Block-2 Mass Media and Development

UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT
Structure
1.O Objectives
I 1.1 Introcluction
I 1.2 The Concept of Development

1.2.1 Measurement of Development
1.2.2 Characteristicsof Developing Countries vis-a-vis Development
1.3 Theories and Paradigms of Development
! 1.3.1 Unilinear World-view of Development
1.3.2 Non-unilinear World-view of Development
I
I
r
1.4
1.5
Debelopment Experience :The Third Wotld
Development Dichotomies
I
1 Growth vs Justice
Rural vs Urban Dichotomy
1.6 Problems of Underdevelopment
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Further Reading
1.10 Check Your Progress: Model Answers
1.0 OBJECTNES
After reading this unit, you should be able to
define development,
state the complex nature and the meaning of development,
describe alternative approaches to the explanation of development,
describe the development experience of the underdeveloped countries vis-a-vis the
developed countries, and
analyse the major development problems of the Third World countries like India.
1 . INTRODUCTION
At the outset, it should be mentioned, that the concept of development is used here in a wide
sense so as to include, not merely the definition or explanation, but dso the theory, experience
and problems. We hope you will be able to have a broad underslanding of the concept of
development. To understand the interaction between the media and society, it is very essential
for you to be familiar with the various aspects and concept of development.
Therefore, this unit will introduce you to the concept of development in its simple and
commonly understood form. It will d s o discuss, in detail, the concept of development as it has
evolved over the years.
We shall discuss several theorleg of devel*ment to comprehend fully their policy implication
and the undedying direction of development visualized in these theories. We have grouped the
alternative theories or concepts of development into two world-views, viz., the "unilinear"
and "non unilinear''. "Unilinear*' means going from one point or stage to another point or
stage in one linear direction, w h e w "non-unilinear", does not follow the "unilinear"
appioach, and is generally multi-directional or moving from one stage to various stages.
Mass Medla and Development In this unit, we shall compare the development experience of the developed capitalist
countries with the contdmporary strategies and performance to highlight the historical
relevance of the development process. This comparison will help us to appreciate some of the
in-built contradictions, like growth vs. justice, rural vs, urban or organised vs. unorganised
activities, which we come across in the underdeveloped countries, in general, and in our
country, in particular.
Later, we shall follow the comparison by a discussion of the problems of development like
unemployment, inequality,poverty and illiteracy, which have been persistent. If you study
the content of the media, then, I am sure, you will see these problems are being reflected in
them. In fact, it is with these problerns of development that the media are often concerned
much more than any other aspects of development. These problems have been included with
a hope that they would provide you with adequate ability to relate them to the sources, and help
you to find possible solutions.
Activity 1
We shall be discussing some technical terms in the beginning of this unit. Full attention
is required from the students so that they will be in a position to grasp the full meaning
of these terms.
Before we go into these terms, engage yourself in an activity to find out what you mean
by these conceptdterms. You have heard the word 'development' so often. In the space
provided below, write what you understand when you hear the word 'development'.
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
!
In your villagdocality/area. what are the main issues and problems which you think
need immediate attention so that prosperitylprogress/development may take place.
Mention three such problemslissues and give reasons as to why you think they are
urgent.
........................................................................................................ .
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
1.2 THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT

Here, we shall have the occasion to see the difficulties involved in defining and measuring
development. Also we can see the changing perceptions of development as it evolved over a
pkiod of time. Since much of the writings on development are by economists, the definitions
often start with economic development. It is not that there is a general agreement on the
definition of economic development, but it will serve as a simplified starting point.
We shall define economic development as "the process of increasing the real per capita
income of a country over a long period of time accompanied by changes in its structure and
institutions. Fmexample the Indian government is inviting the foreign business companies to
invest in India. .This invitation, if accepted by several foreign companies, might create a large
number of jobs. This means that the employed people will have a steady income, probably an
increased one. I am sure you know that per capita income is calculated by dividing the yearly
total income of all the citizens of a country by the number of its population. Therefore, less
u~employmentmeans higher per capita income. Once the people have money at hand, they
I
Concept of Devcloprnent
I
will definitely satisfy their immediate requirements such as food, clothing and shelter. The real
development is not in the figure of the per capita income. It must be seen and felt -take, for
example, the opening up of the Indian economy to the outside world. If we have less
unemployment in India, it will make for more livable houses, which means lesser number of
people sleeping on the footpaths of the cities like Calcutta or Bombay; more transport facilities,
which means less crowded buses and trains; lesser beggars in the streets of metropolises; less
number of illiterates, etc. These are the signs of development - real development. "The
process involves not only changes in the economic structure, but is interlinked with the entire
social, political and cultural fabric of society." It is necessary to note that development does
not mean mere increase in the per capita income or mere industrialization, but "a process
involving a number of qualitative changes", nothing less than the "upward movement of
the entire social system." Some may interpret development as "attainment of a number of
modernization ideals, such as rise in productivity, social and economic equalization, modem
knowledge, and improved institutions and attitudes..." hoper and adequate development is
not done by dislodging people from their roots, culture or environments. Proper development
always helps people to be self-sufficient and self-reliant.
1.2.1 Measurement of Development

. , a .
Having noticed the difficulties in defining development, we can easily see the problems that
would arise in the measurement of development. As in the case of the definition, we niay
begin with the measurement of economic development. Economists have, traditionally,
measured economic development by the level of per capita Gross National Product (GNP),
which, in simple terms, means the total national income divided by the population. This
measure was adopted by the United Nations, in 1950,when it classified all countries with aper
capita income of less than $ 200 as less developed countries (LM3).This was a rough but
convenient measure for the UN to identify the less-developed countries for the purpose of
providing economic aid.
However, the limitations of the per capita GNP as a measure of development are well known.
We can mention at least four such limitations here.
8 First, it is based on national income statistics, which does not include major portions of
real income, like the contribution of work done in the household. This will seriously
undermine the value of the real per capita income of countries like India, where household
work provides substantial proportion -of. goods and services.
Mass Media and Development
Second, it is an average and does not say much about the structure of production or
distribution of the national income. For example, Kuwait's per capita income, in 1990,
was $32,680, the highest in the world, and that of the United Arab Emirates was $ 19,860.
It does not mean that these counties are developed, and that is why the UN has categorized
them as developing countries.
\
Third, progress in a narrow sector, like natural resource-exports, oil, minerals, timber
might show high per capita income as in Kuwait and the U.A.E., Trinidad and Tobaggo,
($3,610), Gabon ($3,330). But, by no stretch of imagination, can these countries be
considered ten times more developed than India with a per capita income of $350 in 1990.
Also the purchasimg power of local currency is higher than the dollar in the U.S. or other
countries. You can easily perceive that Kuwait, Brunai, the U.A.E. etc. are rich in
non-renewable resources. Once these resources are consumed, the development process in
these countries might cease. Therefore, this kind of development is hollow and temporary.
Fourth, the per capita income may increase even in the face of increasing unemployment.
For instance, today we see that the gross national income of the USA has increased. The
normal process and assumption is that with the growth of per capita income unemployment
diminishes. However, in societies which use high technologies, i.e., labour-displacing or
capital-intensive societies, the per capita income may rise with the rise of unemployment.
.For example, computerisation or the use of robots might cause a rise in the unemployment
rate.
In spite of these well-known limitations of the measurement of 'economic development' in

terms of per capita income, it is still used widely because of lack of a more satisfactory
measure. The World Bank continues to classify countries on the basis of per capita income.
In 1990, the UN classified the countries as
low income economies: those with a GNP per capita of $610 or less,
middle Income economies: $61 1-7,6 19, and
high income economies: $7,620 or more.
You should note that there has been growing criticism of this per capita income based concept.
One such criticism is that it leads to misconceptionof the tasks of development. The growing
disenchantment with a GNP per capita has resulted in a number of alternative ways of
measurement of development. One such proposition is that "development means reducing
unemployment, mitigation of inequality and eradication of poverty," According to this
'concept, a country may not be called developed, if it has poverty and high degree of Concept of Development
.unemployment and inequality.
Yet another concept of development suggests an index of physical quality of the life index
(PQLI), which emphasizes quality of life as evidenced by the state of literacy, life
expectancy, infant mortality, etc. Yet another notion of development emphasizes freedoms,
capabilities, and entitlements for better life, which could be expressed in terms of a scale,
similar to th&e considered under quality of life. One of the recent entries in the alternative
development perspective is sustainable development. It draws attention to the need to
conserve resources so that the process of development would be sustainable without
endangering the resources for the future generations." Thus, it is clear that the concept of
developnlent has advanced far ahead of the n m w confines of per capita income.
Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space below for your answers.
ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1) We have discussed various definitions of development. Please mention at least 10

areas, which could be considered the signs of development, for example, total literacy.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
2) How does one measure the "per capita income"?

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
3) Why does the UN categories countries' as "low-income", "middle-income" and

"high-income" groups?
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................-
1.2.2 Characteristics of Developing Countries vis-a-vis Development
Faced with these complexities in conceptualizing development, there are many textbooks
which try to present underdevelopment in terms of certain common characteristics of the
developing countries. These include
low levels of living,
low levels of productivity,
high rates of populatiop growth,
high and rising levels of unemployment,
underemployment, and
high dependence on agriculture and other primary production.
Mass Media and Development Development, in contrast, is associated with some of the characteristics of the developed capitalist
countries. These include, the opposite of the characteristics mentioned above, and include
high levels of living,
high levels of productivity,.
low or no populationarowth, and
the predornizunceof industrial or non-agricultural activities.
Such charactedr~tion,at best, provide a description of development, and underdevelopment,

but it does not offer any basis for explanation as to why and how countries are underdeveloped
or what are the ways in which countries can develop. These are questions, which ark the
central concern of the development theories.
Check Your Progmss 2

Note: i) Use the space below for your answer.
ii) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1) Why did this type of characterization of development come into being?

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
..A
1.3 THEORIES AND PARADIGMS OF DEVELOPMENT

In this section, we shall discuss various development theories and paradigms. Over the years
in many parts of the world, various developmental aims have been persued by groups of
people. We haxe seen, earlier in the unit, that the purpose of development is not one, neither
is it unifonn: For one nation, it may be to achieve total literacy, for some it may be drinking
water, for other it may be building of motorable roads, for still others it may be reforestation.
Depending on the aims, a certain process has been employed for development. This process
has been tried over and over again till it was refined. In other words, the process with its
various trials became a theory. The development processes emanate from some philosophy.
Therefore, a particular philosophy can have a group of developmental processes. In easy
understanding, we might call these theories as paradigms. The central task of development
theory is to explain why some countries are underdeveloped, and how these countries can
develop. Since the end of World War II, a number of countries became independent. Concept of Development
Centuries of colonial rule left them underdeveloped. Development became a top priority for
these countries. There was growing interest in understanding and explaining the process of
development and underemployment. Since then, there have been a number of theories offering
alternatives. Discussing each of these theories in isolation may not improve our
understanding. It may even confuse a beginner. However, it is possible to group these -
,heories on the basis of the vision and direction of development, i.e., the world view of
development, visualized by these theories. We can, then, subdivide them further on the basis
of certain shared analytical approaches, i.e., paradigms common to these theories. Chart I
provides an outline of the classification of the development theories.
The World Views of Development
I
dvelopment ~evdlo~ment
I
'Non-Marxist'
I
'Populist'
is Harmonious is Contentious Paradigm Paradigm
I I
OR OR
Interventionist 'Counter-Revolution'
Paradigm Paradigm
'Structuralist' 'Orthodox ~ k i s t '

Paradigm Paradigm
Chart I :Two World Views on Development
Accordingly, all the theories of development and under development are divided into two
broad groups, viz., unilinear world-view of development and non-unilinear world-view of
development. We shall discuss two types of theories in the following sub-sections.
Unilinear World View of Development

The unilinear world view of development simply means that underdevelopment is a condition
preceding development. All developed countries are late comers to the process of
development, which had already taken place in the developed West. The Western developed
countries followed some kinds of processes, and, they have achieved a kind of standard of
living. The people of these countries enjoy certain consumer items, which are not easily
available for the common men living in other parts of the world, at an affordable cost. Because
of their tremendous influence on the world bodies and international scene, the Western
countries have become models of development for the underdeveloped or developing
countries. It suggests, therefore, that development is becoming more like the West or like
the already developed countries. For becoming like the West, there are certain institutional
or economic hurdles, whose removal will initiate the development process in the
underdeveloped countries. Institutional or economic hurdles could be dictatorships,
monarchy, and a closed type of economy like that of Burma, India, and China, to some extent.
On the contrary, the "non-unilinear world-view of development" suggests that development

is not becoming like the West. Under the changed historical conditions, it may not be
possible for the less developed countries to become like the already developed countries.
These less-developed countries shall have to find an alternative path of development.
Types of Unilinear Theories

Theories falling under the unilinear world-view may be divided into two broad categories.
First, there are those theories, which consider development as harmonies and
non-contentiousprocesses. The development process benefits all rich as well as poor people,
and rich as well as poor countries. There is more harmony between different groups of people
and different countries.
The second category of theories consider development essentially as a conflicting process. These
theories refer to the rich exploiting the poor as much as the rich countries exploiting the poor.
Mass Media and Development Mainstream Paradigm
Theories under category which suggest development to be a harmonies process, lead to two
paradigms: one which advocates state intervention or active role of the Government rn an
essential requirement for development. Most of the modem theories of development that have
emerged during the post-we years come under this paradigm. This may be called as the
'Mainstream Paradigm'.
Counter-rev&&n Paradigm
The other paradigm, which emphasizes non-interventionby the state or non-involvement of

the gov~rnment,and advocates the efficiency of the market (the forces that determine demand,
supply, and the cost, pricing, and production of goods, commodities and services) in promoting
development, which favours "free market" for developments, is called as the
'counter-revolutionary"paradigm.
The StructuralistParadigm
Similarly, within the category of theories, which consider development essentially as a

contentious and conflict-ridden process, we find two paradigms. The structuralist paradigm
suggests that underdevelopment is a consequence of the internal as well as the international
structure (system of production). Internally, the less developed countries are totally dependent
on the production and export of primary products (raw materials, like oil, sugar, tea, rubber,
iron and other minerals etc.). On the international front, the developed countries (capitalist
West) produce and export "manufactured" goods. Now, the' low level of technology and
industrialization, the low elasticity of demand and adverse terms of trade (the West protecting
its manufactured goods through trade tariffs, and buying the primary products of the less
developed countries at low prices, has had to the exploitation of the less-developed countries
by the developed countries. Therefore, these theories suggest that if the less developed
countries want development, they are required to change the structure (system) of production
increasingly in favour of manufactured goods through capital based technology and
industrialization. Once the 'underdeveloped' countries do this, they too can developed like
the West.
The Orthodox Marxist Paradigm
On the other hand, the Orthodox Marxist Paradigm considers that conflict and contradictions
in the development of capitalism are inevitable, and that these can only be resolved through a
revolution, which will then usher in the next phase of development.
Types of non-unilineartheories
If we turn to the theories under the "non-unilinear world view", here too we can subgroup the
theories into two paradigms: one, the populist paradigm and the other the neo-Marxist
paradigm. Thus, we can broadly classify two "World-views of development", the unilinear
and the non-unilinear, in six paradigms, viz., the mainstream paradigm, the counter-
revolution, the Structuralist, the Orthodox Marxist, all the four belonging to a Unilinear
World View. The populist and Neo-Marxist are the two paradigms of "non-Unilinear world
View".

