 2010 - March 2011

Ramon Magsaysay Integrated School

Magsaysay, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2011 - March 2016

CHARACTER PREFERENCE

Ms. Jenny V. Castillo

Teacher II, Senior High School Adviser

Labrador National High School

I hereby certify the above information is true and correct.

JADE C. DELOS SANTOS

Signature
Roselle E. Estrada

#371 Sitio Suanci, Bolo, Labrador, Pangasinan

09954076623

selleestrada30@gmail.com

PERSONAL PROFILE

Birthdate: January 7, 2004

Age: 17

Sex: Female

Civil Status: Single

Citizenship: Filipino

Religion: Roman Catholic

Height: 5'6

Weight: 40 kg

Father’s Name: Claudio O. Estrada

Mother’s Name: Tesie R. Estrada

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Senior High School

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

October 2020 - July 2022

Junior High School

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2016 - April 2020

Primary Education

Bolo Elementary School

Bolo, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2010 - March 2016

CHARACTER PREFERENCE

Ms. Jenny V. Castillo

Teacher II, Senior High School Adviser

Labrador National High School

I hereby certify the above information is true and correct.

ROSELLE E. ESTRADA
Signature
Angela S. Olaera

Laois, Labrador, Pangasinan

09664505585

angelaolaera07@gmail.com

PERSONAL PROFILE

Birthdate: August 4, 2003

Age: 18

Sex: Female

Civil Status: Single

Citizenship: Filipino

Religion: Roman Catholic

Height: 5'3

Weight: 45 kg

Father’s Name: Ronelo A. Olaera

Mother’s Name: Brenda S. Olaera

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Senior High School

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

October 2020 - July 2022

Junior High School

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2016 - April 2020

Primary Education

Laois Elementary School

Laois, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2010 - March 2016

CHARACTER PREFERENCE

Ms. Jenny V. Castillo

Teacher II, Senior High School Adviser

Labrador National High School

I hereby certify the above information is true and correct.

ANGELA S. OLAERA
Signature
Ashly Roan R. Palma

#070 Sitio Suanci, Bolo, Labrador, Pangasinan

09453201002

ashlyroanpalma@gmail.com

PERSONAL PROFILE

Birthdate: March 5, 2004

Age: 17

Sex: Female

Civil Status: Single

Citizenship: Filipino

Religion: Born Again

Height: 5'2

Weight: 48 kg

Father’s Name: Asterio D. Palma Jr.

Mother’s Name: Frida R. Palma

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Senior High School

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

October 2020 - July 2022

Junior High School

Labrador National High School

Poblacion, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2016 - April 2020

Primary Education

Kadampat Elementary School

Kadampat, Bolo, Labrador, Pangasinan

June 2010 - March 2016

CHARACTER PREFERENCE

Ms. Jenny V. Castillo

Teacher II, Senior High School Adviser

Labrador National High School

I hereby certify the above information is true and correct.

ASHLY ROAN R. PALMA

Signature
APPENDIX E: Documentation