ii) Compare your answer with those given at the end of this unit.
1) Write down the main difference between ' 'Unilinear" and ' 'Non-Unilinear' '
theories of development.
.....................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... 1
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
1.3.1 Unilinear World-view of Development Concept of Development
We shall discuss, briefly, the important features of the theories of development under each
paradigm and their implications for the strategy of development in the Third World
countries. We shall discuss the main features of each and every pamdigm of the unilinear
world-view of development. Let us start with the mainstream paradigm.
i) Mainstream Paradigm: Of those paradigms, which project development as becoming more

like the West and developing countries as late-comers to the process, with certain initial
conditions, which should be overcome to experience transition to development, the more
familiar is what could be described as the 'Mainstream paradigm'. It includes most of the
familiar development theories like the "big-push' ' or "balanced growth" theory of Rosenstun
Rodan, the "vicious circle" theory of Ragnar Nurks, the "unbalanced growth theory of
Alber Hirsheman, the "dulasim" theory of Arthur Lewis, the "stagetheory" of W.W. Rostow
and the "neo-Malthusian" theory of Harvey Leibenstin. (For an'explanation of some of these
theories, see Glossary).
In spite of differences in the framework, point of emphasis etc., there are certain aspects, which
are common in these theories, The most important resource for development is savings or
accumulation of capital. The transition from underdevelopment to development is essentially
a process of moving from low savings ratio of about 5% of the GNP to a high savings ratio of
about 12% or more. "Development is a process of transforming an economy, which is
predominantly agriculture-based and other related primary activities, towards predominance of
industry and non-primary activities."
Therefore, these theories describe the initial conditions or barriers responsible for the low
savings, and suggest strategies to overcome those hurdles, which would put the
underdeveloped countries on the path of development like the West. The persistence of the
low savings is due to the vicious circle of poverty: low income, low savings, low investment,
low productivity, low income.
There is also the vicious circle on the demand side like the low inducement to invest because
of the low level of productivity due to low level of investment.
Once this low savings syndrome is overcome, then aid or foreign investments help in a
sustained development, either through balanced investment or investment in the unbalanced
sectors, that would set up inducements and pressures.
In the process of mobilizing savings and channeling the same for development, the
mainstream theories consider state intervention,either through the governmental planning or
state programmes, as essential. Most of the newly independent countries have embarked upon
the development strategies, which were inspired by the theories of the mainstream paradigm.
ii) Counter-revolutionParadigm: In contrast, the Counter-revolution paradigm considers the

state intervention as the cause of inefficiency and distortions in the resouxe use. According to
this paradigm, the state intervention throug? licensing and regulation leads to 'directly
unproductive profit seeking', corruption, and red tape. Minimizing the state's role, and
allowing the market to play the role in allocation of resources, would improve efficiency,
competitiveness, and rapid growth. This paradigm has gained some popularity only in the
1980s, by which time there was widespread disenchantment with the interventionist policies.
In recent years, this paradigm is at the basis of the package of liberalization that is
recommended by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
iii) The Structural paradlgrn: The origins of the structuralist paradigm could be traced to the
writings based on the Latin American experience. There are two variants of the structuralist
paradigm, one refemng to the distortions!n internal structure, and the other pointing to the
global or international structure, It is the 'international structuralism' of the Rural Prebisch
that is more familiar. According to the paradigm, the world is divided into the developed
capitalist countries forming the core of 'the Centre', and the underdeveloped countries forming
'the ~eri~hery"0ver theyears, there emerged a division of labour with the Centre producing
and exporting manufachred goods and the Periphery depending on the production and export
of the primary products. While the income elasticity of demand for high technology and high
Alass Medi:~and Development
productivity-based manufactures is high, it is low for the primary products. As a result, while
the demand for the manufactured goods increased faster, ensuring higher prices for their
exports, the demand for the primary products increased slowly, and the export prices did not
keep pace with the rise in the prices of imported manufactured goods. There was, in the
long-run, deterioration in the terms of trade of the primary exports from the less-developed
countries. All the benefits, technical progress and productivity flowed to the developed centre,
keeping the periphery in a continued state of underdevelopment.
To break this structural distortion and to initiate the development process in the periphery, it
is necessary to pursue a policy of protection to the manufacturing sector from the developed
countries. The strategy directly flowing from the structuralist paradigm is Import Substitution
Industrialization (ISI). Though it has caused sufficient problems later, the IS1 was a very
popular strategy of development, particularly in Latin America.
iv) Orthodox Marxist Paradigm: The familiar marxist concept of development is associated
with the five epochs or stages: (i) Primitive Communism, (ii) Ancient Slave State,
(iii) Feudalism, (iv) Capitalism, and (v) Socialism. Each of these epochs is marked by a
corresponding mode of production. Development, in this framework, may be viewed as one
of transitions from feudalism to capitalism.
The Orthodox Marxist theory also visualized the future of the underdeveloped countries,
entirely in terms of the developed capitalist countries. Karl Marx wrote that "the country that
is more developed, industrially, only shows to the less developed the image of its own future."
It is such an image of development that led Marx and Engels to believe that the capitalist
colonial expansion would result in the spread of development of capitalism in the countries.
Contrary to such expectations, as capitalism spread all over the world, a greater part of the
world has experienced only its disintegrating effects, without benefiting from its creative side.
Moreover, the united industrialisation of the West was possible only at the expense of the
so-called underdeveloped world, which was doomed to stagnation and regression. The
classical Marxist writings, by concentrating on the European experience, anticipated the
spread of development and not underdevelopment. They did not have much to say on the
process of underdevelopment. There appears to be not much analysis of the historical
experience .of the colonial countries in Asia and Africa. Hence the criticism that Marx's
writings were Europe-centric, denying all the history and experience of the colonial countries.

I
1) While discussing the unilinear World view of the development theories, we have
stressed that all the paradigms included had some common features. In the space
below, please write all the common features of these paradigms, and deduce that for
those features, these paradigms could be put under the cluster of Unilinear World
view of Development:
.....................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... I
.....................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................--
1.3.2 Non-Unilinear World-view of Development

So far, we have discussed how the developing countries could attain the status of the developed
countries. We have said that the process adopted by many Third World countries is unilinear
moving from one step to another logically. Now, here, we shall discuss some paradigms which
are not unilinear. Their nature is not that systematic. So, let us move ahead.
a) Populist Paradigm: The term ''popu;;-fi" is used here in the absence of any other term that
is adequate to describe this approach. Tine theories under the "Populist" approach question
either the need Qr possibility of the less-developed counties developing on the lines of the Concept of Development
already developed capitalist countries. The Gandhian thinking on the appropriate development
for countries like India, and some contributions from some one like E.F. Schumacher, who
wrote Small is Beautiful, may be considered as part of the "populist" paradigm.
Gandhi thought that the Western type of development had nothing to commend to societies like
India. His contention was that the Western industrialization had brought along with it
immoralitjl, crime, and cultural degeneration. "Development in a country like India should
make the village as the centre, and provide employment and livelihood through a network of
cottage and village industries. 'Gram Swaraj' or 'village united development' would not
only ensure against the evils of industrialization and urbanization, but also absorb millions of
people without uprooting them from their appropriate village industries.
The contribution of Schumacher is also inspired by the Gandhian thinking. It is well-known

through his book, Small is Beautiful. The two severe problems of the less developed
countries, according to him, were mass unemployment and mass migration to the urban areas.
Much of the Western type of industrialization initiated in the less developed countries helped
only a fraction of the population living in the urban areas, while the mass of population living
in rural areas were bypassed. Thus, in the less developed countries, there emerged what is
known as "dual economics" of urban and rural areas, each within different patterns of living,
widely separated from each other, living as two different worlds. That the rural masses would
be absorbed by the Western type of industrialization is utterly unrealistic. What is needed is
creation of appropriate technology that would promote employment opportunities through a
network of small production units, a primary condition for such a development involves
education, organization, and development.
Populist paradigm is discussed as an alternativk strategy by not housed by any less-developed

country. This is partly because of the dominanca of the mainstream paradigm in the initial
stages of independence, and the creation of an impression among the people that development
means becoming like the West. After raising such false hopes, any attempt to adopt a
Gandhian or "populist" alternative strategy, it is feared, would hot be liked by the people,
Most of the less developed countries hold on to the "mainstream" paradigm, its failures
notwithstanding.
b) Neo-Marxist Paradigm: A serious challenge to the unilinear world-view of development

did not arise until the emergence of the neo-Marxist paradigm. There are quite a few
economists who can be called neo-Marxist, but here, we are concerned with the writings of
Paul Baran, A.G. Frank, and the related6'dependencytheory". An attempt is made here to
capture the neo-Marxist paradigm, as far as possible, in terms of the original writings. The
essence of the paradigm lies in the fact that, at present, the less developed countries cannot
develop like the West. It stresses the interconnectedness of development and
underdevelopment, of traditional and modem, and indeed many other social, political and
economic factors. It seems many conflicts and clashes of interest in the development process
occur, both between nations and between sucial classes within the underdeveloped countries.
It emphasizes the historical factors, especially, the active process of how underdevelopment
has come into being in the various Third World countries.
Paul Baran declared that underdevelopment of most of the world was a direct result of the
dynamics of monopoly capitalism, which had Mocked the primary accumulation of capital in
the underdeveloped regions, and smothered their novice industries. He sums up his thesis as
follows: 'thus the people, who came into the orbit of Western capitalist expansion, found
themselves, in the light of feudalism and capitalism, enduring the worst features of both
worlds. Their exploitation was multiplied, yet its fruits were not to increase their productive
wealth; they wen! abroad or served to suppbrt a parasitic bourgeoisie at home. They lived in
abysmal misery, yet they had no prospect of a better tomonow. They existed under capitalism,
yet there was no accumulation of capital. They lost their time-honoured means of livelihood,
their arts and crafts, yet there was no modern industry to provide new ones in their place. They
were thrusted into extensive contact with the advanced science of the West, yet remained in a
state of the darkest backwardness."
Referring to India as acase in point, Baran observes, "India, if left to herself, might have found
in the course of time a shorter and surely less tortuous mid towards a bettecand rich& society.
It would have been, however, an entirely different India (and an entirely different world), had
'la" A!''dir mndsDeve'OPment
she been allowed as some more fortunate countries were, to realize her destiny in her own way,
to employ her resources for her own benefit, and to harness her energies and abilities for the
advancement of her own people."
The most forceful presentation of the neo-Marxist thesis is found in Andre Gunder Frank:
"Under development is not just the lack of development. Before there was development, there
was no underdevelopment. This relation between development and underdevelopment is not
just a comparative one, in the sense that some places are more developed) and yet there is
underdevelopment".
A.G. Frank contents that underdevelopment as we know it today, and economic development
as well, are the simultaneous and related products of development on a world wide scale, and
over a history of more than four centuries, at least, of a single integrated economic system:
Capitalism. Though integrated in the sense that its far-flung parts are interrelated, and in the
sense that it internally generates its own transformation, the capitalist system is also wrought
by contradiction. One part exploits another, though it also diffuses back some of the fruits of
the economic and cultural development based on that exploitation.

1) What is the main point of view of the 'populist paradigm'?

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
2) Do you agree with what Paul Baran has said about the course of development
taken by India? Why?
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
1.4 DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE: THE

THIRD WORLD
Aftex the Second world war, many colonies got independence, and started re-building their
nations. The leaders of these newly independent countries were desperate to bring their
nations out of the vicious circle of poverty, uneducation, disease, hunger, etc. Thus,
'development' became a key word in most of their speeches. And the meaning of development
were as varied as the countries. We shall discuss the experience of these countries, known as
the Third World countries, in the field of development. About three quarters of all humanity,
numbering three and a half billion people, living in the developing countries in Asia, Africa
and Latin America, spanning two thirds of the earth's land surface, constitute the Third
World. A Third World because it belongs neither to the group of industrialized capitalist
countries nor the socialist countries, wherever such countries still exit. These Third World
countries vary greatly in si&, natural resource endowments, in the structure of their economics,
in the level of economic, social, and technological development. The 'diversities are fairly
marked, making even the Third World less homogeneous. But the unifying aspect is that, in
- these countries, the need to overcome poverty and secure a-better life for their people is
primary. Yet, it is ironic, by the end of the 1980s,it could be seen that the achievements of the
%id World during the post~worldWar II decades had not fundamentally changed the status
of these countries in relation to the world economic system. "They remained pmr,
subordinate, and powerless. In general, their national self-reliance had not increased, in some
- -- - -
- - - --
countries dependence intensified as they tried to modernize". Poverty persisted and the Concept of Development
income gap between the developed countries and Third World widened.
The growth in the Third World rarely removed the structural inequalities and cleavages. On
the contrary, the income gap between the rich and poor became wider. As a result, the
economic growth brought along with it the problem of growing disparities, tendencies towards
disintegration and instability. The social and economic status of women leave much to be
desired. And there was growing dependence of these countries on the developed ones. In spite
of the fact that any of the developing countries are dependent on international trade, their share
of the world trade has dropped from over 30 per cent in the 1950s to about 15 per cent by the
end of 1980s. A considerable part of the declining share has been due to thedeteriorating terms
of trade. These countries are becoming increasingly dependent on aid and borrowings from
abroad, resulting in a growing foreign debt. There has been an increase in the participation of
the multinational corporations in these countries, and their influence on economic policies has
been growing. The Third World accounts for hardly two pet cent of investment on research
and development, thus leaving these countries technologically dependent. Most often the
imported technologies are inappropriate, leaving little scope for expansion of much needed
employment opportunities.
Faced with the growing international inequalities in economic power and influence in the
existing world economic order, the Third World countries lobbied for a better deal, which
resulted in the U.N. Resolution popularly referred to as the New International Economic Order
(NIEO), which sought a programme of action towards an equitable world. Some of the
important aspects of NlEO were
renegotiating the debts of the developing countries;
redefiningthe terms of trade, and assurittg greater access to the developed country markets;
reforming the IMF and its decision making process; and
attaining the UN official development assistance targets.
Except for some attempts to negotiate debt repayment in a few cases and some discussion in
UNCTAD 6n access to trade, not much progress has been made. In fact, the tendency has been
towards disparitiesbetween the rich and poor countries by subordinating their interests to those
of the fonner.

Note: i) Use the space belowSor your answers.
I) Why did the New International Economic Order WEO) Eome into being?
2) What were the demands of the NIEO?

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
3) Why did not the NIEO succeed?

1.5 DEVELOPMENT DICHOTOMIES
By now it should be possible to see that economic development deals with objectives, which
may result in conflicting consequences. Here, we shall consider some of these conflicting
aspects, which am called devdcpment dichotomies. Here we shall consider only a few of
such dichotomies like Gfuwth vs. Justice and Rural vs. Urban.
a) Gmwtb va &#ice: We have seen earlier that the mainstream development paradigm as
well as the mu--revolution paradigm suggested that ecohomic growth should be given
priority, even though it would result in growing disparjtim in income distribution.
Traditionally, it is believed that unequal distribution of income is a necessary condition for
rapid growth. It is argued that growing inequalities in income distribution, by making the rich
richer. would providq for more savings, and, &erefore, higher growth. If growth is
accompanied by more equitable or just distribution, the poor also get more income, but may
not have much left for showlag, and the consequent low savings will result in slow growth.
Thus, the traditional theory implied a dichotomy between growth and justice, we have a very
rich, elite class in India. Did their way of spending make a difference in the economy?
Now, many development economists believe that just or quitable distribution of income
would actually promop better growth for the following reasons:
First, the rich in the developing countries appear to be spending much on unproductive
activities, imported commodities, and in any case do not seem to save a higher proportion
of income than the poor.
Second, perpetuation of low levels of income through unequal distribution may affect, not
only their purchasing power, but also their health and productivity. both of which affect the
growth.
Third, raising the income of the poor would increase the demand of indigenous production
iind, therefore, higher growth.
Thus. it is argued thak just distribution does not conflict with growth and, indeed, growth with
justlee is possible and desirable.
b) Rural vs. Urban Dichotomy: This is another dichotomy. There is a widespread feeling
that the theories of the unilinear world view would suggest strategies of econo~nic
development, which would only result in urban bias. I am sure, we in India have experienced
and are experiencihg this phenomenon. Our metropolices and cities are over-pop,ululatecl.
Unprecedented migration from the rural to the urban areas is taking place. This urban bias
would lead to growlng neglect of the majority who live in rural areas as well as unmanageable
rural to uhan migration affecting the quality of life in the urban areas. Alternative strategy
based on the theory' that development is not becoming like the West, but one of strengthening
the investments in the rural sector. Though there are no examples of Gandhian or populist
strategy being implemented, the Chinese experience with the Maoist model. a variant of the
neo-Marxist paradigm, gives ample evidence of a health development of the rural areas at the
same pace as the urban sectors.
Activity 2
Name 5 P programmes telecast by Doordarshan and 5 radio programmes broadcast by

All India Radio, which. according to you, contribute to development:
TY Programme Radio Programme

1)............................................................
......................................................................
I
2) .............................................................................................................. .:...................
3) .............................................................................
.;...................................................
4) ..................;:...............................................................................................................
5) ..........,......................................................................................................................
*--
1.6 PROBLEMS OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT Concept d Development
We may be aware that some countries after decades of trial have increased their per capita
income. But notwithstanding the changes that took place in the form of increase in the GDP
per capita, the basic problems of underdevelopment continue to plague most of the less
developed countries including India. These are
Poverty
Unemployment
Inequality, and
Illiteracy
If we do not take appropriate action, India will have almost 600 million illiterate people by the
turn of the century.
i) Poverty: It may be defined as the inablllty to attain a minimal standard of living. The
minimal standard of living may be expressed in terms of the expenditure necessary to buy a
minimum standard of nutrition and other basic necessities. Such a measure may suffice'as a
poverty line for a country. The Wodd Development Report, 1990, estimated "that more
than one billion in the developing world are living in poverty. Nearly half of the world's poor
live in South Asia, and nearly half of them, i.e., about 250 million live in India". In other
words, India accounts for about 25 per cent of the poor in the Third World. The poor in these
countries are concentrated in the rural areas. A substantial proportion of them live in areas of
acute environmental degradation. Much of the deprivation is due to poverty suffered by
women and children. In poor households. wsqlett shoulder more workload than men, are less
educated, and have less access to remunerative activities. Children, particularly girls, suffer
disproportionately. Their future quality of life is compromised by inadequate nutrition,
health-care, and education. Low life expectancy and educational attainment are common
among the poorest househalds.
ii) Inequality: It refers to disparities in the living standards. Often, it is altributed to unequal
distribution of income. Though the majority of people in lessdeveloped countries continue to
live in the rural areas, there has been growing disparity between the rural and urban incomes,
leaving the rural incomes much behind. It is a burning issue in.our country. There have also
been growing dispaprities in the interpersonal income distribution. In other words, the share
of the rich is increasing faster, while that of the poor has not been increasing or, if at all, at a
very slow rate. Thus, the gap between the rich and the poor is widening. The income
disparities in the lessdeveloped countries are wider than in the developed countries. For
instance, the ratio of the incomes of a factory worker and a professional worker is of the order
of 1 to 2 or 3 in the West, but 1 to 15 or 20 in Asia and the other LDC areas. Sharper social
stratification in the LDCs hinders mobility from the lower to higher levels. Inequality,
therefore, is a persisting hindrance to development.
iii) Unemployment: It is one of the most striking problems of the less developed countries.
We do experience it in each and every family. It is not only open unemployment, but also
underutilization of all those employed resulting in underemployment that plague these
countries, An additional problem is the low productivity of tho* employed. In many poor
countries, open unemployment, especially in the urban areas, affects 10 to 20 per cent of their
labour force. The incidence of unemployment is much higher among the young and
increasingly more educated in the 15-24 age group. Even more fractions of both the urban and
rural labour force are underemployed. One of the major causes for persistence of poverty is
the widespread unemployment and underemploymeat, the solution to which holds the key to
the problem of underdevelopment. The unemployment issue occupies a centnsl place in the
study of underdevelopment.
iv) Literacy: It is one of the scourges that perpetuates low productivity and prevents
to the higher levels of living of the masses in the Third World. Eduation is mt only a lever to
impr0~ethe ptoducdvity, but also a bwic need. Progress in education in to be sought mainly
as m end in itself. In addition, there is growing evidence that schmljng contributes
substantially to the over all development. It is shown that one year increase in schooling can
increase wages by more than 10 per cent. An additional y a of schooling has in Some
Mass Media and Development countries, raised farm output by 2 to 5 per cent. Schooling of women has brought down
substantially the infant mortality and fertility while raising life expectancy.
Though there has been substantial increase in the public expenditure on education, school
enrolments in some of the Third World countries remain very low. It is more so among the
poor, in the rural areas, and miich more among the girls. Even among those who enroll, about
40 per cent drop out be- the fourth year. By 1991, there were more than 1 billion adults,
who were still illirc~dteIn the developing world.
Check Yo* Wtgress 7

1) How does the nea-Marxist paradigm of development differs from the Orthodox ,
Marxist paradigm?
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
2) Name two dichotomies of development. To what extent are these real?

..................................................................................................................................... I
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
3) How does illiteracy affect a country like India?

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
1.7 LET US SUM UP

Now let us recapitulate by way of summarizing the important aspects of development
discussed in this unit. To begin with, we have started with the definition of the concept of
development. Thobgh there are difficulties of precise definition, we have tried to understand
development as a process or increase in the standard of living accompanied by structural and
institutional chaqes embracing social, political as well as economic factors. Then we tried
to look for a measure of development. One of the widely used measures of development is the
per capita GNP. It is an average, focusing on end product, which suffers from a number of
deficiencies. The growing disaffection with the per capita GNP, gave rise to alternative
measures like the physical quality of life index (PQLI) and capabilities and entitlements.
Some are even contended with the description of the characteristics.
We have concluded that development is a complex process, which may not be amenable for
easy measurement. Therefore, we have to be content with whatever working measures have
been devised with a continued search for better explanation and measurement.
We have had discussions on the altenatlve paradigms of development, which explain the
process of development or underdevelopment. For convenience, we have grouped all these
paradigms into two world views, viz., unflinear and non-unilinear. We found that four
paradigms viz., the mainstream,the counter-revolution,the structuralist,and the orthodox
Marxist, broadly treating development as becoming more like the West, come under the
unilinear world-view. The other two, the neo-Marxistand the populist paradigms, belong Concept of Development I
to the non unilinear world view of development. We have seen the differences of these two in
the world-views. This background is to help us understand the development experience of the
developed and the less-developed countries.
We could see that the development experience of the ThM World during the postSecond
World War years has not been satisfactory. Then, we have seen some of the distortions of the
experience of development, surfacing as certain dichotomies of development. Related to this
is what we have descfibed as development problems like poverty, inequality, unemployment
and illiteracy, which have been persistent in most of the less developed countries. The
impression gained was that the less developed countries have much to do before overcoming
these problems.
1.8 GLOSSARY
Aid
Concessional lending by the developed countries or multilateral agencies like the World Bank
to the less developed countries.
Balanced Growth Theory
A theory which shows that for sustained growth the investment should be spread in a balanced
manner over a number of sectom,the demand for the products of which is interlinked.
Big Push Theory
It is similar to the balanced growth theory, emphasizing a massive initial investment to

overcome certain indivisibilities in industry and infrastructure,in sustaining development.
Capabiiities
The ability of a person to contribute to the national income. It depends upon the level of
nutrition, education, health-care, etc., one can command.
Counter-revolutionParadigm
One that is opposed to the state-intervention, and favours a free market for development.
Dependency
Conditioning of the less-developed countries by the developed countries. It may take trade,
technology or financial form of dependence. This results in the LDCs relying on the policies
of the developed countries designed in their own interest.
Dualism
Coexistence of small modem capitalist forms of production for profit along with a vast
traditional subsistence sector.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
The value of the annual output of goods and service produced within a country.
GDP per Capita

The average gross domestic product per person, i.e., the GDP divided by the population.
Inequality
A distribution of national income in a manner where the share going to the rich persons in a
country is far greater than that going to the poor. Similar inequality could be seen in the asset
A i c t r i k ~ t i n nac well
Maw Medls and Development Infant Mortality
The deaths among the children between birth and one year of age. Infant mortality rate
measures the number of these deaths per 1000 live births.
Life Expeetaney
Average expected years of living of a citizen for a country.
Paradigm
A constellation or collection of thwnes, beliefs, values, techniques, etc., commonly shared by

an approach or explanation.
Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)
An alternative measures of development to the GNP per capita. PQLI emphasizes a vector of
indicators of better quality of life like high literacy, low infant mortality and high life
expectancy.
Poverty
There are two concepts."relative poverty" and "absolute poverty." We are concerned with
absolute poverty, which is measured in terms of the proposition of people who are not able to
mekt the minimum subsistence of food, clothing and shelter.
Poverty Wne
It is estimated on the basis of consumption expenditure that is necessary to meet the minimum
national consumption. Expenditures below this line are classified as the proportion below the
poverty line.
Savings Ratio
Savings as a ratio to the national income, the size of the market, and the extent of demand.
Stage Theories
Thwries which explain development as taking place in stages. W.W. Rostow's theory is a
popular example.
SustainableDevelopment
Increase in output without growth in the 'throughput' that will disturb the environmental
canying capacity. 'Throughput' refers to the using up of resources, particularly those which
cannot be renewed.
1.9 FURTHER READING

Hunt Diana. Economic Theories of Development: An Analysis of the Competing Paradigm,
Harvester Whitesheaf: New York, 1989.
T+ Michael P. Economic Development in the Third World (wnd. Ed. ~ o n g m bNe'
: U: York,
198L)
Sen, AX. Handbook of Development Economics, Edited by H. Chenery and T.N.Srinivaran,
Vol. I, Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1988.)
Wilber, C.K. Political Economy of Development and Underdevelopment. (ed). Random
House, New York, 1973.
,
1.10 CNECK YOUR PROGRESS: MODEL ANSWERS
1) Shelter for every citizen
Clothes for each citizen
Adequate health care facility
Low rate of infant mortality ,
High rate of women's literacy
Adequate supply of drinking water for all citizens
Very low level if unemployment
Motorable roads
Uniform distribution of the media
Proper use of the mass media for education, information and entertainment of
the people.
2) The per capita income is measured by dividing the total income of a country with
the number of the population of that country.
3) The categorizationhelps the United Nations to distribute aid adequately among the
needy nations.

1) The type of problems currently faced by the develctping countries were once (at
least, similar problems) by the developed nation of the present time. After the
Second World War, these developed countries wene mostly dominating all the
international fora, especially the United Nations. 'Iherefore, many of their ideas,
values, and customs were fiitered into the world system. Thus, this type of; I
characterizationof development came into being.
The main difference between the unilinear and non-unilinear world-view of

development is that the unilinear view says that development means becoming like the
West. After taking some measures, the developing or underdeveloped countries will
become developed nations like the UK, France, the USA; Canada, and the like. But non
unilinear view says that becoming like the West will mean disaster. The earth cannot
sustain such development worldwide, and alternative paths have to be found out by the
developing countries.
I. We have discussed four sets of unilinear paradigms, namely (a) mainstream,

(b) counter-revolution. (c) structural, and (d) orthodox Marxist. All these paradigms say
that:
i) development wits becoming like the West:
ii) there were steps, which were to be crossed or overcolnp to attain development;
iii) these steps were set; one could not bypass any step; any
iv) all the steps were logical and inevitable.
For these reasons, the paradigms could be put together under the heading, unilinear
paradigms.

1) The populist paradigm questions the wisdom of copying the West as far as the goal
and path of development is concerned. The populist paradigm advocates an
indigenous goal of development with a suggestion to harness local resources,
technologies, and wisdom to achieve the developmental goal.
Mass Medla and Development
2) Yes, I agree with Paul Baran. The nature, culture and resources of India are
different from that of the West. Therefore, what has evolved naturally in the West
over centuries could not be applicable in India. Transplantation might not work,
because it would not be able to draw nourishment from the Indian culture. Hence,
what has evolved in India over the centuries, should be cared and nurtured. India
must have its own parameters and process of development.

1) The Third World countries could not come out from the vicious cycle of poverty,
uneducation, diseases, etc. They could create capital and progress economically,
because the developed nations were dictating terms and condition in the
international trade arena. The Third World countries, realizing this situation,
kked for a better deal in the trade and commerce, and the movement was coined
as New International Economic Order (NIEO).
2) The Third World countries through the NIEO demanded that
the debts should be renegotiated, and the Third World countries
should get better concession;
the Third World countries should have more access to the markets of the deve-
loped countries;
the decision-making process must be democratised; and
the assistance of the UN should be made available to the needy countries.
3) The NlEO meant a lot of concession to be given to the Third World countries. It
also meant a lot of power and wealth to be given up by the developed countries.
And surely, the developed countries, with all their business and financial
institutions would not like to share power and wealth with the Third World.
Hence, it can be said that the NIEO could not succeed till now.
Check Your Progress7

1) The orthodox Marxist paradigm suggests that there are five stages through which
a country must pass to attain development. These stages or steps are inevitable,
and cannot be leapfrogged or bypassed. The movement for development
progresses along a undirectional path. The neo-Marxist protagonists, take the
basic philosophy of Marx as far as owning the mode of production is concerned,
but differ widely regarding the path of development. They say that the history of
the process of underdevelopment should be studied thomughly as it is connected,
with complex political, economical, and social factors.
2) The two dichotomies are:
Growth vs Justice
Rural vs Urban
These are real, India is the sixth largest economy in the world. But the majority of the
population of this country are living below the poverty line. A lot of villages are without
any drinking water, disease, hunger and illiteracy are rampant in this country.
Similarly, because of unemployme~~t and poverty, there is mass migration of people from
the rural to urban areas creating a havoc in our cities and towns. We can cite many more
examples to substantiate these dichotomies.
3) Studies have shown that with the spread of literacy the productivity of a country
increases. This is we in the case of Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan etc.
India, having such a huge number of illiterates,cannot progress because of various
problems emanating from it -ignorance, unwanted population growth, ill-health,
'low productivity, superstitions, etc. These are all problems affecting the country's
growth.
UNIT 2 DEVELOPMENT.
COMMUNICATION
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concept and Definitions
2.3 Philosophy of Development Communication
2.4 Role of the Media in Development Communication
2.5 Communication Needs and Resources
2.6 Strategies in Development Communication
2.7 Case Studies and Experience
2.7.1 Scavenger Development Programme of Indonesia: Case Study-I
2.7.2 Site Project: Case Study-II
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Further Reading
2.10 Check Your Progress: Modei Answers
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

\
state what the Development Communication is;

explain the meaning, concept, elements and pt.ilosophy of ~ e v e l o ~ m ei~ommunication;
nt
state the role of the Media in Development;
describe the important approaches to the Development Communication;
m explain the importance of identifying cornrnunicr\tionneeds and resource, and
explain how communication strategies are formulated for devdopment.
In unit-1 of this block, we described to you the various concepts of development, and
distinguished the alternative approaches to the process of development. We also appraised you
about the development experience of the Third World Countries, including India. In this unit,
we shall relate these concepts of development to the process of communication.
In the present unit, we shall discuss the qualities of 'development communication'. We shall
also see how these qualities are being applied in various developmental projects. We shall
evaluate the results and identify the weaknesses of development projects.
And hopefully, once you are well acquainted with the working of communication in the area
of development, you yourself will be able to implement some of the positive aspects of
development communication in your projects, work, etc.
I
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication is an important input in developmdt. Communication experts, sociologists,
psychologists and economists agree that the proper use of communication can foster the pace
and process of d e v e l o p m .
In general terms, communication means interaction between two individuals or within a group
or a community or a nation. In this type of communication, the four principle elements are a
communication source, a message, a channel or medium and a receiver or audience. We have
discussed these elements in detail in the first block of Course-I: Introduction to Journalism and
Mass Medla and Development Mass Communication. We described the flow of communication in these' units. But in
development communication it becomes the process of affecting or influencing behaviour of
individuals or groups towards certain desired goals and objectives, necessarily for the benefit
of the entire society. Thus, the receiver is expected to show the behaviour desired by the
source of communication.
Development communication is a relatively younger field of study within the discipline of

communication. Like the science of communication,development communication has come
to stay. However, we should always remember that development communication is only one
of the elements or inputs for speedy progress and development.
Development communication is mainly concerned with the role of information and

communication in social and economic development of an individual, society and nation. It
identifies what mass media can do directly ot indirectly to improve the quality of life to both
urban and ma1 masses.
Activity 1
You must be aware of vatjods yivertisements 'broadcast through the All,In,dia Radio '
(AIR)and telecast by the Doordarshao. In your left hand side column, list all ten
advertisements. In the second column, wtite in short phrases the message of each of
them, in the third column identify the target audienceJgroupfor each advertisement, and
in the fourth column give your opinion as to whether or not they would bring any.
development, if practicod/utilised/adopted.
For example:
Rin soap Cleans clothes Housewives Yes will help
better people to be clean
(1) (2) (3) (4)
..................................................................................................................I
............................. ....................................................................................
/
i
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
............................. .....................................................................................
........................................................ .........................................................
L
Development Communication
2.2 CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS
Let us begin with the definitions and concepts of development communication. We should not
discuss the development, because various facets of development have already been discussed
in Unit 1 of this block. We can only add here that development has moved from Ecoaomk
Approaches to Sociological Approaches, where all round improvement of human beings is
emphasized.
What do we understand by the term "development communication"? According to Nora

Quebral(1975), "development communication is the art and science of human communication
applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a
dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and the larger
fulfillment of the human potential."
Let us discuss the various concepts which Nora Quebral has used in this famous definition of
hers. She said that development communication was the 'art and science'. Generally, we
presume that 'art' and 'science' do not go together. But, as far as this definition is concerned,
they can be together. Development communication is 'art', btcause one has to create his
strategy, and programme to communicate to his target audience. To communicate his message
he will create probab1y.a song, a drama, a talk, a poster, a film or a skit. Nora calls
development communication ' a science', because it follows a process, a system. If one gives
X inputs, Y will be the output. In some cases, one may predict the output with a given input
with other conditions remaining the same. Therefore, when she says that it is the art and
science of human communication, we have to comprehend it from these perspectives.
Development communication is an art and at the same time a science. It works with the human
hearts (because it is an art) and brain (becp:e 3 :s a science) to yield a result which can be
measured in tenns of economical growth. For e x w e , advantages of adopting a high yielding
variety of seed may be propogated through a radio skit. This skit, when understood by the
farmers, motivates them to use the seeds for their own fields. And they may have increased
harvests which will definitely provide them with a higher income.
Rogers (1983) says, "development communication refers to the uses to which communication
is put in order to further development. Such applications are intended to either further
development in a general way, such as by increasing the level of the mass media exposure
among a nation's citizens, in order to create a favourable 'climate' for development, or to
support a specific development programme or project (this type of development
communication is often termed as 'developmeht-support communication' DSC".
Mass Media and ~ e v e ~ i ~ t n e n t Everett M. Rogers, a famous communication scholar, in the above mentioned definitian says
the application of communication for the developmen't will creak an environment or climate.
This climate or environment may be of two types: (a) physical climate and (b) psychological
climate. When knowledge about something is propagated or disseminated among a large
number of people, the users find many relevant things around them, say a special kind of
fertilizer. The radio prograqxiics could be heard, the TV programmes could be seen or posters
could be s e m on the vaFi on that particular fertilizer. This may be cgled physical climate.
,
Now, the disse- message about the feklizcr works on the psyche of the people. The
information tqpM through the various communication media create a favourable attitude
towards the new fertilizer. In the long run, they might use or adopt it, if possible. But,
definitely, resistance from the people in general will be the minimum.
Thus, with these two types of climates, the use of the new fertilizer might be multiplied at a
fast pacespeed. Thus, economic development, as far as earning from of the agricultural
products is concerned, could be quite encouraging.
F. Rosario Braid is of the opinion that development communication is "an element of the
management process in the overall planning and implementation of development programs".
Development communication is, in a broad sense, "the identification and utilization of
appropriate expertise in the developmentprocess that will assist in increasing participating of
intended beneficiaries at the grassroots level." Thus, hvelopment communication is
communication wit. a social conscience.
Rosario Braid emphasizes that development communication is nothing but an element in the
process of a project. Generally, it is the decision of the management to utilise communication
to disseminate information about their project, if and when tiiey feel it appropriate. Suppose a
contraoeptive company would like to market a new contraceptive for the males. The
management might like to usc the radio spots, television spots, hoardings, posters, etc. to
inform the target audience about the usefulness and availability of the new contraceptive. It is
really an important segment in the whole scheme of management at the present time.
A good and.useful management strategy would always identify the important elements and
make the users conscious about them.
Development communication has two primary roles:
a) A tradorming role, as it seeks social change in the direction of the higher quality of
IUe. The higher quality of life can be achieved in various ways. Might be by adopting all the
- required vaccines for the infants of each family of the society, Some countries might adopt
techniques of producing enough food for the citizen. Some countries might systematically and
scientifically break all the myths surrounding various religious and social customs. And
communication could be a marvelous instrument to achieve these objectives.
b) A socializing role, by seeking to maintain some of the established values of the society.
In playing these roles, development communication seeks to create an atmosphere for change
as well as providing innovation through which society may change. Each and every society
has some traditional values. These values give the people of each society an identity and a
sense of belonging. The aspiratiofis of a society sometimes are embeded in these values. Now,
the values, customs and beliefs of other societies might make inroads into other societies. If,
the people are n6t careful, they might be taken off their ground by the new incoming sets of
values. communication can play a very vital role by making the people aware about this pitfall.
It can also help immensely by drawing the attention of the members of a society to the richness
of their own valued, customs, beliefs and, above all, aspirations.
b I
, ( Check Your Progre88 1 I

( Note: i) Use the space below f ~your
r answers.
II
I ii) Cornp& your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1) "What do you mean by 'development communication'? Answer in thiee sentences.
........................$............................................................................................................
. .
DevelopmentCommenlcation
-7
2) You have came across three definitions of 'development cominunication' given by
three eminent scholars. Please write down the concepts used in their definitions in
the right-hand colutnn. The.corresponding names ,of the authors are given on the
left hand column.
A. Nora C. Quebral Concepts of develo@mentcoqmunication
B. Everett M. Rogers ....................r ... .:.............................................

..
,
..........................
I
...............................................
2.3 PHILOSOPHY OF DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNICATION
In many ways the philosophy of development communication is different from what we
normally understand by communication. Development communication is: .
purposive
positive
pragmatic
Let US elaborate each of the aspects of development communication: .

Development Communicationis Purposive:You should note here that other communication
scholars hold that communication is and should be 'ethically' non-purposive. A
non-purposive message is one, which is transmitted to a receiver directly or by means of a
channel (e.g., mass media) without any intention to influence the receiver. But, in
development communication, one looks for specific behavioral objectives, such as getting
farmers to go in for a specific variety of seed, pesticide, etc.
Development Communication is Positive:In development communication,positive value is

attached to what one communicateH about. Take the example of the high yielding variety of
seed. Once adopted, the farmers can increase their harvest manifold. This means more income
wGch can be utilised to buy land, cattle or equipments. This is what we mean by positive value
attached to development communication.
Development Communication b Pragmatic: In this context, we might define pragmatic as

practical and purposeful. In development commudcation, the purpose of communication is
important. Let .us assume that we want the farmers to plant a particular rice variety or the .
so-called miracle rice. The judgement or evaluation of communication does not rest on the
mere invention of communication activities performed, such as the number .of the press
releases issued or the number of farm visits made. Findings have showed that mere increase
in thc.flow of information does not necessarily result in those behavioral changes, which are
desired to be achieved.
So, the development communicator is more concernedkith ''What do I want to communicate?

With what objectives?', and "Did I get the intended results?" If so, how well did I
' communjcate?" Language, treatment style, and grammar take the back Fat to clarify the
message and its effectiveness in producing the desired outcome.
Activity 2
Take today's newspaper that you subscribe to or take any newspaper that you can lay
your hands on.
List all the advertisements, and find out whether they are positive or not.
Advertisement Message Positive
...................................................................................... [ I Yes [ I No
...................................................................................... 1 Yes [ I No
....................................................................................... I Yes [ I No
...................................................................................... [ I Yes [ I No
...................................................................................... r ] Y e s [ I N 0
....................................................................................... [ I Yes [ I No
...................................................................................... [ I Yes [ 1 No
...................................................................................... [ ] Y e s [ ] N o
...................................................................................... [ I Yes [ I No
I
...................................................................................... [ ] Y e s [ ] N o !

Nde: i) Use the space below for your answer.
ii) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit
1) You have just read that development communication is purposive, positive and
pragmatic. Using the space,given below, please explain in your own words what
do you mean ,by each of them?
Purposive .........................:...........................................................................................
.................................................................................................................. i
Positive........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
Pragmatic.....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
iii) Teach those ideas, skills and atfitudes that people need to achieve for a better life.
iv) Create and maintain a base of consensus that is needed for the stability of the state.
You must be knowing the meaning of 'empathy'. Daniel Lerner used this term with a
particular emphasis on the aspirations for a new identity. Suppose, you have a goal of building
a decent house so that you can live with the minimum hassels. You dream about it, you aspire
for it. We can say that you empathize with it. Here, Lerner said that people of any given
society must think and aspire for a better life. If they do so, then they are emphathetic about a
better life.
To perform these roles, the media keeps the development orientation in its perspective. Three
approaches have been identified in relating communication to development. These are
empathy, diffusion, and multiplying of information. We shall discuss each separately,
individually.
1 ) Empathy: Daniel Lerner (1958) in his book, Passing d Traditional Society, saw the
problem of 'modernizing' traditional societies. He saw the spread of literacy resulting from
urbanization as a necessary precondition to more complete modernization that would include
participatory political institutions. Development was largely a matter of increasing
productivity. And to increase this productivity one must aspire, and it must begin in thepsyche
of the people. Hence, it is basically "psychological".
Urbanization literacy ---+ economic and political participation 4
the mass media exposure
According to D. Lerner, development failed to because peasants were unable to

'empathise' or imaginatively identify with the new role, and a changed and better way of life
and so remained fatalistic - unambitious and resistant to change. Every change in society
must originate and begin in the hearts of the pkople. If the people would like to change, only
then the development would begin. What is required is that some means of providing such
people with clues as to what better things in life might be. Lerner saw the media as filling this
need of prqmoting interest among the people for a better life. Not only that, he saw the media
as machines, inspiring people for better things'in life. He said 'empathy' endows a person with
the capacity to imagine himself as proprietor of a big grockry store in a city, to wear nice cloths
and live in a nice house, to be interested in "what is going on in the world" and to "get out of
his hole."
He pointed out to the correlation between economic productivity and the media provisions in
different countries in support of his theory. The richest country had the most newspapers, the
radios and so on, and the poorest, the least.
2) Diffusion: Everett M. Rogers (1983) approached this with a perspective that had much in
common with Lerner, but differed with him somewhat in emphasis. He saw the diffusion of
the new ideas and their practice as a crucial component of the modernization process.
According to him, "the mass communication influence appears to operate by a 'two step flow'
process through awareness of the mass media, development of favourable attitudes and
adaptation by inter-personal channels, particularly, "opinion leaders".
We shall discuss this a little more. It has been found that when a message is propagated, a
segment of the population adopts it, and develops a positive attitude towards it. This can
happen in the case of a product, fertilizer, seeds, ideas, journals, etc. Then, the people who
adopt first, directly or indirectly shape the positive attitude of others who remain indifferent to
the message. This is true in places where information and literacy levels are low. Simple
people would like to get confirmation from the people living in their proximity.
You can think about this process in your daily, life. How many times you need information
about a product, a book, or about an incident from your friends, classmates, office-mates,
neighbours and others. Women, especially, need a lot of confirmation from others before they
adopt something. We can go on citing examples.
3) Magic Multiplier: Wilbur Schramm's (1964) Mass Media and National Development,
which was produced for the UNESCO, became almost a blueprint for development
communication. While Lerner and others saw all of the media cutput as having potentially
Mnrur Medh end Development modernizing effects, for Schrarnm it was their content that was the key to their use in
development. "Social change of great magnitude is required. To achieve it, people must be
informed, persuaded, educated. Information must flow, eot only to them but also from them,
so that their needs can be known, and they might participate in the acts and decisions of the
nation-building; and infc\r:llationmust also flow vertically so that decisions may be made.
Works should be organized, and skills should be learned at all levels of society for better
utilization of the resources of society. Here is where the mass communication enters the
calculus - the required amount of information and learning is so vast that only by making
effectiveuse of the great information multipliers, the mass media, can the developing countries , .
hope to provide information at the rates their time tables for development demand".
Let us elaboratea little. Schramm has very clearly mentioned that a lot of feedback is required
when one uses communication for development. It should never be one-way traffic. The users
should be able to give feedback to the implementors. This would help the implementors to find
out whether or not the communication is meeting their purpose or aim.
Schramm has also said that each person could have information required by the work that he
would undertake. And there might be thousands and lacs of workers requiring various
information. The conventional channels of communication would never be able to meet this
demand. Therefore, modem comnpnication technologies would be of great use to meet this
demand by multiplying the messages and reaching each and every worker.

In the previous section you have learnt how Daniel Lemer, Everett Rogers and Wilbur
Schramm saw the role of the media in development activities. Please mention the major
ideas thab have been expounded by these great authors.
Authors Ideas on the role bf the media in

communication
1) Daniel h e r 3
.............................................................
.............................................................
.............................................................
2) Everett M., Rogers .............................................................
..............................................................
.............................................................
3) Wilbur Schramm .............................................................
.............................................................
(
.............................................................
/
2.5 COMMUNICATION NEEDS AND RESOURCES

So far, we have discussed the positive role of communication, and have seen how the
communication inputs work to make a developmental programme sc-c 1. But how does
1
one go about formulating the communication strategy or the inputs reqcu,. :or a programme?
In planning communication strategy for development, the most important element is
identification of communication needs and resources. Unless one is careful about this, or if
one overlooks this elements, communication strategy and plan will not be effective, and all
efforts will go in- vain. It is necessary to assess carefully the communication needs of the
community and the counuy. To identify communication needs and resources of a country, the
following process has been suggested by the UNESCO (United Nations Education, Scientific,
and Cultur;? Organisation):
UNESCO Guidelines Development Communication
The collection of basic data and systematic ahalysis of the country upon such bases as
population densities, geographic limitations to communication, variety of social structures,
ecology and agriculture transportation, physical communication, mobility of population,
electrification, industrial capacity, manpower capacity, etc.
The production of an inventory of the present communication resources, including the
modem and traditional media, and analysis of the variety of present communication
structures. Such an inventory should also include the study of the audience, its
communication consumption patterns, etc.
Critical analysis of the present communication politics (or lack of the same), including such
considerations as ownership, structures,decision-making, etc.
Critical analysis of the communication needs of each soCiety, especially, inrelation to the
existing social and communication structures, and the uses to which communication is put.
Analysis of the communication components in all aspects of the national development plans
and programs in order to ascertain the communication requirements of the programs, and the
.communicationcapacity which is essential to the execution of the plan. These needs must then
be reconciled with the means and capacities that are available.
A similar process may be followed to identify the communication needs and resources at the
institutional or project level or whereverdevelopment activities are in progress.

,- ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
A) ' Suppose the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is very concerned about the
problem of safe drinking water in the district of Kamrup in Assam. Water'is
available, but it is not safe. People in the district are suffering from various water
borne diseases. You have been asked to assess (a) the communication needs and
(b) communication resources of the district. Taking the UNESCO guidelines into
consideration, please mention the steps you would undqiake to complete your
assignment.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
B) Please make a flow-chart of the logical steps, which you have mentioned in "A". ,
.
. .
. .
-
Mass Media and Develcpmer:
2.6 STRATEGIES IN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATI ON
A strategy is the cmful formulation of plans towards aclie$ng a goal. Since development
communication is goal oriented, one has to be careful in planning communication strategies.
There may be a number of communication strategies for the achievement of a particular
communication goal. There is a need to analyse these very carefully.
Since these strategies are formulated in the context of the developing countries, one should
give keen consideration to cost-benefit factors before selecting the right strategy. In the
modern world, there are number of new technologies, media and techniques, which are
available to a communication strategy planner. One has to evaluate these alternativesavailabk
to him, using cost-benefit analysis and administrative feasibility. Always, one has to keep in
mind the target audience.
One should be fully satisfied in answering these questions:

Who are the target audiences?
What channels are the audiences familiar with?
a What should be the language and content of the message?
What are the barriers to the free flow of communication?

ii) Compare your answer with those given at the end of this unit.
Write below the ten most important points, which' are. crucial in preparing a
communication strategy for development.
1) .....................................................................................................................................
2) .....................................................................................................................................
3) .............................................................................................. .:.. ...................................
4) ...........:.....................................:...................................................................................
5) .....................................................................................................................................
6) ..........................................................................................................i.. ........................
7) .........................................................................................
......................... ...................
8) ....................................................................................................................................
9) ..................................................................................................................................:..
-
10) ......................................................................................................................................
-
Development Conyuniestion
2.7 CASE STUDIES AND EXPERIENCE
So far, we have discussed various aspects of development communication. We have read the
definitions of development communication by various authors. We have studied the
philosophy of development communication. It is purposive, positive and pragmatic. Then we
discussed the emphasis on development communication given by Daniel Lerner, Everett
Rogers and Wilbur Schramm.
Communication is a vital element in the whole strategy of development in the Third World
countries. The UNESCO has already spelt out the various steps one must take while planning
communication strategies for development projects. So f a so good. Now, we shall discuss
some case studies, which will give you the experience of implementing development
communication. So, experience the reality.
2.7.1 Scavenger Development Programme of Iadonesia: Case Study-I

"Scavenger Development Programme" of Indonesia maRes a good case study to illustrate the
point that carefully-planned communication strategy can contribute to the development of man
and society. This case study is of high relevance under Indian conditions, given the crucial role
played by social and economic status factors impinging on the development process.
"Rivers and canals clogged by plastic bags, smouldering piles of garbage on the streets and
unofficial dump sites in vacant compounds are a common sight in many developing countries.
In Indonesia, major cities suffer from water and air pollution caused by 'wild' dumping and
burning of waste. There is a group of people counteracting this disaster,, drive not by
ecological consciousness but by dire straits-scavengers.
The position of these rural migrants in the informal urban sector is controversial as they are
regarded as criminals, tramps, or even untouchables by officials and the public. However, the
scavengers serve important functions. Environmentally, they shoulder part of the ecological
costs of development through recycling waste. As they are selfemployed, the state saves the
economic costs of social security payments. And the raw material from recycled waste turns
to gold for the formal economy as it has a yearly value of US $50 million in Jakarta alone.
The scavenger's problems lie in their insecure legal and social status. Together with a lack of
overt productivity and economic dependency, they are easy targets for harassment, eviction,
corruption and exploitation from middlemen, the private sector and local authorities. And the
scavengers have, traditionally, been denied access to local decision-making,loans, education,
public services and the media -their contributions left unrecognized.
But then, their plight is to be communicated to the other groups of society. They are there in
the streets of D'Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya, etc. And it is communication, which is bringing
a change in their lives and an awareness about their existence in society. We shall discuss it
An Integrated Media Approach

Some people did recognize the needs and contributions of the scavengers. However, the
"Scavenger Development Program", financed by Deutsche Gesellschaft fur technichi
Zusamrnenarbiet (GTZ) and supported by the Indonesian Home Affairs Department, has been
in operation since mid-1991. Implemented by the NGOs in three major cities, Jakarta,
Bandung, and Surabaya, the programme uses an integrated media approach to promote the
welfare of the scavengers, foster their s&ial and communication competence, and highten
awareness about the waste management, recycling and the plight of the scavenger. The
integrated media approach plans to affect change at various political, economic and social
lobbying for policy changes to improve their legal status;

improving their public image and social status;
increasing their productivity and the value - added of recycled products through
increasing bargaining power;
Mass Media and Development enhancing their participation in local decision-making;
developing appropriate technology within the context of an Urban Integrated Resource
Recovery System; and
educating the public about the.environment.
The strategy chosen aims to be not 'about' or 'for' the scavengers, but 'with' and 'by' them.
The process of change is designed to occur, internally, within the scavenger population by
increasing their self-confidence and ability to command respect and resources, and externally
within the broader urban population by communicating with people about the lives, hardships
and contribution of this scavenger community.
Street Theatre of the Scavenger: Theatre can, at any time, at any place, and almost at any
cost, be staged once the principal technique and concepts have been acquired. When linked to
the development activity at the local level, the power of the performance increases
dramatically. Looking closely at this example, the scavengers' structural poverty was
connected to a lack of bargaining power, that is, a lack of the abilityto articulate the key factors
of the daily life needed for active participation in the social, political and economic sphere.
The scavengers live in a 'culture of silence' - they have learned from experience that it is
safer to keep one's mouth shut as long as housewives,policemen, shop owners or city officials
are powerful, and regard them as outlaws. However, when their own views are translated into
a medium, like the theatre, that is informative and entertaining to the public at the same time,
communication works. Given this chance, the scavengers are able to communicate with
people who otherwise would not even take notice of them. The training necessary to achieve
this communicative competence is organized by the community media activities from a local
NGO.
The storyline not only concentrates on problems, but also on solutions suggested and assistance
needed by the scavenger groups. The scavengers do the research for the scripts on their own.
Their own life stories, humor and word games, local idioms and other forms of interaction
become outlets for criticism and eye-opening insights in a form socially acceptable to an
audienceof the neighbours and local officials from the communities where the scavengers live
and work. Often, theatre performances become a starter for a more continuous dialogue.
Always, the performance increases awareness.
Exposure Programmes for Journalists:The radio and press journalists from major regions
are then invited for oneday workshops, where 'hard facts' on thC scavengers are covered.
Afterwards, the journalists are exposed to the real life and the dump shacks, waste processing
workshops, and self-initiated scavenger cooperatives and schools. Very often, first-hand
experience and discussions with scavengers result in more positive articles and features about
their role in society and their environmental contribution.
Political Diiogue: Also on the regional level, exposure programmes, seminars and political
dialogue are held with officials, private businesses, and donors - partially using the media
produced in cooperation with them -so the scavengers can lobby for a better legal, economic,
and social status.
National TV Series: On the national level, a series of 13 episodes on the scavengers living
conditions and their ecological and economic contribution to society will be broadcast on the
New Educational Channel ('IF!). The programmes are produced by the same NGO that does
the theatre training. The scavengers participate in script writing, directing and acting which
results in an unusually authentic series. The partly documentary, partly dramatized episodes
also show the considerable gains by the scavengers in their newly established competency and
cross cultural communication skills. At the same time, the commentatorsin the series suggest
ways to help the scavengers recycle waste for ecological and economic reasons.
Through the ~ntegratedmedia project, the scavengers have gained bargaining power in their
living situations and at their jobs. The communication process, the mediating NGOs support
provides this non-privileged group with access to small and large media and to decision
making institutions in the political and economic sphere. Evident through increased
recognition outside their own communities, the scavengers have gained self-esteem and
confidence in themselves, competence in formulating their problems and needs, and
ultimately, respect and rights from other groups of society. The public is also benefiting from
the project. Whereas the public had perceived the scavengess to be intellectually crippled. Development Communldon
now, two daily newspapers in Surabaya and Jakarta and a radio station in Bandung have begun'
regular columns or programmes to recognize the complexity of the informal sector. The
success belongs to the use of the media delivery system. Not used as an exercise of power and
persuasion with the scavengers as passive targets, the informative, educative and entertaining
capacity of the media could not just give people a voice, but work for everyone to make it heard
and understood. (Development Communication Report, No. 76,199U1)
Activity 3
This Indonesian project is very interesting. In India too, we have a large number of '
rag-pickers. Suppose, the United Nations approaches you and asks you to plan a
communication strategy for the rag-pickers of the city of Bombay.
How will you plan?
What steps will you take to complete your assignment?
2.7.2 Site Project: Case Study-I1

India's biggest experience in using t$e mass media for the purpose of development was the
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) of 1975-76. This one year project was
primarily undertaken to telecast special developmental programmes through the satellite
communication tosix rural clusters, which included a total of 2330 villages, scattered in 20
districts, spread over six states - Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Gujarat. Its objectives were to:
improve the rural primary school educ.ation, .
provide training to the teachers,
improve agriculture, health and hygine, and nutritional practice, and
contribute to family planning a d national integration
After the completion of the project evaluation studies, the results showed that exposure-to
developmental messages through the television had contributed for the widening of horizons
of the villagers.
SITE is one of the biggest and technologically most advanced social experiments in the direct
broadcasting for education and development. It is also one of the largest Indo-US experiments
in communication conducted so far. In this project, the experimenters main objective,was to
provide instantaneous information for national development to those who otherwise would
have been deprived of such info~mationfor many years to come due to technological
constraints.
2.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed various definition of development communication. We have
differentiated between c o ~ u n i c a t i o nand 'development communication'. Nora Quebral
says that development communication is the art andscience of human communication, Rogers
is of the opinion that it creates a favourable climate for a developmental pro~ect,and Rosario
Braid says that it is an element in the management strategy of a development project. '
Then we have discussed the philosophy of development communication. And we came across
with three major aspects of the philosophy. Development communication is purposive, '
positive and pragmatic.
A natural flow from the philosophy of development communica~ofiis ~ C Ithe role of the media
in it. Daniel Lemer is of the opinion that the media would create an empathy among the
audience, which would definitely help the projects to achieve the set goals. Rogers says that.
the media helps in speeding the information among the masses. But this is done id steps. He
says that the diffusion of innovative messages requires opinion leaders who, in turn, influence
the users and communicatethe positive points of the said materials. Wilbur Schramm sees-the
role of the media in development communication as a 'magic multiplier'.
Mass Media and The UNESCO has set some guidelines for using communication in development projects. We
have discussed these guidelines. We have learnt to use various strategies
-
of communication
after assessing the media habits of the audiences.
Towards the ends, we have seen how development communication was applied in projects like
that of Indonesia and India The scavengers of Indonesia made their presence felt in Indonesia.
They communicated their messages through theatre and forced some newspapers and radio
stations to start a new column on them. The beauty of the communication strategy was that it
was fully done by the scavengers themselves.
2.9 FURTHER READING

-- - - - - -
1
1
Singhal, h i n d and Rogers, Everett M. 1989: India's Information Revolution sage, New 1
Delhi.
Rogers, Everett M. 1983: Diffusion of Innovations The Free Press, New York.
Melkote, Srinivas R. 1991: Communication for Development in the Third World; Theory and
Practice, Sage, New Delhi.
2.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: MODEL ANSWERS i

Check Your Progress &
f
\
1) Development communication is a segment of the discipline of communication. It
is applied in developmental projects to help the users attain the desired result. The
development communication is purposeful and uses all the skills available in the
audio visual and print media.
2) A) It is an art and a science. It is applied for economic growth with a view to
bring social equality and help persons develop their f d potential.
B) It creates a favourable climate for the developmental projects, and it
provides support to a specific programme in a specific way.
C) It is an element in the management process of a project. It desires to provide
benefit at the grassroots level.
Purposive : Development communication has an objective(s). In the

process of the implementation of the project, the
communication inputs play a vital role for the project to
achieve its goal(s).
Positive : Development communication shows the positive aspects or
the plus points of a project. It creates a hopeful milieu, both
physical and psychological, for a project to succeed.
Pragmatic : Development communication does not hide behind the
numbers of press releases, programme broadcasts, videos
telecast, posters made, etc. It likes to quantify and qualify
the real change at the grassroot level.
1) Daniel Lerner People should be informed, educated and motivated to aspire

for better E&. Once they are motivated, the modernization
i
process would automatically start.
2) Everett M. Rogers The mass media could be of great help to disseminate
information among the users. He proposes a two step flow of
information: The media to the opinion leaders to the users.
3) Wilbur Schramm Schramm says that the media should multiply all the '
developmental messages so that a large number of people
could be reached. He talks about horizontal and vertical
fee$back mechanism through the media.
Check Your Progress 4 Development Communication
Communication Needs
1) Identify the water sources
2) Identify the sources of contamination
3) Identify the diseases caused by drinking unsafe water
4) Preventive measures to be undertaken
5) Measures to be undertaken to cure people of the diseases
Communication Resources
1) Availability of Health centres/Hospital etc.
2) Number of educational institution/schools/colleges
3) Percentage of literacy
4) Spread of the radio
5) ~ ~ e ofa the
d televisionlnewspaper
once these needs and resources are identified,proper action should be taken to match the
needs with the available resources.
Che* Your Progress 4
Contamina- unsafe Water
t
Production of
Materials to
answer the
Newspaper Institutions1
Schools/ Hospitals

1) Formulate clearly the aim(s) of the project
2) Identify the target audience
3) Identify the communication needs of the audience
4) Identify the communication resources of the target audience
5) Determine the literacy rate
6) Identify the way(s) to answer &e needs with the available resources
7) Prepare the mateiials required for various ways of answering the problems (needs)
8) Identify the resource persons to prepare the materials
9) Actual preparation of the materials
-.
10) Implement the materials
Mass Media ana Developmeqt
UNIT 3 DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION IN
AGRICULTURE
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 ' , Development-support Communication: The Genesis
.3.3 - Focus of Agricultural Deve~o~mdnt
-Shifting Emphasis
3.4 .AgriculturalDevelopment in India: Specific Features
3.4.1 Agricultural Extension
3.4.2 Extension Approaches Over the Years
3.4.3 System Approach in Agricultural Communications
3.4.4 Diffusionof Innovations: Key to Extension
3.4.5 Models of Agricultural Extension in India
3.4.6 Case Studies on Communication Support to Agriculture
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Further Reading
3.7 . Check Your Progress:'Model Answep . . . .
. . ..
- - -
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you should be able.to:
describe the process of agricultural extension,
explain the methods of introducing new ideas and practices in agriculture and related fields,
identify appropriate instruments of communication for proyiding wider and effective
extension support to the rural sector.
3.1 INTRODUCTLON
In the earlier twounits of this block, you were made aware of the concepts of development and
development communication. The objective of this unit is to provide you with basic
-
information on development support komrnunication as applied to agriculture and other related
areas of the rural sector, diffusion of innovations, the process of adoption of innovations,
communication sources and strategies, select cases and evaluation of results.
In the l e t unit of this blodr, &.shall discuss how the DSC can help in implementing:the
programmes in population, education, and environment successfully. .,
. .
.. .
3.2 DEVELOPMEIWT-SUPFORT COMMUNICATION:

THE GENESIS
Now, we shall discuss the origin 9; h e development support communication. The origin of
the development suppoit communication is traced to the agricultural extension, which was
initiated in the fifties of the present century in many of the developing countries. The study of
the diffusion of hybrid corn by Ryan and Cross, in 1942. established the critical role of
technological information for increased farm production. Agricultural extension education, as
a part of agricultural sciences, branched off as a specialized field to help evolve theory and
practice of modern methods of agriculture. In the developing, countries eventhough, a large
majority of the population is engaged in agriculture, the small and marginal fanners are not
able to produce adequate food tiecause pf the subsistence methods of farming: In our country,
the traditional way of tilling the soil and depending on the monsoohs are very common. It Development Communication
In Agrhlture
was, therefore, considered necessary to help these farmers to change their agricultural
practices, through extension methods so that they could adopt better practices &d increase
their output.
This approach, of spreading innovation, new ideas, practices, and technologies in agriculture
to the farmers in the developing countries, became very popular as agricultural extension
during the 50s. In view of the heavy dependence of agricultural extension of communicition
techniques and methodologies, in due course, communication applied to agricultural
extension came to be known as agricultural communication. This was the time when
development communication, as a specialised area of communication, was recomized, and
became ,veQ popular. It slowly diversified into rurg communication when extension
Specialists with knowledge of communication principl&.' transfemed like health, hygiene,
nutrition, sanitation, etc. Instead of confining developmental activity to the rural. areas alone,
the urban section was also included to help the poorer sections living in the slums. Thug
communication theory and pradtice applied to help stimulate the development process in
general, and branched off as the development support communication (DSC).
The DSC was a concept popularized by the UNDP and other UN institutions like FAO,
UNICEF etc. The World Bank also supported the DSC. It stands for linking all agencies
involved in the planned development work such as political executives, policy planners,
development administrators, subject speci'alists, field workers, opinion leaders, the media
representatives, the researchers and beneficiaries who constitute the final delivery points, and
the consumers of information. Thus, the routes of communication envisaged are not only
vertical from top to bottom and bottom-upwards, but also horizontal between the institutions
and personnel connected with the process of development.
John L. Woods (1976)conceived a triangular nexus with three points: Knowledge generators,
political leaders and development knowledge-users, as shown below:
Knowledge generators Political leaders
Intermediate
Knowledge
users
The role of the DSC, according to Woods, is to link all three elements in the development
linkage triangle plus all the intermediate user gmups. His emphasis is not only on pushing the
information towards the target groups, but! also on raking into account the information seeking
pattern of the target audience, and integrating them into the development planning pn>cess.
Your progress 1
CII=CIL '
Note: i) Use the space given below for your sinswers;

"
1) What is the main objective of the development support communication?

.......................................................................................................................................
'....................................................................................................................................
.
"...
................................................................................................................................
.
. .
.....................................................................................................................................
. .
. .
.a
6
2) According to John f.Woods, for the development support communication to be
successful, a very close interaction is needed among three groups. What are these
groups?
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
C
L-
........................................................................................................
........................... I
I
Activity 1
- )
List five agriculture related advertisements. You may find them in posters, radio '
programmes, TV programmes and newspapers. Write the messages of each of these
advertisementsin the indicated column below. And give your opinion on whether or not
these advertisements can' be easily understood by the ordinary illiterate farmers.
. Advertisement
.. Message Communication ability
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
........................................... .............?............................. ..........................................
FOCUS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT -

SHIFTING EMPHASIS
An understanding of the term development and its scope is necessary to have a good grasp on
the concept of development-support communication. As stated in the earlier units, during the
'50s and 60s' the emphasis of development was on economic growth, and development was
measured by quantifiable indices such as the GNP and per capita income. Following thls
approach, h e communication schblars like Lerner (1958), Pye (1963), and Schramm (1964)
recommended that densification of the mass media and an increased exposure to the media
would contribute to the process of development. Based on their studies of diffusion of
innovation, Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) defined development 'as a type of social change in
which new ideas are introduced into a social system in order to produce higher per capita
income and the levels of living through more modern methods and improved social
organizations'. But, by the 70s, it became clear that such an economic approach to
development failed to deliver tangible results. Increase in per capital income did not result in
enrichment of human life in terms of equity, social justice, etc. The problem of unemployment
and underemployment got aggravated with the poor becoming poorer and the rich becoming
richer. The trickle down effects failed to materialize. In 1976, Rogers modified his definition
of development, "Development is a widely participating process of social change in society,
increasing greater equity, freedom and their valued qualities for the majority of the people
through gaining control over environment". (Rogers, 1976).
This second approach to development, which became more popular as the new paradigm ?f
development, underpinned income distribution, decentralised plannicg, labour intensive
technology and indigenous and exogenous factors in developr;.ent. The thrust of the new
approach was on improving the quality of life through appropriate technologies, and promoting
participation of people in the development process.
This shift in the meaning of development was accompanied by a redefinition of the meaning
of communication. The old, linear, mechanistic one-way communication model with greater
focus on the source ( c o ~ u n i c a t o r was
) replaced by a more dynamic interactive two-way
model of communication. The focus in the new approach was on the recipient and the
socio-cultural syskm.
Another approach to development is currently gaining wide recogrution. The basic tenet of Development Communication
in Agriculture
this approach is self-reliance. The advocates of this approhch place high premium on
integrated rural development,popular participation in the decision-making process, grassroots
development, productive use of local resources, fulfilment of basic needs, maintenance of
ecological balance, identification of the felt-needs and integrabng culture as d mediating force
in development This approach discouraged the widespread tendency in the developing
countries "to be like the west", to initiate the path of Western countries and pursuing their
strategies to catch up. Instead, it urges a radical rethinking of the issues by adopting a
culture-specific approach, using local resources for achievement of self-reliance. Such an
approach was initially propagated by scholars like Galtung (1990). Ariyaratne of Sri Lanka
pursued more vigorously this philosophy of development for the propagation of the Sarvodaya
Movement in his country.

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Compare your answers with the ones given,at the end of this unit.
1) How was 'development*

. .
measured irf.the '50s' and 60s9?
^.., -
............................................................. ........$...............................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
I
......................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
2) Explain in one sentence each the two new approaches to development.

......................................................................................................................................
!
......................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.
..............................................................................
, i ......................................................
3) The approach to communication changes wi& the shift in the approach to deve-
lopment. How?
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.................................... .................................................................................................
1
......................................................................................................................................
3.4 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA:

'
SPECIfrIC FEATURES
Agriculture in India has certain distinctive characteristics, which influence its pattern of
development. These are: wide regional disparities in terms of ago-climatic zones, cropping
patterns, and levels and productivity; small and dispersed land holdings; cultivation of vast
tracts of land in rain-fed conditions; low soil-fertility status and high incidence of pest attack;
and proneness to flood and drought.
The strategy adopted for agricultural development has been multi-dimensional and
broadbased: efforts to introduce extensive land reforms; centre-to-village level administrative
machinery to implement development programmes; a nationwide network of agricultural
research and education facilities; a number of surface and groundwater irrigation schemes;
large scale production of chemical fertilizers; village level co-operative infrastructure to meet
the credit ?nd distribution needs; corporate sector to manufacture, process and supply
ago-inputs, warehousing and storage facilities.
Mar Mcdin Dcve'Opment Roductivity levels in agriculture depend to a large extent, on what response a farmer gives to
the various plans' and strategies of agricultural development evolved by the public agencies,
from time to time.
3.4.1 Agricultural Extension

According to Ensminger (1962), "Extension is a programme and a process of helping village
people to help themselves, increase th6ir production, and to raise their general standard of
living". Further, he calls it a process of teaching under practical living situations.
The National Commission on Agriculture (Government of India, 1976) has a much broader
perspective. Extepion, in its view, refers to informal out-of-school education and services for
the farming community, to enable them to adopt improved practices in the production,
management, conservation. and marketing of agricultural and allied activities. Agricultural
extension aims at not only imparting knowledge and securing the outlook of the farmer to the
point where he will be receptive to innovation on his own initiative, but also continuously
seeking means of improving his farm occupation, home, and family life.
According to Shingi and others, extension in agriculture is an educational programme

undertaken to Ltivate the process of the transfer of knowledge, science and technology from
laboratories to people, in order to help them to help themselves, change their attitudes and
skills, help them in farm planning, decision-making, record keeping, use of inputs, storage,
processing and marketing, to ensure supplies and services, increase their production, develop
the people and their leadership, and improve their occupation, family and community life
(Shingi et al. 1982).
Check Your Prhogress3

. Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
1) List four areas whichcould be considered for agricultural extension subjects.

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
3.4.2 Extension Approaches Over the Years

The national extension service of the early fifties, with its broad objective of improving
management of the traditional agriculture, envisaged participation of elected representatives of
'the people, a network of village level functionaries and subject matter specialists, and the
greater use of audio-visual aids.
The Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) of the sixties was envisaged to impart
knowledge about innovations like improved agronomy practices, better quality seeds,
chemical fertilizers, pesticides, implementation, soil and water management practices, and
othet services like research, information, credit, storage, marketing and related supplies. The
approach included technical support to the extension workers, better administrative
co-ordination, and establishing a link between education and input. The extension &or& were
made goal oriented by concentrating on these activities.
An examination of the functioning of the IADP showed that, except for incremental wheat
production in a few distticts, the results were not satisfactory in a majority of districts. As a
result, a new approach, called the Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IADP),
concentrated On areas having assured irrigation. The High Yielding Varieties Programme also
met with only limited success in'meeting the developmental goals (Mehta, 1975).
By the mid-sixties, a programme on national demonstrations was launched to popularize the

superiority of the new technique; through on-farm demonstrations, determine on-farm
-
applicability of research recommendations, give confidence to the extension workers about the velopment Communication
in Agriculture
suitability of the new practices, and establish a direct link between the scientists and farmers
so that the latter could understand the field problems better. The emphasis was on
demonstrations and group discussions.
The limited performance of the green revolution has led the government, with the help of the
World Bank consultants, to work out a new approach to tackle the problems of agricultural
extension. The new approach, known as the TV system, formulated in the mid-seventies and
operationalized in 1978, is based on the Benor Concept.

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) What were the two main objective of the TV programme?

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
Strengthening Organizational Commdcation
The TV system makes deliberate efforts to obtain relevant technical information; debate its
utility and applicability;break it down into manageable segments; simplify it so that it can be
commt'nicated effectively; and pass it on selectively. While information passes through a
hierarchy, every unit in the sequence is provided with sufficient autonomy and self-control.
This system has the potential of increasing the technical and persuasive capacity of both the
farmers and the extension personnel.
3.4.3 System Approach in Agricultural Communication

The communication support for agricultural development is intended to provide knowledge
and skills about improved agricultural technologies so as to induce change in the existing farm
practices for increasing agricultural output. In our country, agricultural communication forms
a part of the overall agricultural extension strategy. According to K.N. Singh, the agricultural
communication follaws a system approach, consisting of three different sub-systems:
(1) Research System (2) Extension System and (3) Client System. This is schematically
represented below in Table 1.
Table 1
Agricultural Communication Sptem In Indln
Research System Extension/Cornrnunication System Client

System
Agricultural Institutes University system Extension Fanners
Others
Functions Functions Functions Functions
Basic and applied Collection and processing of Communication and Adoption
research new technology diffusion of innovation of
innovation
Innovation creation Communication Fedback Feedback
On the basis of the research literature, four key elements in the agricultural communication
process were identified as follows:
Sources: Agricultural scientists, inventors/researchers, extension workers (like the
VLW), contact farmers, salesman, etc.
I . M mMedia end Develoument
Messages: New technologies, fertilizers, pesticides, new practices, new' tools and
implements in agriculture, animal husbandry and allied areas.
Channels: Inter-personnel channels like cxtension workers, opinion leaders, the mass
media l i e the radio, television, films, print channels like pamphlets, audio and
video cassettes, and the folk media
Receivers: The fanners, both male and female, and others adopting new technologies in
allied areas like animal husbandry, pisciculture, social forestry, etc. In the
dissemination of infonnation in agricultural and related areas, a large number
of channels have been reported. These include: extension personnel, village
institutions, fanners, fairs, demonstrations, commercial agencies selling seeds,
fertilizers and pesticides, bank officials involved in agricultural credits, the
mass media channels like the newspapers, specialised fann journals, the radio.
films and television. But in our country, a lot of infonnation gets percolated
mostly by word of mouth through non-institutional sources like local leaders.
progressive fanners, neighbours, friends, and relatives.
Activity 2 -
The State Government of Uttar Pradesh has decided to launch a massive reforestation
programme in Banda district. You havi been asked to plan a communication strategy
for this programme. What are the steps you will take to fulfil your responsibility? While
planning you must keep in mind the four essential elements of sour&, message, channel
and receiver.
(A model communication strategy for this Activity is given at the end of this unit.
Compare your strategy with it.)
J
'3.4.4 Diffusion of Innovation: Key to Extension
Development underpins change and acceptance of innovations -
ideas, practices and
;technologies. Hence, facilitating diffusion of innovations is an essenual aspect of the
development support communication. What is an innovation?
An innovation refers to an idea pc~ce~ved

as new by an individual. All innovations need not
be new to all people. What is new to one individual may be a known thing for another
individual. Hence, the tern innovation is applied to an idea which is perceived by an
individual or group as something new to that person or to that group.
Diffusion is a process by which an innovation spreads. The diffusion process is the spread of
a new idea from its source of creation to the adopters or useq. Hence, the essence of the
diffusion process isthe human interaction, in which one person communicates a new idea to
another person.
Development Communication
in Agriculture
There are four elements in any analysis of the diffusion process: (1) innovation, (2)
communication of one individual to another, (3) the social system, and (4) the time taken from
the stage of innovation to the stage of adoption.
Stages in the Adoption Pracess
Five distinct stages have been identified by the scholars who studied diffusion and adoption
process: (1) Awareness (2) Interest (3) Evaluation (4) Trial and (5) Adoption.
1) Awareness Stage
At the awareness stage, there is a broad exposure to the innovation, but the individual does not
have sufficient information about the innovation. He is yet to get motivated either to sekk
further information or to act upon it.
2) Interest Stage
At the interest stage, the individual shows interest in the new idea, and makes an effort to seek
additional information. However, the person is still undecided about its application. The
function of the interest stage is mainly to seek and get more information about the idea.
3) Evaluation Stage.
At the evaluation stage, the individual mentally applies the innovation to one's own situation,
and then decides whether to try it or not.
4) Trial Stage
At the trial stage, the individual uses the innovations on a pilot stage to decide about its utility
and relevance to one's own situation. It was observed that most persons would not adopt an
innovation without trying it on apilot basis.
5) Adoption Stage
At the adoption stage, the individual decides to continue the innovation. Adoption implies
sustained use of the adoption process: The rejection is, thus. a decision not to adopt an
innovation. Though, on the basis of the diffusion research, there is no evidence to show that
all the five stages will be visible of being scrupulously followed by all the adopters.
Iafonnation Sources and their Relevance at Various Stages of Adoption
While personal communication connotes the direct face to face contact, impersonal
comnlunication, mediated through mass communication channels, does not involve face to
face exchange of ideas. Communication through the mass media like the print, radio, TV and
Mass Medii and Development film is most eff&tive in providing various options and alternative choices. They are effective
in drawing the attention of the individuals. Hence, the mass communication channels are
found to be most important in the evaluation stage of the adoption sources. Inter-personal
communication, through extension workers, friends, and family members, can influence
behaviour and facilitate transfer of ideas. The mass communication channels seldom effect
decisions directly, although they operate through an intervening variable to influence
behaviour. The information sourws from outside the community (normally referred to as
cosmopolitan) are most important at the awareness stage, and the local information sources
from inside the community are the most important at the evaluation stage.
Factors Afftxting the Rate of Adoption of Innovations
While some factors stimulate and facilitate quick diffusion of innovations and transfer of
technologies, some others inhibit adoption. One of the hurdles to change is cultural
incompatibility. Certain social systems do not encourage adoption of innovations. Individuals
in such a system are very slow and rigid in accepting new ideas, practices and technologies.
The rice-eating people show a marked resistance to accepting coarse grain, since it involves a
change in the food-habits. Many studies have substantiated that new crop varieties, which give
higher yields and better incomes, have been rejected on the ground of taste, fear of ill-health,
and unacceptability as food. Thus, cultural incompatibility and mismatch with the existing
social system, which are considered to be very strong inhibiting factors in the process of
diffusion of innovations. Other important factors identified in this context are: (1) relative
advantage of the innovation, (2) perceived impact of the adoption on social relations, (3) scope
for reversibility in case the innovation is to be rejected, (4) complexities involved in the
acceptance of the innovation on sustainable basis. The simpler the itnovation the higher is the
scope for adoption.
Classincation'of Adopters
Basing on the rate of adoption and the time lag between initial exposure to final adoption.
diffusion researchers have classified adopters into five distinct categories: (1) venturesome
innovators, (2) early adopters, (3) early majority, (4) late majority, and (5) laggards. The
venturesome innovators are the most eager members of society to try new ideas and adopt new
practices. They are enterprizing and willing to take risks. Usually they belong to the
cosmopolite category. The early adopters, on the other hand, belong to the local system; they
follow the venturesome. The innovators, becoming the reference p u p s for the subsequent
late adopters, constitute the early majority and late majority. The laggards are very slow in
adoption. They are rigid and hard to be convinced, stick to the old methods, and resist change.

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Explain, in one sentence, the meaning of diffusion.

....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
i
3.4.5 Models of Agricultural Extension in India

In this section, a comparative analysis of three models of agricultural extension and
communication systems are presented: ( I ) The Intensive Agricultural Distinct Programme
(IADP), (2) Agricultural Extension under the Panchayat Raj Set-up, and (3) Agricultural
Extension under the Training & Visit System (T & V).
IADP was launched in the early sixties. Initially, the Project Executive Officer (EO) was
assisted by a numbex of subject matter specialists (SMS). Later, when the I A W Programme
... A .- T A AD &L--- c ~ m - --.L-;--,.*-A .. A*.* n:--..b..-- ,.A 6
1
.- ....- L-- c
.,
VLWs was drastically reduced for extension work in the villages. Studies conducted by the Development Communication
in Agriculture
NIRD researchers at Raipur in MP revealed poor linkage between research and the field level
functionaries. Similarly, there was no involvement of the field level functionaries in the
planning of the agricultural development programme.
Due to lack of periodical training, the VLWs and their supervisors (AEAs) did not have
adequate knowledge of the important areas of paddy cultivation, which is the staple food in the
district. The withdrawal of the SMSs, reduction of field level extension staff like AEOs and
VLWs, and lack of regular training have diluted the programme. It gained status as a special
programme after the introduction of the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), in
1978. The main contributions of the IADPAAAP programme were the better supply of inputs
like seeds and fertilizers, and reducing the gap between the extension staff and the fanners.
The level of knowledge of the farmers about improved farm practices has significantly
increased.
Among the communication channels, the radio and demonstrations were considered to be the
most usful by the farmers. Other methods, such as the farmers training film shows,
agricultural exhibitions and conducted tours for the fanners, were found too low in usage and
value (NIRD: 1986).
The agricultural extension pattern under the Panchayat Raj System, where the District
Agricultural Officer (DAO) at the Zilla Parishad level was responsible for planning and
implementation of agricultural schemes, was studied in Amaravati district. The technical
competence of the Gram Sevaks, at the village level, was much below the mark, since most of
them had no training in agriculture. A significant amount of time of the Agricultural Extension
OfFicer (AEO) and the VLWs was consumed in preparing returns and reports. The VLWs
having been made responsible for activities like family planning, health,-sanitation, social
welfare, etc., were spending less time on agricultural development.
Information flow from the radio, agro-service centres, and local newspapers was high, and it
was rated to be very useful. The credibility of the VLW was found to be low. Thus, the
effective use of'agriculturalextension under the Panchayati Raj System was comparatively less
effective.
The operation of the T & V system, studies in the Kota district of Rajasthan, reflected that the
contact of the farmers with the VLWs was limited. It was observed that the extension workers
were not working through the contact farmers, as envisaged by the T & V system. The contacts
with VLW were almost the same for all types of farmers - both contact and non-contact
f m e r s . They were more often meeting the farmers at a public place in the village. The level
of knowledge of the farmers about the improved practices relating to the major crops of the
area was low. The T & V system did not help the fanners to increase their knowledge. It is
necessary to use other effective extension methods like demonstrations.
- hm'opment 3.4.6 . Case Studies on Communication-supportto Agriculture
It is proposed to briefly outline in this section a few case studies of development support
communication through the mass media. These case studies represent only Indian experiences
and do not cover experiments outside India
1) 'RadioRural Fonuns
Basing on the Canadian experience, the Radio Rural Forum experiment was conducted by +e
All India Radio at Poona during 1956. The Project covered 156 villages where listening and
discussion groups were gganized in each of the selected villages. A programme of 30 minutes
duration was broadcast on two days in a week covering agriculture and allied subjects to help
promote rural development. Prof. Paul Neurath on behalf of the Tata Institute of Social
Sciences conducted on evaluation study, and came out with interesting results: (1) The radio is
a very suitable medium to communicate with rural audience and to spread the message of
development. (2) A majority of the listeners in the villages appreciated the value of the
Fro@="='
The Farm and Home (F & H) units were, subsequently, established at many AIR stations to
provide wider support to the IADP programme and the contribution of the radio is widely
acknowledged by farm scientists in increasing agricultural production and achieving a green
revolution.
2) Krisbl Darshan Programme on .Television
In 1967, Delhi Television Centre launched the Krishi Darshan Programmes at the behest of
Prof. M.S. Swamioathan of the Agricultural Research Institute (MU) and Dr. Vilcram
Sarabhai, the eminent space scientist. The objective of these programnies was popularization
of modem methods of agriculture through the television. Community sets were installed for
group viewing in 80 selected villages. The evaluation report prepared by the NCERT, in 1968,
indicated significant knowledge gains in farm technology on account of exposure to Krishi
Darshan Programme. But, subsequent studies indicated that these TV programmes did not
help the small and marginal fanners very much. The contact was more useful to the rich
farmers.
3) School-on-the-drof AIR
All India Radio (AIR), Hyderabad and Bangalore stations introduced, during the early
seventies, the School-on-the-air programmes,for education of the farmers in improved
methods of farming. Specific topics like rice cultivation, sugarcanecultivation, dairy farming,
.poultry keeping, etc., were covered under these broadcasts. Subseqdently, the farm
. school-on-the-air, became a regular feature of the Farm & Home Units of AIR at many other
stations. Thb studies conducted by the Audience Research Unit of the All India Radio
established the wide patronage of the farmers to these broadcasts. In terms of utility and
practical guidance, the programme were rated very high.
4) SITE Rogqamme ,
The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was conducted by the Space
Applications Centre of the Indian Space Research Organization for one year from 1st August,
1975,taking on loan the multi-purpose Applications Technology Satellite (ATS6) from NASA
of the United States of America. The experiment covered 26 districts seleted from 6 clusters
in A.P.;Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan sates. It was a massive
experiment .conducted in development support communicaf;r.n, $overing as many as 2330
villages. Community TV sets were installed for group viewing. The programme pattern was
so designed that the instructional programmes covered agriculture, qnimal husbandry, family
planning, health, hygiene & nutrition, national integration and entertainment.
The evaluation studies, conducted by ISRO and other national organizations confirmed the
success of the SITE in terms of creating wider awareness and incteasing the knowledge levels,
specifically in areas like health, political consciousness, and overall development. But, in the
areas of agriculture and animal husbandry, no significant gains were observed. The evaluation
studies also listed the benefits accrued to the rural population. specifically to the poor and Development Communicntion
in Agriculture
under-privileged, who could not have otherwise got the advantage of the TV exposure
organized through community viewing at public places in the villages.
3.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have broadly covered agricultural extension and other communication systems
used for the propagation of new ideas and technologies for developmentalpurposes in the rural .
areas. The development support communication (DSC) as a concept covers application of
communication principles aqd practices in all areas of human e ~ ~ h I n e nInt . the extension
effort, the focus is on helping the people to help themselves. Diffusion of innovations forms
the thrust area in the extension process. New ideas, practices and technologies are introduced
through persuasive methods of communication. Adaptation of innovation is a timeconsuming
process, and it requires the best efforts to provide knowledge and change human behaviour. .
Cultural incompatibility acts as a major inhibiting factor in the diffusion. So, one has to take
care that the new ideas, new practices and new technologies fit in and match with the existing
social system and cultural practices.
3.6 FURTHER READING

Lerner, Daniel and Schramm, Wilbur, eds., 1967, Commiaication and Change in D e ~ e l o ~ n g
Countries, East-West CommunicationCentre: Honolulu.
Ostman, Ronals, E., ed., 1989, Communication and Indian Agriculture, Sage Publications:
New Delhi.
- - - - -
3.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: MODEL ANSWERS

-
I) The main objective o-development support communication is to communicatethe
latest skills, knowledge, and innovation to the fanners so that by adopting them the
farmers may increase their output manifold.
I
2) a) Innovators or knowledge generation
b) Political leaders/government
c) Farmers or users of knowledge
Check Your Progresg 2

I) In @ 50's and 60's, 'development' was measured by GNP and per capita income.
2) An alternative approach to development was to put the quality of life in the centre
with decentralization and participation at the grassroots level as the two main ' .
pillars of measurement.
The other alternative approach to development was to make each arid every society
self-reliant with participation of the grassroot level citizens in every development
project. Communication became a two-way affair in a given context. Previously,
communication was focused only on the communication, and was considered a I
one-way affair.

1) a) production of audio, video materials for the purpose df ccr~municatinginnova-
tive knowledge to the farmers,
-b) development of special skills,
c) budgetary,
d) marketing.
Mass Media and Development Cbck Your Progress 4
-
1) T & V is the short form of training and visit. The two main objectives to:
visit various places and train the extension workers and farmers on the spot; and to
create a network among villages, districts, and states having the same agricultural
conditions, so that information could be imparted properly.
check Your Progres~5

1) Diffusion is a process by which an innovation is adopted by a person or a group of
persons.
2) a) religious and cultural belief,
b) lack of proper and complete information,
c) personal likes and dislikes,
d) incompatibility with the existing social milieu,
e) lack of fund.
Activity 2
Phase A: Find out

i) the area allocated for reforestation,
ii) the varieties of saplings available,
iii) the suppliers of saplings.
Phase B: Formulate messages regarding:

i) the advantages of planting trees,
ii) the relationship between the human beings and plants,
iii) rationale for taking care of plants.
Phase C: Find out:

i) the literacy level,
ii) the level of awareness of the people regarding environment,
iii) the communication infrastructure available.
Phsse D: Choose the easily available and appropriate channel

UNIT 4 DEVELOPMENT-SUPPORT
COMMUNICATION (DSC)
Structure
Inlroduction
Population Control and Family Welfare
4.2.1 DSC activities in Population Control
4.2.2 New Challenges
4.2.3 Solutions
Health and DSC
4.3.1 Health Communication
4.3.2 DSC and Health Behaviow
Education and Society

4.4.1 Qpes of Education
4.4.2 Literacy PlDgramme
4.4.3 Education DSC
4.4.4 Uses of Communication for Education
Environment and Development
4.5.1 Economic Growth and the Environment
4.5.2 DSC and Environment
Let Us Sum Up
Further Reading
Check Your Progress: Model Answers
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

a describe the role of the development support communication (DSC) in Population, Health,
Education, and Environment.
a describe in what way the DSC could benefit the formulation of communication strategies in
the areas of Health and Family Welfate, education in different aspects, tbe eradication of
illiteracy of the adults, non-fonnal education, and also environmental issues; and
a identify the scope of DSC in making effedtive programme in these areas.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 3 in this Block, you came to know about rhe DSC, i.e., Development-support
Communication. Agriculture as a specific subject was &vexed. In this Unit, we shall.cover
some socially and economically relevant areas, like Population, Health, Education, and
Environment. Similar areas have been touched upon in tbe earlier unit, because of the
importance tbat these disciplines have attained in relation to tbe overall development of the
country.
In this unit, we shall cover tbe use of DSC (Development-supportCommunication)for proper

implementation and impact of programmes related to the population osnml and family
welfare measures, Healtb, Hygiene and Nutrition, Education, and Environment.
4.2 POPULATION CONTROL AND FAMILY WELFARE
Activity 1
I am sure, you must have heard people saying that one of the most urgent problems we
face today is the population proSlem. You, yourself, must have been baffled and
perturbed by the magnitude of this problem. Before you proceed further, let us involve
ourselves in an exercise.
You must have come acmss many advertisements regarding family planning, use of
contraceptives, etc., list all these advertisements from the newspapers, magazines,
posters and hoardings. Compare these messages. Find out which message(s) you like
most and why.
The task before India and other developing countries is not merely to get better results within
the existing framework of economic and social institutions, but to mould and refashion them
in such a way that they effectively contribute to the realization of the wider and deeper social
values. Adoption of such an approach would imply that instead of making mechanistic and
deterministicmessages, the focus would be on human beings. It would, thus, be necessary that
development communication is only a support to development. This process has to be
continuous and consistent in aiming at raising aspirations of the people so as to help them
develop. Basically, development-support communication has to raise the level of social
consciousness among m p l e that can help them towards transformation.
We shall now attempt to highlight some of the issues in relation to DSC in population control
and family welfare programmes in India. It needs hardly any reiteration that the health and
family welfare prograriune is an integral part of the overall development programmes of the
country. Fortunately, communication has been playing a vital role throughout the various
developmental phases of the programme by extensively using different communicationmedia
and methods, In spite of the large efforts of educating and motivating people for accepting
small family norpls, changing the health practices of the people, and introducing spacing
methods, the achievements of the programme have alwayq fallen short of the expected results.
Mostly, a moot question is beiig.asked as to why communication efforts have been absolutely
incidental to the actual adoption. Some stydies have shown that factors such as paucity of
resources, the traditional ethos, low education and illiteracy profile, diversity of languages and
dialects, lack of coordination between the communication and policy planners and the overall
resistance to change, are responsible for the failure of various effort put into this scheme. A
deeper analysis, however, shows that the developmentprogrammes in any field, where formal
resources have been deployed to promote communication, the socio structural factors play a
vital role in the reception of new ideas in any community. In other words, factors within the
universe of the socio cultural set-up have already been responsible for preventing innovative
ideas from being functional and operational at the community level.
These contradictions are visible at the grassroots level, where, on the one hand, the DevelopmentSupport
multipurpose workers are expected to promote extension education and, on the other, they are Communlcatlon (DSC)
handed over targets to fulfil. Failure to achieve these targets invites punitive measures. Most
administrators view motivational and educational techniques as a kind of magic, which, when
applied anywhete on anybody, can yield results in the form of acceptance and adoption of the
family planning measures. It needs to be recognised that implementing educational and
motivational efforts in the community require not only patience, but also capabilities of the
workers. For effective communication, such contradictions in the philosophy and
implementation need to be resolved.
4.2.1 DSC Activities in Population Control

In their eagerness to reach a wider audience many DSC activities in the population control and
family welfare are gradually losing their informational components and becoming propaganda.
An example would be the IUD drive or the mass sterilisation camps, where slogans such as
"Nasbandi Karao, Rupia Kamao" were being pursued with a lot of enthusiasm. Such
propaganda has naturally a short life, and does more harm than good to the programme.
Yet another issue that needs to be mentioned is that the present DSC efforts in the family
welfare programmes seldom use the knowledge and the talent available at the local levels. It
is becoming more evident that the expensive mass media technology is receiving higher
emphasis at the cost of the traditional media. Usage of thq traditional media is not only
acceptable, and creative but affordable also. The urgency of containing the population did not
allow the planners of the communication policy and programmes to pay due attention to the
needs of different socio economic and tribal groups, spread in different regions of the country.
Thus, proper anention might not have been given to proper communication planning. It is
thought that putting messages in the mass media channels would ensure positive results. The
psyche, ethos. economic-social milieu have been given less importance. In addition to these,
the media habits of the target audience, their access to the media, the appropriateness of the
channel have not been researched properly and adequately.
4.2.2 New Challenges

The challenges that are at the forefront of the family planning communication policy can be
briefly subsumed under the message content, media mix and organization of media.
Decentralization of media, wider choice of suitable media and development - integrated
approach, giving due recognition to the socioeconomic environment of the country also help.
The focus and emphasis of the fu&re DSC strategy in the family welfare programme has to be
rural based and addressed to the rural and urban poor as its target audience for a country like
India, where the rates of literacy and the level of purchasing power are low, the choice of the
media assumes importance for any meaningful strategy.
The purpose of communication in family welfare should be more information-oriented, and it

needs to be supplemented by developing messages through which functional and purposeful
relationship among people could be developed. This is important, because family planning
involves subjective motivation, and the questions relating to it are very personal and delicate
in nature. The handling of such questions at the communication strategy level in terms of
message content have to be very carefully considered. The present message content has been
greatly influenced by the "urban alienating culture", which has infused among people a sense
of social isolation, powerlessness and frustration. Unless the message content provides
information regarding the economic advantages of the family welfare programme, the rural
and urban masses will not get attracted towards adoption.
The most important issue, which merits attention, is to provide linkage between the DSC
strategies and different welfare programmes as part and parcel of the larger whole. In
philosophy and in principle, this approach has been accepted. But it has a1ways lagged behind
in implementation for various reasons. The isolated communication approach has brought in
contradictions within the developmental programmes. The family welfare programme has
come to a stage where rural people appear to be aware of the benefits of the family welfare, but
the sncio-economic nressures merate against it. In its case. the communication stratem should
Mess Media and Development attack the socio-economicpressures that confront the rural and urban poor rather than planning
strategies vertically for programme acceptance.
Any DSC strategy, be it family welfare, health or education, should be such that the
communicators treat the rural people as intelligent, conscious, and capable of learning new
things. This, naturally, implies that unless the media originate in and relate themselves to the
world of values and environment of the community, they are bound to be irrelevant and
ineffective. In the broader context, the DSC has to be a dependent rather than an independent
variable. In-brief, the DSC strategy in the family welfare programme has to be such that it not
only empowers but enables the rural and urban poor to take informed decisions in relation to
their pe&nal and delicate questions on population control and family welfare.
r
Cbeck Your Progress 1

Note: i) Write your answers in the space provided.
ii) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this unit.
1) List three reasons for the failure of our population problem.

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
2) How could communication help in finding a solution to these problems?

.....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
,.', -.
4.3 HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT-SUPPORT

COMMUNICATION
I
Development implies progressive improvement in the living conditions and quality of life of
individuals, community and society. Development in one sphere of life leads to development
in other spheres. Thus, no-distinction can be drawn between economic, social and health
development. Economic development is an instrument to achieve social development which,
in turn, is necessary to achieve economic development. The purpose of development is to
prepare people to lead economically productive and socially satisfying lives. However, social
satisfaction and economic productivity is perceived in different ways in different societies.
Everywhere, people strive to increase their earnings, leading to increase in the purchasing
power, which enables them to get for themselves and their children better and sufficient food,
housing, better education, better opportunities of leisure, and, most important of all, better
health. Unless people have healthful living, they callnot enjoy the other benefits of life.
Therefore, health development is essential for social and economic development. This is the
reason why activities attempting to improve health and socio-economic situation should be
regarded as mutually complementary to each other rather than competitive. It is an academic
debate whether health development only consumes resources, or whether it is an economically
productive factor contributing to the overall development. For instance, the control of certain
communicable diseases often helps to promote development in general. Proper nutrition and
reduction of sickness increases the productivi~of work. Breaking the vicious circle of
malnutrition and infection leads to iqrovement of physical and mental development of the
child. Vaccinating an esiire child population against diseases brings reduction in child
mortality, which can induce a feeling to have a small family. Further, by drawing on untapped
-
resources men, finance and material for health development - one can contribute to the
awakening of social interest, which is very important for mobilizing people's efforts for
development in social and economic fields.
Development-Support
Communication (DSC)
No sector, be it social, economic, or health, can function independent of each other in the
process of development. Activities in one field impinge on the goals of another. Therefore,
there is a need to have cooperation between social and economic sectors to bring development
and to promote health development as its part.
4.3.1 Health Communication

Realizing the complexity of health behaviour, which, in the case of Indian society, is largely
guided by informal but deep-rooted socio cultural values, the country has adopted such
measures which help the people to keep themselves healthy. Thus, the process of motivation
of the people is attempted through the mass media and interpersonal communication, based on
development-support strategy. The mass media and other communication channels have
tremendous effect on every sphere of human life, but we have to acept that its impact is not
uniform in all fields, nor can it be predicted universally. Those WIGhold the view, that mass
qedia is uniformly effective in economic, agricultural, political or health fields, have a
reasoning based on the theory of the effort of opinion-leaders. It has been found that the
opinloir leaders are comparatively more effective in changing the non-health behaviour of an
individual. The concept of the two step flow of communication simply implies that the opinion
leaders take the basic message, translate it into personal terms, and feed the same to their own
influence network in ways that are acceptable and understandable to the target audience. But
we observe that their influences in changing the health behaviour are limited. We have
evidence that the big landlords were the first to accept changes in the agricultural process and
production but not in health including family planning. Not all opinion leaders can influence
everyone, but their influence is within relatively restricted spheres. The opinion leaders
generally specialises in some fields. For example, a progressive agriculturist, who is
influential in agriculture, is not likely to exploit this single trait that would predispose him to
opinion leadership in all rural fields. Most of the studies suggest that the mass media tend to
serve as reinforcing agent than as producers of massive changes in attitude.
4.3.2 DSC and Health Behaviour

Looking into the limited role of mass communication in the changing health behaviour, one
can think of interpersonal communication, which, in the context of the complexity of health
behaviour assumes greater significance. In this communication, word-of-mouth and personal
communication from a trusted source is significantly more effective than mass communication
from a remote source, however prestigious that source might be. Innumerable studies have
established more credibility of interpersonal communication than mass communication.
Health and development support communication are closely interlinked and mutually
interdependent. In a country like India, a DSC strategy needs to be developed in a manner that
can cater to the needs of the diverse groups based on social and cultural background. Merely
by transferring health information to the people through mass communication alone will not
bring health development. The goal of achieving health behaviour change should be a central
Mass Media and Development point of the DSC strategy, and it needs to be operated in that spirit. The health communicator
should, therefore, pursue the following activities if he aims to achieve behavioural change:
8 Assess the needs of the community or different target groups
8 Assess the local resources available to meet these needs
8 Assess the areas of likes and dislikes of the people towards different types of
communication
8 Generate need for the programme
Provide scientific, specific and basic information to the policy-makers and decisions-makers
In the new situation, where the role of an agent is not that of a transmitter of knowledge, he has
to widen the boundaries of his roles, thus performing a role of social activist or the change
agent. He cannot afford to ignore the forces that either integrateor disintegrate the community.
C k k Your Progresrr 2
I Note: i) Write your answer in the pace provided.
I
I ii) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1) How would you plan an effective communication compaign to help people change
I
the health behaviour? List the possible steps.
There is a need to consciously use the mass media to educate a large number of people
about basic health care. There are so many diseases which inflict you and your family
members - say cold, fever, malaria etc. You might be knowing the reasons for many
of these diseases, but there might be some which you are not aware of. Take a piece of
paper and list all the diseases that you know of. Add to your list, the diseases which your
family members know of. Then tick (J)the diseases the causes of which you are aware
of. Find out how many diseases you know only by name but do not know the cause.
Then suggest the best possible way by which you and a large number of people may come
to know the root causes of these diseases (media talk, TV documentary, posters, etc.) 1
4.4 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY

Education is the process of bringing desirable change in the behaviour of human beings. It can
also be defined as the process of imparting or acquiring knowledge through instruction or
study. If education is to be effective, it should result a change in knowledge, skill, attitude and
understanding. Thus, in education, the greatest emphasis should be placed on the development
and growth of a person, both physically and psychologically. The development and growth
must be positive, and these must be manifested in hisher daily life.
As society develops, it becomes imperative that the cumulative experknce and the knowledge
necessary for political, economic, social and other developme?.: zhould be passed on to new
generations, or to the people who need this knowledge. The accepted customs, norms, values,
skills, which are required to be preserved, need to be passed on to the successive generations.
And to do this, various methods and media of communication are required.
4.4.1 Types of Education

With the development of society, education has focused on various aspects, such as child
education, adult education, technical education in arts and crafts, health education, physical
education, and several others. The broad classification of education could be: (1) Formal Development-Suppor
Communication(DS(
Education, (2) Nonformal Education, and (3)Extension Education, which will be discussed in
succeeding part of this unit.
Formal education
Formal education is basically an institutional activity, uniform and subjectariented, full-time,

sequential, hierarchically structured, leading to the award of certificates, degrees and diplomas.
The schools, colleges and universities fall under this category.
Non-formal education, is not formal, which means it is:

flexible,
life, environment and learner-oriented,
diversified in content and method,
non-authoritarian,
built on learner-participation,
helpful in mobilizing local resources, and
ah instrument/which enriches human and environmental potential.
Non-formal education processes and programmes should, in the long run, lead to:
creating an awareness in individuals and society, of the prevailing environmental situations
and the need for and direction of change,
cultivating a rational, objective and scientific temper,
enriching human potential and, thereby, increasing community resources, and promoting
individual and group creativity,
*@ increasing the functional relevance of learning, both to the learners and to the community,
achieving a greater degree of individual, social, cultural and economic development
through democratic action and active participation,
building a learning environment in which every individual shall have equal opportunity for
continuing self-learning, and
a better sharing of opportunities and social wealth and, particularly, a more equitable and
just distribution of knowledge among various sections of society.
Extension or organized face-to-face communication is kept within the scope of the DSC.
Extension provides a form of DSC, which might be more effective than the mass media.
Extension education has proved very effective in Agriculture, and has since then widely been
practised all over the world, specially in tfie third world countries.
It was thought that simple communication tools could be used to educate the farmers about
various new innovations. Once motivated, they would use the new hybrid seeds, fertilizers,
machines etc. This happened and, as a result, the food production increased manifold in the
last two or three decades.
4.4.2 Literacy Programme

The Farmers' Functional Literacy Programme is the biggest on-going country-wide
programme of adult education. It is in reality a complex non-formal education system at its
initial stage. Its implementation is the responsibility of the Central Government, and the
scheme is classified as a Central Sector Programme.
There are many development schemes and projects in the country, the efficient implementation
of which is hampered by the low level of educational attainments. This is particularly true of
the enormous scheme of the High Yield Crop Varieties, since the modernization of agricultural
practices has to be accompanied and supported by a programme of manpower development.
Mnss Media and Development
MIDDLE
hANA6ERS
The Farmers' Training and Functional Literacy ,Programme, an inter-ministerial project

implemented jointly by the Ministries of Agriculture, Education, and Information and
Broadcasting, is an attempt to get a qualified answer to this fundamental challenge. The basic
I
idea behind the project is that there is a direct correlation between the physical and human
resources. In other words, this is an integrated approach to a comprehensive rural development
programme, to the "Green Revolution". The main goal of the scheme is to support and
strengthen one of the basic national objectives: self-sufficiency in food, increase in crop
production and growth of agricultural productivity.
The functional literacy component was not only view66 in correlation with other
developmental objectives but, from the very beginning, was conceived as a method of training
the fanners for development purposes, a comprehensive non-formal educational programme
and an opening to continuing education.
4.4.3 Education and DSC I

Communication for development purposes should be distinguished from communication for
the sake of entertainment, such as chitrahar, or commercial advertising of soap and tooth paste
or news dissemination news bulletins, The World This Week, etc. Entertainment-oriented
1
communication also has a powerful social influence and possible effect on the attempt to meet Development-Support
Communbxtion (DSC)
the national objectives.
It was agreed that the development-support communicathn should be taken to embrace the
following: the infrastructure (economic, technolagical, organisationddministrative); the
information processing and transfer systems; (c) the media the personnel, the communicators;
the recipients; the supporting communication services; organized interpersonal
commutiication and extension services; the contents; the purposes or objectives (recognizing
that they may vary, but that national development goals an usually central). It was recognized
that the central focus was on mass communication, and that a multi-media approach with
inter-media comparisons was necessary.
4.4.4 Uses of Communication for Education

t The case for uses of communication for education has been convincingly argued on the
following grounds:
communication helps to enlarge mental horizons;
r it can be used to raise levels of aspirations;
through communication, attention can be focussed on problems having a bearing on the
contemporary developmental and educational context;
it can be effectively employed to build consensus on the new economic and cultural goals;
through communication, experimentation can be encouraged and howledge relating to
their success and/or failure can be widely disseminatad, and
it can also be utilized to teach specific skills and techniques.
To sum up, the DSC for education can play a powerful mle in nation-building and develop
ment, and can contribute significantly to bring about s o c change
~ in the desired direction.

Note: i) Write your answers in the space provided.
ii) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this unit.
1). What are the various types of Education?

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................. ......................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
2) Provide two arguments on how literacy would help in development.

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... b
.....................................................................................................................................
3) Mention ways by whiih the DSC can help in thedevelopment of education.

......................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
I
.....................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
4.5 ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
In 1987, the WorldCommiuion on Environment and Development, a United Nations body, ,<
published its findings in 'Our Common Future', known as the Bmdtland Report. It says
that problems of environment and development are interlinked, and that economic
interdependence among nations is increasing.' Areas focussed on included:
population and food security;
the loss of species and genetic resources;
energy; and
industry.
It calls for economic growth based upon 'sustainable development, -meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of the future generations to Aeet their own needs.
The Bnmdtland Report called for continued economic growth, while emphasising the need
to integrate environment and development. ,
Activities such as the burningbf coal and other fossil fuels, and the use of CFCs as aerosol
propellants are leading to a build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in
damage to earth's climate. The Inter-governmentalPanel on Climate Change (IPCC), looking
at the climate processes, concludes that. if there is no change in emissions of greenhouse gases,
global mean temperature would rise by about 0.3"C a decade in the 21st century, faster than at
any time in the past 10,000 years. An increase in global temperatuse could, in turn, lead to
major problems for mankind.
However, as the problem is global in scope, it is important that the different countries of the
world take measures to control greenhouse gases together. India is an active member 9f the
IPCC, which was set up in 1988, and is jointly sponsored by the UNEP and the World
Meteorological Organisation. In December, 1990, the UN established an intergovernmental
negotiating committee to prepare a framework convention on climate change. India is playing
a prominent part in these negotiations, and also supports the IPCC which provides help to the
negotiations by scientific advice on climatic change.
Deforestation can also contribute to the build up of greenhouse gas in the air, both by the loss
of the trees' ability to absorb C02 and by releasing the carbon stored in them as C02 and
methane. Apart from encouraging afforestation, the government should support many projects
to promote good forest management.
Ozone Layer: In recent years, the scientists have become very concerned about damages to
the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful ultra-violet rays of the sun. Much
scientific evidence has been gathered which clearly implicates CFCs in stratospheric ozone
depletion. In 1985,the scientists on the Antarctic Expedition discovered a 'hole' -an area of
major depletion - in the ozone layer over the Antarctic, and evidence now shows th-t this
significant ozone layer threatens mankind with increased diseases such as skin cancer, as well
as the possibility of reducing the productivity of 5rops.
4.5.1 Economic Growth and the Environment

The knvironmental problems that countries face vary with their respective stages of
development, the structure of their economics, and their environmental policies. Some
problems are associated with the lack of economic development, 'inadequate sanitation and
availability of potable water, and indoor air pollution from bio-mass burning. Many types of
land degradation are a root cause of pwl.t"yin the developing countries. Here, the challenge
is to accelerate equitable ;rimme growth and promote access to the necessary resources and
technologies. But, many other problems are made worse by the growth of economic activity.
Industrial and energy-related pollution (local and global), deforestation caused by commercial
logging, and overuse of water are the result of economic expansion that fails to take account of
the value of the environment. Here, the challenge is td build the recognition of environmental
scarcity into decision-making. With or without development, rapid population growth may
make it more difficult to address many environmental problems.
Rapid population growth can worsen the mutually reinforcing effects of poverty and DevelopmedtSupport
Commuaicstlon(DSC)
environmental damage. The poor are both victims and agents of environmental damage.
Since they lack resources and technology, the farmers resort to cultivating hill sides, and move
into the tropical forest areas, where crop yields on cleared fields usually drop sharply after a .
few years. What pressures will economic growth p l b on the natural environment in the
coming years? If'environmental pollution and degradation were to rise in step with a rise in
output, the result would be appalling environmental pollution and damage. Tens of millions
of people would become sick or die each year from environmental caused diseases ordisasters.
Water shortages would be intolerable, and tropical forests and other natural habitats would
decline to a fraction of their current sizes. Fortunately, such an outcome need not occur, if
sound policies and strong institutional arrangements are put in place.
4.5.2 DSC and Environment

Ignorance is an important cause of environmental damage and a serious impediment to finding .
solutions. This principle holds true for international negotiations and poor households alike,
as is illustrated by the global damage done to the ozone layer by the CFCs and the serious
implications of indoor air pollution, like smoking, for family health. F i t , it is necessary, to
know the facts; second, to determine values and'analyze the benefits and costs of alternative
measures; third, to ensure that information is available on the public and private choices.
The DSC regarding environmental issues increases access to information. Many governments
encourage involvement of local population in tackling environmental issues. But if such
~nvolvementhas to be effective, the local people need to be well-informed. Some ways to
achieve this are:
a) to sharelsupply information to the local communities at the early stage in identifying a
project;
b) to discuss local environmental problems with the affected communities;
C) to allow public comments on the DSC-inputs; and
d) to encourage public comments and discussion on the proposed environmental solutions.
C h e k Your Progress 4
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Compare your answers with the ones given at the end of this unit.
8
1) What are the two important steps that we should tlike to ensure sustainable
development?
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
2) Mention two ways by which the DSC can help in greater environmental awareness.
.....................................................................................................................................
. . ......................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
LET US SUM UP
Population control, health and hygiene, education and environment, are socially and
economically very important areas as far as developmenf'b conem&. Due to various
reasons, largely political, the directions given to the development processes in India, have been
ma?, by confused thinking, and workiqg at cross-purposes. It is for this reason that the
UNDP and other UN institutions have emphasized "the linking of all agencies involved in the
planned development work, which constitute the final delivery points, and the
audience-recipients". It was felt that this vital link was absent in our developmental efforts.
Mass Media aod Development 'The final delivery points' are those that come into direct contact with the "beneficiaries" of
any development programme.
In this unit, we have covered the use of the DSC in the significant socioeconomic areas like
Population, Health, Education and Environment. It is well-known that in the past four decades,
communications have failed to enthuse the poor and the under-privileged, with the result that
these sections of society have developed apathy, indifference, and submissiveness, and they
have become totally resigned to the forces beyond their control. In short, the communication
contents and messages are not yet clear about the goals of development. It was due to these
factors that the DSC was sought to be used to raise the level of social consciousness among
people so as to help them in their transformation.
Population control measures, despite large-scale efforts, have always fall& short of the
resources being put into the process. Studies have shown that factors within the field of
socio-cultural set up, have largely been responsible for preventing innovative ideas from being
functional and operational at the community level.
Health development is essential for socioeconomic development. It has been found that mass
media have a limited mle in actually changing the health behaviour. In this context, the role
of the interpersonal channels of communication assumes significance. The communicator
cannot ignore theforces which either integrate or disintegrate the community, especially, as far
as health behaviour patterns are concerned.
Education and environment ap two vital areas, in which the DSC can play a decisive role. The
role of interpersonal communication becomes imperative. Extension provide a form which
might be more effective than the mass media. In the case of environment, the areas that have
been focused were population and food security, the loss of species and genetic resources,
energy and industry. While several environmental problems have been emerging concurrent
with the increased industrialization, the DSC can play an effective role in providing
information, and creating awareness among the people. This would help in changing their
attitude andbehaviour. The classic case is that of the need for afforestation in the face of the
devastating destruction of our forest wealth.
4.7 FVRTHER READING

Shukla, K.S. 1987: The Other Side of Development - Socio-psychological implications,
New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Sharma S.L. 1990: Social Development: Reflections on the Concept and the Indian
Experience, Amritsar.
Todaro M. 1983:The Struggle for Economic Development, New York and London: Longman.
Report, 1992: World Environment Development, 1992.
4.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: MODEL ANSWERS

Cbeck Your Progress 1
1) a) Low level of literacy
b) Poor knowledge of the reproduction cycle, especially among the women
c) Low knowledge of the basic health care among the adult population in
general
2) First of all, a political wi!! LO solve the problem of illiteracy is required. And then,
there has to Lk: a focus on the advantages of communication technology to sorve
these problems. The same medium may not be applicable to solve this problem.
Therefore, the media selection should be done as per the target audience.
A massive drive to educate the people on $e reproduction cycle should be
launched. The popular and effective media should be selected to realize this
objective.
Check Your Progress 2 Development-Supp
Communication (DS
1) Need-assessment: the level of education regarding the basic health care already
existing among the target audience
Find out about the media habit and access to the media
Find out about the spread of the media
Find out the level of literacy
Prioritise the needs and requirements
Choose the media to adequately answer the needs
Address the needs.

1) Formal Education
Non-formal Education
Extension Education
2) a Literacy could provide the population with self confidence, which would
contribute to the development of a person
Literacy would remove uneducation, and, hence, many social problems,
like superstition, could be eradicated
3) a Can give additional information

Can bring in more clarity to the subject matter
Can open more channels for learning

1) The development should have a practical rationale.
The development process must not disturb the eco-systems, which support
the development.
2) 'Jse local communication channels to inform, educate and communicate
to the people.
O Use the local talents to speak to the people belonging to a community.

Block-2 Mass Media and Development

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Block-2 Mass Media and Development

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT

I 1.2 The Concept of Development

1.2 THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT

1.2.1 Measurement of Development

In spite of these well-known limitations of the measurement of 'economic development' in

Check Your Progress 1

1) We have discussed various definitions of development. Please mention at least 10

2) How does one measure the "per capita income"?

3) Why does the UN categories countries' as "low-income", "middle-income" and

Such charactedr~tion,at best, provide a description of development, and underdevelopment,

Check Your Progmss 2

1) Why did this type of characterization of development come into being?

1.3 THEORIES AND PARADIGMS OF DEVELOPMENT

'Structuralist' 'Orthodox ~ k i s t '

Chart I :Two World Views on Development

Unilinear World View of Development

On the contrary, the "non-unilinear world-view of development" suggests that development

Types of Unilinear Theories

The other paradigm, which emphasizes non-interventionby the state or non-involvement of

Similarly, within the category of theories, which consider development essentially as a

The Orthodox Marxist Paradigm

Check Your Progress 3

i) Mainstream Paradigm: Of those paradigms, which project development as becoming more

ii) Counter-revolutionParadigm: In contrast, the Counter-revolution paradigm considers the

Check Your Progress 4

1.3.2 Non-Unilinear World-view of Development

The contribution of Schumacher is also inspired by the Gandhian thinking. It is well-known

Populist paradigm is discussed as an alternativk strategy by not housed by any less-developed

b) Neo-Marxist Paradigm: A serious challenge to the unilinear world-view of development

Check Your Progress 5

1) What is the main point of view of the 'populist paradigm'?

1.4 DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE: THE

Check Your Progress 6

2) What were the demands of the NIEO?

3) Why did not the NIEO succeed?

Name 5 P programmes telecast by Doordarshan and 5 radio programmes broadcast by

TY Programme Radio Programme

Check Yo* Wtgress 7

2) Name two dichotomies of development. To what extent are these real?

3) How does illiteracy affect a country like India?

1.7 LET US SUM UP

Balanced Growth Theory

Big Push Theory

It is similar to the balanced growth theory, emphasizing a massive initial investment to

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

GDP per Capita

Average expected years of living of a citizen for a country.

A constellation or collection of thwnes, beliefs, values, techniques, etc., commonly shared by

Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)

1.9 FURTHER READING

Check Your Progress 2

Check Your Progress 3

The main difference between the unilinear and non-unilinear world-view of

Check Your Progress 4

I. We have discussed four sets of unilinear paradigms, namely (a) mainstream,

Check Your Progress 5

Check Your Progress 6

Check Your Progress7

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

state what the Development Communication is;

Development communication is a relatively younger field of study within the discipline of

Development communication is mainly concerned with the role of information and

What do we understand by the term "development communication"? According to Nora